Unit 4

Tree
Prof. Brijesh Vala, Assistant Professor
Computer Science & Engineering
Topic-1
Tree
 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to understand the:

 basic tree terminologies (concepts)

 Various types of trees

 Various operation perform on binary trees

Nature View of a Tree

leaves

branches
root
Computer Scientist’s View

root

leaves

branches
nodes
 Basic Tree Concepts
• A tree is a non-linear data structure. A tree consists of finite set of
elements (one or more), called nodes, and a finite set of directed
lines called branches, that connect the nodes.

• Tree is an acyclic digraph.

• The elements are connected in such a way that there are no loops.

• There is only a unique path from source to destination in a tree.

 Basic Tree Concepts
• When the branch is directed toward the node, it is indegree branch.
• When the branch is directed away from the node, it is an outdegree
branch.
• The sum of the indegree and outdegree branches is the degree of the
node.
• If the tree is not empty, the first node is called the root.
 Basic Tree Concepts
• Root node is the first node in the hierarchical arrangement. There can
be only one root in the tree.
• Parent node is an immediate predecessor of a node.
• The immediate successors are called child.
Basic Tree Concepts
A
Root: node without any parent (A)
Degree(B)=3

B C D

E F G H

I J K
 Basic Tree Concepts
• The in-degree of the root is zero.
• With the exception of the root, all of the nodes in a tree must have
an in-degree of exactly one; that is, they may have only one
predecessor.
• All nodes in the tree can have out-degree of zero, one, or more.
 Basic Tree Concepts
• A leaf is any node with an out-degree of zero, that is, a node with no
successors. (a node without any further child node)
• A node that is not a root or a leaf is known as an internal node.
• A node is a parent if it has successor nodes; that is, if it has outdegree
greater than zero.
• A node with a predecessor is called a child.
Basic Tree Concepts
•leaf: i,j,k,e,g,h,d
•Internal: b,c,f
•Parent: root+any internal node (A,B,C,F)
•Child: except root node A
A

B C D

E F G H

I J K
 Basic Tree Concepts
• Two or more nodes with the same parents are called siblings.
• An ancestor is any node in the path from the root to the node.
• A descendant is any node in the path below the parent node; that is,
all nodes in the paths from a given node to a leaf are descendants of
that node.
Basic Tree Concepts
Sibling: c,d
Ancestor(f):b,a
Descendant(f):i,j,k
A

B C D

E F G H

I J K
Basic Tree Concepts
• A path is a sequence of nodes in which each node is adjacent to the
next node. It is number of successive edges from source node to
destination node.
• The level of a node is its distance from the root. The root is at level 0,
its children are at level 1, etc. …
Basic Tree Concepts
Path(B,K):BFK
LEVEL(G):2 A

B C D

E F G H

I J K
Basic Tree Concepts
• The height of the tree is the total number of levels in the tree.
• The depth of the tree is last(max) level number of the tree.
• A sub-tree is any connected structure below the root. The first node
in the subtree is known as the root of the subtree.
Basic Tree Concepts
HEIGHT:4
DEPTH: 3 A

B C D

SUBTREE
E F G H

I J K
Different types of Trees
• Binary tree
• Threaded Binary Tree
• Binary Search Tree
• AVL Tree
• B Tree
• B+ Tree
• 2-3 Tree
Binary Trees
• A binary tree is a tree in which no node can have more than two
children (subtrees); the maximum outdegree for a node is two.
• In other words, a node can contain either zero, one, or two subtrees.
• These subtrees are designated as the left subtree and the right
subtree.
Binary Trees
A null tree is
a tree with
no nodes
Some Properties of Binary Trees
•The height of binary trees can be mathematically predicted
•Given that we need to store N nodes in a binary tree, the maximum
height is

H max  N Height : 3
Total node : 3

A tree with a maximum height is rare. It occurs when all of

the nodes in the entire tree have only one successor.
Some Properties of Binary Trees
•The minimum height of a binary tree is determined as follows:

H min   log 2 N   1
Height : 3
Total node : 7

For instance, if there are three nodes to be stored in the

binary tree (N=3) then Hmin=2.
Some Properties of Binary Trees
•Given a height of the binary tree, H, the minimum number of nodes in
the tree is given as follows:

N min  H
Some Properties of Binary Trees
•The formula for the maximum number of nodes is derived from the fact
that each node can have only two child except leaf node.

N max  2  1H Height : 3
Total nodes : 7
Some Properties of Binary Trees
•A binary tree with N nodes has exactly N-1 edges.
•The number of leaf nodes is equal to the number of nodes with two
children + 1.

 nodes
N maxTotal 2 H
:7
1
Total edges : 6
Leaf nodes : 4
Some Properties of Binary Trees
•The balance factor of a binary tree is the difference in height between
its left and right sub trees:

B  HL  HR
Some Properties of Binary Trees
Balance of the
tree
Complete binary trees
•A complete binary tree is tree in which all the leaves are at same level
and any non-leaf node have exactly two children.
•The total number of nodes in complete binary trees are 2h – 1.
•Total number of leaf nodes in complete binary trees are 2h-1 .
•Non leaf node = 2h-1 – 1.
•At each level there are exactly 2L number of nodes.
Complete binary trees
A

B
C

E F G H
strictly binary trees
•When every non-leaf node in binary tree is filled with left and right
subtrees, then a tree is called strictly binary tree.
•In other word a node have either two child node or zero child node at
all.
•A strictly binary tree with N leaves always have 2N-1 nodes.
strictly binary trees

B C

E F
strictly binary trees
Representation of a trees
•Array representation
• Linked List representation
A

B C

E F G H

I K
Array Representation of a trees

B C

E F G H

NULL NULL I K NULL NULL NULL NULL

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
A B C E F G H I K
Linked Representation of a trees
Binary trees Transversal

•A binary tree traversal requires that each node of the

tree be processed once and only once in a predetermined
sequence.
Trees Transversal
1. In-order traversal
Left sub tree -------- root--------right sub tree

2. Pre-order traversal
root-------- Left sub tree -------- right sub tree

3. Post order traversal

Left sub tree-------right sub tree -------- root
Trees Transversal
Trees Transversal

B C

E F G H
Trees Transversal
Trees Transversal

Root
A

B C

E F G H
Trees Transversal
A

Root
B C

E F G H

Left Sub tree

Trees Transversal

Root
B C

Left

E F G H

Left Sub tree

Trees Transversal

Root
B C

Left
Right
E F G H
Trees Transversal

Root
Root
B C

Left
Right
E F G H

Left

Left Sub tree Right Sub tree

Trees Transversal
A

Root Root
B C

Left
Right
E F G H

Left

Left Sub tree Right Sub tree

Trees Transversal
A

Root
B C
Root
Left
Right
E F G H

Left Sub tree Left Right Sub tree

Preorder : ABEFCGH
Find the preorder traversal of following tree

B C

E F G H

I K

A,B,E,F,I,K,C,G,H
Inorder traversal
Find the Inorder traversal of the following

B C

E F G H

I K
Postorder traversal Algorithm
Find the Postorder traversal of the following tree

B C

E F G H

I K
Find the Postorder traversal of the following tree
Reconstruct Binary tree
We can reconstruct binary from following two traversals
1) In order traversal
2) Pre-order or post order traversal
Lets reconstruct binary from following two traversals
1) In order traversal: XBGDHAEICJFK
2) Pre-order traversal: ABXDGHCEIFJK

Lets reconstruct binary from following two traversals

1) In order traversal: bgdaecf
2) Pre-order traversal: gdbefca
Threaded Binary tree
•In a linked representation of a binary tree, the number of null links (null
pointers) are actually more than non-null pointers.
•These null links can be replace with pointers called threads.
•Consider the following binary tree:
Threaded Binary tree
•A left null link of a node is replaced with the address of its inorder
predecessor.
•And right null link of a node is replace with the address of its inorder
successor.
•In previous example there are 7 null pointers & 5 Actual.
•We can generalize it that for any binary tree with n nodes there will be
(n+1) null pointers and 2n total pointers.
•The objective here to make effective use of these null pointers.
Threaded Binary tree
•And binary tree with such pointers are called threaded binary tree.

•In the memory representation of a threaded binary tree, it is necessary

to distinguish between a normal pointer and a thread.
Threaded Binary tree
•Therefore we have an alternate node representation for a threaded
binary tree which contains five fields as show bellow
Threaded Binary tree
Threaded tree Transversal

6
3 8
1 5 7 11
9 13
Threaded tree Transversal
• We start at the leftmost node in the tree, print it, and follow its right
thread
• If we follow a thread to the right, we output the node and continue
to its right
• If we follow a link to the right, we go to the leftmost node, print it,
and continue
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
6 1

3 8
1 5 7 11
9 13
Start at leftmost node, print it
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
1
6 3

3 8
1 5 7 11
9 13
Follow thread to right, print node
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
6 1
3
5
3 8
1 5 7 11
9 13
Follow link to right, go to leftmost node and print
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
6 1
3
5
3 8 6

1 5 7 11
9 13
Follow thread to right, print node
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
6 1
3
5
3 8 6
7

1 5 7 11
9 13
Follow link to right, go to leftmost node and print
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
6 1
3
5
3 8 6
7
8
1 5 7 11
9 13
Follow thread to right, print node
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
6 1
3
5
3 8 6
7
8
1 5 7 11 9

9 13
Follow link to right, go to leftmost node and print
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
6 1
3
5
3 8 6
7
8
1 5 7 11 9
11
9 13
Follow thread to right, print node
Threaded tree Transversal

Output
6 1
3
5
3 8 6
7
8
1 5 7 11 9
11
13
9 13
Follow link to right, go to leftmost node and print
Advantage of Threaded Binary tree

• The traversal operation is more faster than that of its unthreaded

version.
• Because with threaded binary tree non-recursive implementation is
possible which can run faster and does not require the botheration of
stack management.
• we can efficiently determine the predecessor and successor nodes
starting from any node.
Disadvantage of Threaded Binary tree

• Insertion and deletion from a threaded tree are very time consuming
operation compare to non-threaded binary tree.
• This tree require additional bit to identify the threaded link.
Binary Search Tree
Binary Search Tree

• The node in extreme left will be the smallest node in the tree.
• The node in the extreme right will be the largest node in the tree.
• Since nodes in binary search trees are ordered the time needed to
search an element is greatly reduced.
Operation on Binary Search Tree

• Search
• Insertion
• Deletion
Search

• Search function is used to find whether a value is present in a tree or

not.
• This process begins at the root node.
• The function first checks if the binary tree is empty.
• Then it checks if the value to be searched is less than or greater than
the node.
• If the value is less than it will go to the left sub tree else to the right
sub tree.
Search node 44
Search node 44
Search node 44
Search node 44
Search node 44
Insert

• Insert is used to add a new node with a given value at the correct
position in the binary search tree.
• The insert function continues moving down the tree until it reaches a
leaf node.
• If the new node’s value is greater than the parent node then the new
node is inserted in right sub tree else in the left sub tree.
Insert Value 20
Insert Value 20
Insert Value 20
Insert Value 20
Insert Value 20
Deletion

1) Deleting a node that has no children.

2) Deletion a node that has one child.
3) Deletion a node that has two children.
Deletion
Deletion node 54
Deletion node 54
Deletion node 54
Deletion node 54
Deletion node 54
Deletion a node with one child

• To handle this case node’s child is set to be child of node’s parent.

• If node was left child of its parent then node’s child becomes left
child of node’s parent.
• If node was right child of it’s parent then node’s child becomes right
child of node’s parent.
Deletion a node 78
Deletion a node 78
Deletion a node 78
Deletion a node 78
Deletion a node 78
Deletion a node 78
Deletion a node with Two child

• To handle this case replace node’s value with its IN ORDER

PREDECESSOR or IN ORDER SUCCESSOR.
• In order predecessor is right most child of left sub tree.
• In order successor is left most child of right sub tree.
Deletion a node with 45
Deletion a node with 45
 UNIT 4
Tree
Prof. Pintu Chauhan, Assistant Professor
Computer Science & Engineering
Topic-2
AVL Tree
 Balanced Tree
• Binary Search Tree gives advantage of Fast Search, but sometimes in few cases
we are not able to get this advantage. E.g. look into worst case BST
• Balanced binary trees are classified into two categories
Worst search time cases
– Height Balanced Tree (AVL Tree)
for Binary Search Tree
– Weight Balanced Tree
50 20

40 30

30 40

20 50
 Height Balanced Tree (AVL Tree)
• A Balance factor of a node | HL - HR|<=1, where HL, HR are heights of left and
right sub-tree respectively
• Permissible balance factors:
– A Left-High (balance factor +1)
The left-sub tree is one level taller than the right-sub tree
– Balanced (balance factor 0)
The left and right sub-trees are both the same heights
– Right-High (balance factor -1)
The right sub-tree is one level taller than the left-sub tree.
• In height balanced tree, each node must be in one of these states
• If there exists a node in a tree where this is not true, then such a tree is called
Unbalanced
AVL Tree
0 -1

+1 -1
0 0

0 0 0 -1 +1 +1

0 0
-1
0
0

0
AVL Tree
Critical Node Critical Node
Unbalanced Node Unbalanced Node
0 -1
-1
0 +1

• Sometimes tree becomes unbalanced by inserting or deleting any node

• Then based on position of insertion, we need to rotate the unbalanced node
• Rotation is the process to make tree balanced
 AVL Tree Rotation
The following operations are performed on AVL tree...
• Search
• Insertion
• Deletion
AVL Tree Rotation
There are four rotations and they are classified into two types.

AVL Tree Rotation

Single Rotation Double Rotation

Left Rotation Right Rotation Left Right Rotation Right Left Rotation
(LL Rotation) (RR Rotation) (LR Rotation) (RL Rotation)
 Operation on an AVL
• In AVL tree, after performing operations like insertion and deletion we need to
check the balance factor of every node in the tree. Permissible balance factors:
• If every node satisfies the balance factor condition then we conclude the
operation otherwise we must make it balanced.
• If there exists a node in a tree where this is not true, then such a tree is called
Unbalanced
Rotation operations are used to make the tree balanced.

Rotation is the process of moving nodes either to left or to

right to make the tree balanced.
 Single Left Rotation (LL Rotation )
• In LL Rotation, every node moves one position to left from the current position.
• To understand LL Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operation in
AVL Tree.
-2
Insert 8, 10, 12
-2 8 0
8 10
-1
10 0 0
10 -1
0 8 12
0
12
12
To make balanced we use LL After LL Rotation
Tree is imbalanced Rotation which moves nodes Tree is balanced
one position to left
 Single Right Rotation (RR Rotation )
• In RR Rotation, every node moves one position to right from the current
position.
• To understand RR Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operation in
Insert 12, 10, 8
AVL Tree. +2 +2 0
12
12 10

+1 +1 10 0 0
10 8 12

0 8
8 0 To make balanced we use RR After RR Rotation
Tree is imbalanced Rotation which moves nodes Tree is balanced
one position to Right
 Left Right Rotation (LR Rotation )
• The LR Rotation is a sequence of single left rotation followed by a single right
rotation
• In LR Rotation, at first, every node moves one position to the left and one
position to right from the current position.
• To understand LR Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operation in
AVL Tree. Insert 12, 8, 10
12 +2 +2 0
12 +2 12
10
-1 +1 0 0
-1 8
8 10
0 8 12
0
10 0
10 8 After LR Rotation
Tree is imbalanced LL Rotation RR Rotation Tree is balanced
 Right Left Rotation (LR Rotation )
• The RL Rotation is a sequence of single right rotation followed by a single left
rotation
• In RL Rotation, at first, every node moves one position to the right and one
position to left from the current position.
• To understand RL Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operation in
AVL Tree. Insert 8, 12, 10 -2
8 -2 -2 12 0
12
10
+1 -1 0 0
+1 8
12 10
8 12
0 10 0 0
10 8 After RL Rotation
Tree is imbalanced RR Rotation LL Rotation Tree is balanced
 AVL Tree Rotation
The following operations are performed on AVL tree...
• Search
• Insertion
• Deletion
 Search Operation in AVL Tree
• In an AVL tree, the search operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity.
• The search operation in the AVL tree is similar to the search operation in a Binary
search tree.
• We use the following steps to search an element in AVL tree.
Step 1 - Read the search element from the user.

Step 2 - Compare the search element with the value of root node in the tree.

Step 3 - If both are matched, then display "Given node is found!!!" and terminate the
function
Step 4 - If both are not matched, then check whether search element is smaller or
larger than that node value.
 Search Operation in AVL Tree
Step 5 - If search element is smaller, then continue the search process in left subtree.

Step 6 - If search element is larger, then continue the search process in right subtree.

Step 7 - Repeat the same until we find the exact element or until the search element is
compared with the leaf node.

Step 8 - If we reach to the node having the value equal to the search value, then
display "Element is found" and terminate the function.

Step 9 - If we reach to the leaf node and if it is also not matched with the search
element, then display "Element is not found" and terminate the function.
 Insertion Operation in AVL Tree
• In an AVL tree, the insertion operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity.
• In AVL Tree, a new node is always inserted as a leaf node.
• The insertion operation is performed as follows.
Step 1 - Insert the new element into the tree using Binary Search Tree insertion logic.

Step 2 - After insertion, check the Balance Factor of every node.

Step 3 - If the Balance Factor of every node is 0 or 1 or -1 then go for next operation.

Step 4 - If the Balance Factor of any node is other than 0 or 1 or -1 then that tree is
said to be imbalanced. In this case, perform suitable Rotation to make it balanced
and go for next operation.
 Construct an AVL tree by inserting numbers from 1 to 7
Insert 1
0
1 Tree is balanced

Insert 2 -1
1
0 Tree is balanced
2
 Construct an AVL tree by inserting numbers from 1 to 7
Insert 3
-2
1 1
0
-1 2
After LL
2 2 Rotation 0 0
0
3 1 3
3
Tree is Imbalanced LL Rotation Tree is Balanced
 Construct an AVL tree by inserting numbers from 1 to 7
Insert 4

-1
2

0 -1 Tree is balanced
1 3

0
4
 Construct an AVL tree by inserting numbers from 1 to 7
Insert 5
-1 -2 -2
2 2

0 -1 -2 0 -2 0
0
1 3 After LL 2
1 3 Rotation at 3
0
0
0 -1 -1
1 4
4 4
Node is Imbalanced
0 0
0 0 3 5
5 5
Tree is balanced
LL Rotation at 3
 Construct an AVL tree by inserting numbers from 1 to 7
Insert 6 Node is Imbalanced
0 -2 0
-2
0 22 4
2
0 0 -1 0
0 After LL 0
-1 Rotation at 2
1 4 2 5
1 4
0 0 0 -1 0 0
0 -1 0
3 5 3 6
3 5 1
0
0
6 Tree is balanced
6
LL Rotation at 2
Construct an AVL tree by inserting numbers from 1 to 7
Insert 7
0 -1 0
Node is Imbalanced 4 After LL
4 Rotation at 5
0
0 0 0 0
0 -2 4
2 5 2 5 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0
2 6
3 6 1 3 6 0 0 0
1
1 3 5
0 0 7
LL Rotation at 5
7 7 Tree is Balanced
 Deletion Operation in AVL Tree
• The deletion operation in AVL Tree is similar to deletion operation in BST.
• But after every deletion operation, we need to check with the Balance Factor
condition.
• If the tree is balanced after deletion go for next operation otherwise perform
suitable rotation to make the tree Balanced.
 UNIT 4
Tree
Prof. Shyambabu PAndey, Assistant Professor
Computer Science & Engineering
 Topic3
B & B+ Tree
M-Way Search Tree
Issue with Binary Search Tree (BST): Binary search tree is a good
idea, but it stores only one value at each node. Suppose we have a
large number of values or we want to store more than one value
at one node then Binary search tree is not applicable. So, we have
to go for Multiple Way Search Tree. It is also known as M -Way
Search Tree or M-ary tree.

Image source : Google

 M-Way Search Tree
M-way search tree is a tree that can have more than two children.
An m-way is tree of order m (m children) in which:
1. Each internal node (except root) can have at most m children/nod
and each node can contain at most m-1 value.

2. The values in each node are in ascending order.

3. The values in the first i children are smaller than the i-th value.

4. The values in the last m-i children are larger than the i-th value.
M-Way Search Tree
Example: Let us take a 4-way search tree.
Here the order of tree is 4 so the value of m is 4. We can see each
node has at most 4 children and each node can contain at most 3
(m-1) nodes.
M-Way Search Tree

Issue with M-Way Search Tree: M-way search tree is not a height
balanced tree. It will take more time for insertion and deletion
operation of a node.
B-Tree
B Tree was developed by Bayer and McCreight in 1972 with the name
Height Balanced m-way Search Tree. Later it was named as B-Tree.

A B-Tree is a height balanced m-Way search tree, In which:

● If the degree of tree is m then each node (Internal node except
root node) can contain at most m children/nodes and at least
[m/2].

Image source : Google

B-Tree
● If the degree of the tree is m, then each node must have at least
[m/2]-1 keys and maximum of m-1 keys.

● Root nodes can have a minimum of two children.

● All the leaf nodes should have the same depth.

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Operations on B-Tree:
● Searching

● Insertion

● Deletion

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Searching in B-Tree: Suppose we want to search an element ‘X’ In a B-
Tree, then the following will be steps:

1. First of all compare ‘X’ with the first element of the root node in
the tree.
2. If comparison is matched, then display "Given element is found"
and terminate the function.
3. If comparison is not matched, then check ‘X’ is smaller or larger
than that key value (That means first element of root node).

Image source : Google

B-Tree
4. If ‘X’ is smaller, then go to the left subtree and continue the search
process.

5. If ‘X’ is larger, then compare ‘X’ with the next key value in the same
node and repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 until we find the exact match or
until the ‘X’ is compared with the last key value in the leaf node.

6. If the last key value in the leaf node is also not matched then
display "Element is not found" and terminate the function.

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Construct a B-Tree of order 3 by using following key values 10, 20, 30
40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100.

Here order of B-Tree is 4. So m = 4

● No. of at most children of internal node except root node = m = 4

● No. of at least children node of internal node except root node

m/2 = 2
● No. of at most key value at every node of tree= m-1 = 3

● No. of at least key value at every node of tree= m/2-1 = 1

Image source : Google
B-Tree
Insert 10

Insert 20

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Insert 30

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Insert 40

Image source : Google

 B-Tree
Insert 60

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Insert 70

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Insert 80

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Insert 90

Image source : Google

 B-Tree
Time Complexity:
● Best case : O(1) (constant time). When a key is inserted in the root node, it
will take constant time for insertion.

● Average case : O(logn) (logarithm time). When a key is inserted in the

internal node then, it will take logarithm time for insertion.

● Worst case : O(logn) (logarithm time). When a key will be inserted in the lea
node, it will take logarithm time for insertion.

Image source : Google

B-Tree
Deletion in B-Tree:
● Apply the search operation in B-Tree and find the target key in the
nodes.
● After finding the location of the target key, There are two
conditions based on the location of the target key.

a. If the target key is in the leaf node:

1. If the target key is in the leaf node and the number of keys are more
than min keys in the node. Deleting the target key does not violate any
rule of B-Tree, so directly delete the target key.

Image source : Google

B-Tree
2. If the target is in leaf node and it has min key nodes, then Deleting of
target key will violate the property of B Tree.
● Target node can borrow key from immediate left node, or
immediate right node (sibling)

● The sibling will say yes if it has more than minimum number of keys

● The key will be borrowed from the left sibling node, the max value
will be transferred to the target node. Or, The key will be borrowed
from the right sibling node, the minimum value will be transferred
to the target node.

Image source : Google

B-Tree
3. Target is in the leaf node, but no siblings have more than min
number of keys
● If both the immediate sibling nodes already have a minimum
number of keys, then merge the node with either the left sibling
node or the right sibling node. This merging is done through the
parent node.

b. If the target key is in an internal node:

● Either choose, in- order predecessor or in-order successor

● In case the of in-order predecessor, the maximum key from its left
subtree will be selected
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B-Tree
● In case of in-order successor, the minimum key from its right
subtree will be selected
● If the target key's in-order predecessor has more than the min
keys, only then it can replace the target key with the max of the in-
order predecessor
● If the target key's in-order predecessor does not have more than
min keys, look for the in-order successor's minimum key.
● If the target key's in-order predecessor and successor both have
less than min keys, then merge the predecessor and successor.
● But, if the sibling also has only a minimum number of keys then,
merge the node with the sibling along with the parent. Arrange the
children accordingly (increasing order).
Image source : Google
B-Tree

Example: Let us take a B tree of order 4

Here m=4
minimum number key of each node except root node: m/2-1= 1

Image source : Google

B-Tree

Delete 90

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B-Tree

Delete 50

Image source : Google

B-Tree

Delete 60

Image source : Google

 B-Tree
Time Complexity:
● Best case : O(1) (constant time). When a key is present in the
root node, it will take constant time for deleting.

● Average case : O(logn) (logarithm time). When a key is in the

internal node then, it will take logarithm time for deleting.

● Worst case : O(logn) (logarithm time). When a key will be

inserted in the leaf node, it will take logarithm time for
deleting.

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 B+ - Tree
•B+ Tree is an extension of B Tree which allows efficient insertion, deletion and search
operations.
B+-Tree is a height balanced M-Way search tree, In which:
•If the degree of tree is M then each node(Internal node) can contain at most m
children/nodes and at least [M/2].
•If the degree of the tree is M, then each node can have at least [m/2]-1 keys and
maximum of m-1 keys.
•Root nodes can have a minimum of two children.
•All the leaf nodes should have the same depth.
•Values are stored only on leaf nodes.
•The leaf nodes of a B+ tree are linked together in the form of singly linked lists to
make the search queries more efficient.
 Operation on B+ - Tree
• Insertion
• Deletion
• Searching
Searching in B-Tree
The search operation in B+-Tree is similar to the search operation in B Search
Tree. Suppose we want to search ‘X’ In a B-Tree, then the following will be steps:

1. First of all compare ‘X’ with the first element of the root node in the tree.

2. If comparison is matched, then display "Given element is found" and

terminate the function.

3. If comparison is not matched, then check ‘X’ is smaller or larger than that key
value (That means first element of root node).

4. If ‘X’ is smaller, then go to the left subtree and continue the search process.
Searching in B-Tree
5. If ‘X’ is larger, then compare ‘X’ with the next key value in the same node and
repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 until we find the exact match or until the ‘X’ is
compared with the last key value in the leaf node.

6. If the last key value in the leaf node is also not matched then display
"Element is not found" and terminate the function.
Time Complexity
• Best case : O(1) (constant time). When a key is present in the root node, it will
take constant time for searching.
• Average case : O(logn) (logarithm time). When a key is in the internal node
then, it will take logarithm time for searching
• Worse Case : O(logn) (logarithm time). When a key will be inserted in the leaf
node, it will take logarithm time for searching.
Insertion in B-Tree
Always, New elements will be inserted at leaf nodes in B+-Tree. Suppose we want
to insert a key value ‘X’, then the following will be steps to insert a new element
in B+-Tree.

1. First of all check whether the tree is empty.

2. If the tree is empty, then create a node with ‘X’ and insert it in the tree as a
root node.

3. If the tree is not empty, then insert ‘X’ into the suitable leaf node by using
Binary Search Tree logic.
Insertion in B-Tree

4. If the respective leaf node has some empty position, then insert ‘X’ in that
node in ascending order of key value.
5. If the respective leaf node is full, then split that node and send a copy of the
middle value to its parent. Repeat the same procedure until ‘X’ will be fixed into a
node.
6. If the splitting is performed at root node then the middle value becomes a
new root node for the tree and the height of the tree is increased by one.
Insertion in B-Tree
Example: Construct a B+-Tree of order 4 for the given elements 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
60, 70, 80, 90.

Here m=4
Maximum number of children nodes of internal nodes: 4
Minimum number of children nodes of internal nodes: m/2= 2
Maximum number of keys on each node: m-1= 3
Minimum number of keys on each node: m/2-1= 1
Insertion in B-Tree
Insert 10

Insert 20, 30
Insertion in B-Tree
Insert 40
Insertion in B-Tree
Insert 50
Insertion in B-Tree
Insert 60
Insertion in B-Tree
Insert 70
Insertion in B-Tree
Insert 80
Insertion in B-Tree
Insert 90
Deletion in B-Tree
For Deletion of a node from B+-Tree, we have to apply the following procedure:

1. Apply the search operation in B+-Tree and find the target key in the nodes.
2. After finding the position of the target key in leaf nodes, There are two
conditions based on the location of the target key in leaf node.

a. The target key is present only at the leaf node not in the indexes
(or internal nodes). There are two cases for it:
case 1: There is more than the minimum number of keys in the node. Simply
delete the key
case 2: There is an exact minimum number of keys in the node. Delete the key
and borrow a key from the immediate sibling. Add the median key of the sibling
node to the parent.
Deletion in B-Tree
b. The key to be deleted is present in the internal nodes as well. Then we
have to remove them from the internal nodes as well. There are the
following cases for this situation.
Case 1: If there is more than the minimum number of keys in the node, simply
delete the key from the leaf node and delete the key from the internal node as
well. Fill the empty space in the internal node with the inorder successor.
Case 2: There is an exact minimum number of keys in the node. Delete the key
and borrow a key from the immediate sibling. Add the median key of the sibling
node to the parent.
Case 3: This case is similar to Case 1 but here, empty space is generated above
the immediate parent node. After deleting the key, merge the empty space with
its sibling. Fill the empty space in the grandparent node with the inorder
successor.
Deletion in B-Tree
Example: Let take a B+-Tree order of 4.

Here m=4
Maximum number of children nodes of internal nodes: 4
Minimum number of children nodes of internal nodes: m/2= 2
Maximum number of keys on each node: m-1= 3
Minimum number of keys on each node: m/2-1= 1
Deletion in B-Tree
Delete 90:
Deletion in B-Tree
Delete 60:
Differenence between B-Tree & B+-Tree

B-Tree B+-Tree
Data is stored in leaf nodes as well as Data is stored in leaf nodes as well as
internal nodes. internal nodes.
Searching is a bit slower as data is Searching is faster as the data is stored
stored in internal as well as leaf nodes. only in the leaf nodes.
No redundant search keys are present. No redundant search keys are present.
Deletion operation is complex. Deletion operation is easy as data can
be directly deleted from the leaf nodes.
Leaf nodes cannot be linked together. Leaf nodes are linked together to form a
linked list.
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