UNIT II CONVEYANCE FROM THE SOURCE

Water supply – intake structures – Functions; Pipes and conduits for water –
Pipe materials – Hydraulics of flow in pipes – Transmission main design –
Laying, jointing and testing of pipes – appurtenances – Types and capacity of
pumps – Selection of pumps and pipe materials.

Water supply

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organizations,

community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes.

Intake structure
 Drawing off water from the source of water called intakes.

 Leading the water from intakes to the purification plants and then leading the treated
water to the consumer through distribution pipes.

Intake structure for water supply

 Intake structures are the construction, used for storing the water, from surface sources (river,
reservoir and lakes) and conveying it further to treatment plant.
 An intake may be nearer to water sources such as river, lake, etc.
 An intake is a structure which is constructed across the water source so as to permit the safe
withdrawal of water from the water source. The structure may be stone, brick, RCC, or Concrete
block masonry
Factors governing location of an intake

1. The location of intake structure should be nearer to the treatment plant, in order to reduce the
cost of conveyance water.
2. The location of the intake should be selected in a place, where there is the less impurities
presence.
3. The intake should be selected at a place from where the water can be taken during driest
season of the year also.
4. The intake location should have the possibility for future expansion and addition without
much increase in cost.
5. The intake should not be located at the downstream of the disposal point of sewage.
6. It should be located in such a way that, it should not be affected by heavy flood and the flood
should not enter through the intake.
7. The intake should not be located near the navigation channels such as Harbour etc.
8. It should not be interference with river traffic if any.
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 Type of intake structures
 Simple submerged Intake

 Intake Tower or River Intake Structures

1. Wet Intake Towers

2. Dry Intake Towers

 Reservoir Intake

1. Variable depth lake water intake

2. Multi-level intake

 Canal Intake Structures.

Simple submerged intake

 A submerged intake structures consists of simple concrete block or a rock filled timber crib
supporting the starting end of the withdrawal pipe.
 The withdrawal pipes are generally taken up to the sump well at shore from where the water is
lifted by pumps.
 The intake opening is generally covered by screen so as to prevent the entry of debris, ice etc.,
into the withdrawal pipe.
 In case of lakes where silt tends to settle down, the intake opening is generally kept about 2 to
2.5 m above the bottom of the lake and thus to avoid the entry of silt and sediment.
 Such intake structures should be placed in streams or intakes at a place where they may not get
buried under sediment and where there are deep water.
 These are widely used intakes for small water supply projects drawing water from streams and
lakes having relatively little change in water surface elevation throughout the year.

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 Intake towers or river intake structures
 Intake towers are generally used on large projects and on rivers or reservoirs where there is
large fluctuation of water level.
 Gate controlled openings at various levels called ports are generally provided in these concrete
towers which may help in regulating the flow through the towers and permit some selection of
the quality of water to be withdrawn.
 Accesses to these towers are generally provided for operating the gates, etc., by means of a foot
bridge from the tower up to the dam or up to the shore.

Types of Intake Towers (river)

1. Wet intake Towers

2. Dry Intake Towers

Wet Intake Tower

 The wet intake is that type of intake tower in which the water level is practically the same as
the level of source of supply.
 It is sometimes known as JACK Well and it is most commonly used.
 It consists of a concrete circular shell filled with water up to the reservoir level and has a
vertical inside shaft which is connected to the withdrawal pipe.

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 Dry Intake Tower
 The essential difference between a dry intake and wet intake is that in a wet intake the water
enters from the entry ports in to the intake and then it enters in to the conduit pipe through
separate gate controlled openings whereas in a dry intake water is directly drawn in to the
withdrawal pipe through the gate entry openings.
 A dry intake will therefore have no water inside the intake if its gates are closed whereas the
wet intake will be full of water even if its gates are closed.

Reservoir intakes
 When the flow in the river is not get guaranteed throughout the year a dam is constructed across
it to store water in the reservoir so formed.
 The reservoir intakes are practically similar to the river intake except that these are located
near the upstream face of the Dam where maximum depth of water is available.
(1) The access to intake is provided through a foot bridge.
(2) The water level will be the same as the reservoir level.

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 Canal intake
 In canal intake structure, the intake well is generally located in the bank of the canal and
water enters the chamber through the inlet pipe.
 The inlet pipe is covered with a fine screen.
 The top of the screen is generally provided at minimum water level in the canal and bottom
is about 0.15 m above the canal bed to avoid entry of bed load.
 The inlet end is of bell mouth shape with perforation of fine screen on its surface.
 The flow velocity through the out let is generally 1.5 m/sec, and this helps in determining
the area and diameter at the withdrawal pipe.
 The area of the coarse screen is designed by limiting the flow velocity to as low as 0.15m/sec.
 The flow velocity through the bell mouth is limited to about 0.3 m/sec.

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 Design of intakes
 Pipe is a circular closed conduit through which the water may flow either under gravity
or under pressure. They may be gravity conduit or may be pressure conduits.
 Gravity conduit- Open channel, Flume & Aqueducts
 Pressure conduit- Pipe
 Discharge through pipe Q= A × V
 Where V is velocity in the pipe, A is cross sectional area of the pipe.
 Diameter of the pipe is worked with the help of modified Darcy-Weisbach formula

Where,

hf = head loss due to friction

f = co-efficient of friction

L = length of pipe

Q = Discharge through pipe d =

diameter of pipe.

Design considerations
Sl.No Criteria Design considerations

1 Factor of safety Against all external forces (Forces by floating materials,

pressure, heavy currents etc)

2 Self-weight To withstand water pressure

3 Safety If located near the navigation channels

4 Sub structure Foundation design against water pressure

5 Size Considerable ( Suitable with future expansions )

 Pipes
Pipes convey raw water from the source to the treatment plants in the distribution system.
Water is under pressure always and hence the pipe material and the fixture should withstand
stresses due to the internal pressure, vacum pressure, when the pipes are empty, water
hammer when the values are closed and temperature stresses.

Requirements of pipe material

1. It should be capable of withstanding internal and external pressures

2. It should have facility of easy joints
3. It should be available in all sizes, transport and erection should be easy.
4. It should be durable
5. It should not react with water to alter its quality
6. Cost of pipes should be less
7. Frictional head loss should be minimum
8. The damaged units should be replaced easily

Different types of pipes

The following are the different types of pipes

 Cast Iron
 Steel
 Prestressed concrete
 R.C.C
 A.C. Pipes
 Galvanized Iron (G.I)
 P.V.C and plastic pipes

Stresses in the Pipe

1. Stresses due to change of direction
2. Stresses due to internal water pressure
3. Stresses due to soil above the pipes
4. Stresses due to water hammer
5. Stresses due to yielding of soil below pipes and
6. Temperature stresses.

The final selection of material for the pipe is done by considering various factors such
as availability of funds, type of water to be conveyed, carrying capacity of pipes, maintenance,
cost and durability.
Advantages and Disadvantages of pipes

Sl.No. Type of Pipe Advantages Disadvantages

1. Cast iron Pipes 1. Cost is moderate 1. Breakage of pipes are large
2. The pipes are easy to join 2. The carrying capacity of these
pipes decreases withthe increase
3. The pipes are not subjectedto
in life of pipes.
corrosion
3. The pipes are not used for
4. The pipes are strong and
pressure greater than 0.7 N/mm2
durable
4. The pipes are heavier and
5. Service connections can be
uneconomical beyond 1200 mm
easily made
dia.
6. Usual life is about 100 years
2. steel Pipes 1. No. of Joining are less because1. Maintenance cost is high
these are available in long2. The pipes are likely to be rusted
lengths by acidic or alkalinewater
2. The pipes are cheap in first cost 3. The pipes require more time for
3. The pipes are durable andstrong repairs during breakdown and
enough to resist high internal hence not suitable for
water pressure distribution pipes
4. The pipes are flexible to some4. The pipes may deform in shape
extent and they can therefore laid under combined action of
on curves external forces
5. Transportation is easybecause of
light weight.
3. Prestressed 1. The inside surface of pipescan1. The pipes are heavy and
concrete be made smooth difficult to transport
pipes 2. Maintenance cost is low 2. Repairs of these pipes are
difficult
3. The pipes are durable withlife
period 75 years 3. The pipes are likely to crack
during transport and handling
4. No danger of rusting
operations
5. These pipes do not collapseor
4. There pipes are affected by
fail under normal traffic loads
acids, alkalis and salty water
1. There are pipes are most durable
4. R.C.C Pipes 1. Transportation is difficult
with usual life of about 75 years
2. The pipes can cast at site work2. Repair work is difficult
and thus there is reduction in3. Initial cost is high
transport charges
3. Maintenance cost is less 4. These pipes are affected by
4. Inside surface of pipe can made acids, alkalis and salty waters.
smooth
5. No danger of rusting.
 5. A.C. Pipes 1. The inside surface of pipes are1. The pipes are brittle and
very smooth therefore handling is difficult
2. The joining of pipe is very good2. The pipes are not durable
and flexible
3. The pipes cannot be laid in
3. The pipes are anticorrosive and exposed places
cheap in cost 4. The pipes can be used only for
4. Light in weight and transport is very low pressures
easy
5. The pipes are suitable for
distribution pipes of smallsize.

6. Galvanized Iron 1. The pipes are cheap 1. The pipes are affected byacidic
pipes or alkaline waters
2. Light in weight and easy to
handle 2. The useful life of pipes is
3. The pipes are easy to join short about 7 to 10 years.

7. P.V.C. Pipes 1. Pipes are cheap 1. The co-efficient of expansion

for plastic is high
2. The pipes are durable
2. It is difficult to obtain the plastic
3. The pipes are flexible
pipes of uniformcomposition
4. The pipes are free fromcorrosion
3. The pipes are less resistance to
5. The pipes are good electric heat
insulators
4. Some types of plastic impart
6. The pipes are light in weight and taste to the water.
it can easy to mould anyshape

Various materials used for pipes

1. Asbestos cement pipes
2. Cast-iron Pipes
3. Cement concrete pipes
4. Copper pipes
5. Galvanized pipes
6. Lead pipes
7. Plastic pipes
8. Steel pipes
9. Steel pipes
10. Wood pipes
1. Asbestos cement pipe

1. Made from mixture of Asbestos fibre and cement.

2. Convey water under low pressure.

Advantages:-
 Inside surface- Very smooth
 Joining- Very good, flexible, easily
 Light in weight, easy to handle & transport
 Very suitable for distribution pipes of small size

Disadvantages:-
 Brittle; cannot withstand impact forces
 Not durable
 Cannot be laid in exposed places
 Can be used only for very low pressure.

2. Cast iron pipes

1) Mainly used for conveyance of water.

2) Joined by bell and spigot (or) Expansion joint.
3) The spigot is of smaller diameter and is inserted to the larger diameter bell end.
4) Expansion Joint: Severe change of temperatures
5) A rubber gasket is inserted between the spigot and the bell end.
6) Flanged joint: Water at high pressure. At a wide flange will be provided which are
bolted together.
7) They are manufactured by pig-iron and given some suitable treatments

Advantages
 The cost is moderate
 Easy to join
 Not subjected to corrosion
 Strong & Durable

Disadvantages
 The breakage of these pipes is large.
 Carrying capacity decreases with the increases in life
 Not used for pressure greater than 0.7 N/mm^2
 Heavier & Uneconomical- Size beyond 1200 mm dia.
3. Cement concrete pipes

1) Plain (or) Reinforced (or) Pre stressed pipes

2) Plain – 15 m, RCC – 75 m and High head – pre stressed.
3) Reinforcement in the form of links or hooks and longitudinal bars
4) Mould - Hume pipe (or) Spun concrete pipes

Advantages
 Inside Surface – Very smooth
 Maintenance cost is low
 Pipes can be cast at site and can be transported.
 Does not require expansion joint
 No danger of rusting & incrustation

4. Copper pipes

1) Widely used for service connections

Advantages:-
 Cheap, light in weight and easy to handle and transport.
 Easy to join

Disadvantages
 Liable for incrustation & easily affected by acidic or alkaline water.
 The useful life of pipe is pipe is short about 7 to 10 years.

5. Lead pipes

1) Not adopted for conveyance of water due to lead poisoning

2) It can be easily bent.
3) Apparatus required for alumni & chlorine discharge- cannot water.
4) It can be bent due to hot water.

6. Plastic pipes

1) LDPE- Low Density Poly Ethylene Pipes- Flexible

2) Strong in resisting acids
3) PVC- Poly Vinyl Chloride Pipes three times as rigid as poly ethylene pipe.

Advantages
 Freedom from damage due to thawing & freezing
 Pipes are very cheap
 Durable & Hydraulic resistant
  Free from corrosion
 Good electric insulator
 Light in weight easy to bend

Disadvantages
 Co-efficient of expansion for plastic is high
 Difficult to obtain the plastic pipes of uniform compositions
 Less restraint to heat
 Some type- impart to the taste of water.

7. Steel pipes

1) Mild steel is used for steel pipes

2) Joints – Riveted or Welded
3) Generally used for more than 1200 mm dia
4) Inside generally galvanized.

Advantages
 Available in long length- No of joints less
 Cheap & Best in cost
 Durable & Strong
 Flexible to some extent & laid easily on curves
 Light in weight & easy to transport.

Disadvantages
 Maintenance cost is high
 Rust attack due to alkali water
 Require more time for repairing
 Deform shapes under combined action of internal and external load.

8. Wood pipes

1) Usually prepared of staves or planks wood held together by steel bands.

2) Light in weight cannot bear higher pressure
3) Rarely adopted for conveyance of water.

9. Wrought Iron pipe

1) Light in weight can be easily cut threaded and worked.

2) Costly and Less durable. Not generally used in water conveyance system.
 Maintenance of pipes
Hygienic quality and adequate flow in the pipe lines are to be maintained, preventive
maintenance of pipes includes the following

 Detection of leaks in faulty joints ferrule connections, pipes and fittings inside the consumer
premises,

 Detection of corrosion in pipes, fractures and replacement of these portions

 The wastage of water 15 to 25% of leakage through pipe joints should be brought down to
the minimum possible extent by adopting suitable preventive measures

 Cleaning of pipes by flushing and disinfection of pipes

 Protection against pollution

 The records of regarding the lengths of pipe laid, length of pipe repaired or replaced,
expenditure incurred, no. of fire hydrants , no. of service connections and all other relevant
data in connection with the distribution system should maintained for ready reference.

Pipe corrosion – causes and prevention

The term pipe corrosion is used to indicate the loss of pipe material due to action of
water (Internal pipe corrosion) and action of water logged soil above the pipe surface (external
pipe corrosion) by the results of corrosion, troublesome to both the water authority and
consumers. The various factors contributing to the pipe corrosion are

1. Acidity: The water having low PH value due to the presence of carbonic acid orother acids
may cause corrosion

2. Alkalinity: The water possessing sufficient calcium bicarbonate alkalinity isanti-

corrosive in nature

3. Biological action: The growth of iron-bacteria, and sulphur bacteria maydevelop

aerobic and anaerobic corrosion respectively.

4. Chlorination: The presence of free chlorine or chloramines makes the watercorrosive

5. Electrical currents: Corrosion canals also be developed by the union ofdissimilar

metals or by the earthing of electrical system to water pipes.

6. Mineral and organic constituents: The presence of high totalsolids in water

accelerates the process of corrosion

7. Oxygen: the presence of oxygen is found in both the corrosive and non-corrosive waters.
The aeration infact is employed in some cases for prevention of corrosion.
 Effects of pipe corrosion
1. Pipe corrosion may lead to the tuberculation (formation of small projections on the inside
surface of pipe) which decreases carrying capacity of water

2. The pipe corrosion leads to the disintegration of pipeline and it demands heavyrepairs

3. The pipe corrosion imparts colour, taste and odour to the flowing water

4. The pipe connections are seriously affected by pipe corrosion

5. The pipe corrosion may make the water dangerous for drinking and other purposes.

Prevention of pipe corrosion

Pipe corrosion is not possible to completely eliminate but we can minimize by the
following methods.

1. Cathodic protection: By connecting the pipe line to the negative pole of D.C. generator or to
the anode metals like magnesium so that the entire pipe acts as cathode. This cathodic
treatment is most effective. It is expensive and involves many practical problems

2. Proper pipe material: The alloys of Iron or steel with chromium, copper or nickelare
found to be more resistance

3. Protective Linings: The pipe surface should be coated with asphalt, bitumen, cement mortar,
paints, resins, tar, zinc etc.

4. Treatment of water: By proper treatment and adjustment of PH value, control of calcium

carbonate, removal dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, addition of sodium silicate etc.
prevent the pipe corrosion.

Conduits for water

Conduit, channel or pipe for conveying water or other fluid or for carrying out certain other
purposes, such as protecting electric cables.

Various types of conduits

Depending upon the conditions and characteristics of flow, the conduits may be divided into

I) Gravity conduits ii) Pressure conduits

Gravity conduits are those in which the water flows under the mere action of gravity. In such a
conduit, the gradient line will coincide with the water surface and will be parallelto the bed of the
conduit. In such a there is no pressure term in Bernoulli’s equation.

Gravity conduits can flow the water is all along at atmospheric pressure and be in the form of
canals, flumes and aqueducts.
In pressure conduits, which are closed conduits and as such no air can enter into them, the water
flows under pressure above the atmospheric pressure. The hydraulic gradient line for such a
conduit can be obtained by joining the water surface elevations in the piezometers installed in
the conduit at various places.

Flumes
A flume is man-made channel for water, in the form of an open inclined gravity chute whose
walls are raised above the surrounding terrain. Used for the diversion of a stream of water from
a river for purposes of irrigation

Aqueduct
Closed – rectangular or Circular or horse shoe section built of masonry or R.C.C.They are
generally designed as ½ or 3/4th full. When designed as grade aqueducts, should not made to run
full under pressure. Because of tension developed – open out joints of masonry work endangering
structural stability – causing serious leakage.

Hydraulics of Flow in Pipes

There are many basic principles that must be considered when preparing the hydraulic profile
through the plant. The hydraulic profiles are prepared at peak and average design flows and at
minimum initial flow. The hydraulic profile is generally prepared for all main paths of flow
through the plant. The head loss through the treatment plant is the sum of head losses in the
treatment units and the connecting piping and appurtenances.

The head losses through the treatment unit include the following:

 Head losses at the influent structure.

 Head losses at the effluent structure.
 Head losses through the unit.
The total loss through the connecting piping's, channels and appurtenances is the sum of
following:

 Head loss due to entrance.

 Head loss due to exit.
 Head loss due to contraction and enlargement.
 Head loss due to friction.
 Head loss due to bends, fittings, gates, valves, and
meters.

Hydraulic Design:
The design of water supply conduits depends on the resistance to flow, available pressure or head,
and allowable velocities of flow. Allowable velocity is normally between 0.9 m/sec to 1.5 m/sec
but velocity of 3 m/sec to 6 m/sec can be resisted by the commonly available pipe materials.

The Head loss caused by pipe friction can be found by using either of the following formulae

Darcy – Weisbach formula:

HL=Head Loss in metres

L = Length of pipe in metres

D = Diameter of the pipe in metres

V = Mean velocity of flow through the pipe in m/secg =

Acceleration due to gravity
F ‘ = Dimensionless friction factor generally varying between 0.02 (for new smoothpipes)
to (old rough pipes) and depends upon Reynold number.

Manning’s formula:

HL = Head loss in metres

N = Manning’s rigidity
coefficient
 L = Length of pipes in metres

V = Mean velocity of flow through pipe in m/sec

R = Hydraulic mean depth of pipe (metres)

Hazen-William’s formula:

V = Mean velocity of flow through pipes in m/secR

= Hydraulic mean depth of pipe (metres)

R =S = Slope of the energy line = HL/L

CH = Coefficient of hydraulic capacity Smoother the pipe – greater the CH value.

Distribution of water
After treatment, water is to be stored temporarily and supplied to the consumers through the
network of pipelines called distribution system. The distribution system also includes pumps,
reservoirs, pipe fittings, instruments for measurement of pressures, flow leak detectors etc.
The cost of distribution is about 40 to 70% of the total cost of the entire scheme. The
efficiency of the system depends upon proper planning, execution and maintenance.
Ultimate air is to supply potable water to all the consumers whenever required in sufficient
quantity with required pressure with least lost and without any leakage.

Requirement of a distribution system:

1. The should convey the treated water upto consumers with the same degree of purity
2. The system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate
3. The diameter of pipes should be designed to meet the fire demand
4. It should safe against any future pollution. As per as possible should not be laid below sewer
lines.
5. Water should be supplied without interruption even when repairs are undertaken
6. The system should be so designed that the supply should meet maximum hourly demand. A
peak factor 2.5 is recommended for the towns of population 0.5 to 2 lakhs. For larger
population a factor of 2.0 will be adequate.
 Layouts of distribution system:
Generally in practice there are four different systems of distribution which are used, they
are:

1. Dead End or Tree system

2. Grid Iron system or Reticulation system

3. Circular or Ring system

4. Radial system

1. Dead end or tree system:

This system is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities. In this system
water flows in one direction only into sub mains and branches. The diameter of pipe decreases
at every tree branch.

Dead End System

Advantages

1. Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is calculated easily
2. The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively less in number.
3. The diameter of pipes used are smaller and hence the system is cheap and economical
4. The laying of water pipes is used are simple.

Disadvantages

1. There is stagnant water at dead ends of pipes causing contamination.

2. During repairs of pipes or valves at any point the entire downstream end are deprived of
supply
3. The water available for firefighting will be limited in quantity
 2. Grid iron system
From the mains water enters the branches at all Junctions in either directions into sub
mains of equal diameters. At any point in the line the pressure is balanced from two
directions because of interconnected network of pipes.

Grid – Iron Method

Advantages
1. In the case of repairs a very small portion of distribution are a will be affected

2. Every point receives supply from two directions and with higher pressure

3. Additional water from the other branches are available for fire fighting

4. There is free circulation of water and hence it is not liable for pollution due to stagnation.

Disadvantages

1. More length of pipes and number of valves are needed and hence there is increased costof
construction
2. Calculation of sizes of pipes and working out pressures at various points in the distribution
system is laborious, complicated and difficult.

3. Circular or ring system

Supply to the inner pipes is from the mains around the boundary. It has the same
advantages as the grid-Iron system. Smaller diameter pipes are needed. The advantages and
disadvantages are same as that of grid-Iron system.

Circular of Ring System

 4. Radial system
This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from the
reservoirs it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes. The pressure calculations are easy in
this system. Layout of roads need to be radial to eliminate loss of head in bends. This is most
economical system also if combined pumping and gravity flow is adopted.

Radial System

System of distribution
For efficient distribution it is required that the water should reach to every consumer
with required rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipeline is necessary, which should
force the water to reach at every place. Depending upon the methods of distribution, the
distribution system is classified as the follows:

1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system

Gravity system

When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available, this can be best
utilized for distribution system in maintaining pressure in water mains. This method is also
much suitable when the source of supply such as lake, river or impounding reservoir is at
sufficiently higher than city. The water flows in the mains due to gravitational forces. As no
pumping is required therefore it is the most reliable system for the distribution of water as
shown in fig

Gravity System
 Pumping system

Constant pressure can be maintained in the system by direct pumping into mains. Rate of flow
cannot be varied easily according to demand unless number of pumps are operatedin addition
to stand by ones. Supply can be effected during power failure and breakdown of pumps. Hence
diesel pumps also in addition to electrical pumps as stand by to be maintained. During fires,
the water can be pumped in required quantity by the stand by units.

Pumping System

Combined pumping and gravity system

This is also known as dual system. The pump is connected to the mains as well as
elevated reservoir. In the beginning when demand is small the water is stored in the elevated
reservoir, but when demand increases the rate of pumping, the flow in the distribution system
comes from the both the pumping station as well as elevated reservoir. As in this system water
comes from two sources one from reservoir and second from pumping station, it is called dual
system. This system is more reliable and economical, because it requires uniform rate of
pumping but meets low as well as maximum demand. The water stored in the elevated reservoir
meets the requirements of demand during breakdown of pumps and for firefighting.

Dual System of Distribution

The water may be supplied to the consumers by either of the two systems.
 1. Continuous system
This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours. This system is possible
when there is adequate quantity of water for supply. In this system sample of water is always
available for firefighting and due to continuous circulation water always remains fresh. In this
system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of pipes will be less. Losses will be
more if there are leakages in the system.

2. Intermittent system
If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into zones and each
zone is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days. As the water is
supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system. The system has following
disadvantages:

1. Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and drying. This increasesthe
maintenance cost.

2. There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water through leaks during non-flow
periods.

3. More wastage of water due to the tendency of the people to store more water thanrequired
quantity and to waste the excess to collect fresh water each time.
In spite of number of disadvantages, this system is usually adopted in most of the cities
and towns of India. In this system water can be supplied in the high level localities with
adequate pressure by dividing the city in zones. The repair work can be easily done in the non-
supply hours.

Laying, jointing & testing of pipelines

Transport

 Pipes should be loaded at the works for transportation either by rail or by road.
 No movements can be take place on vehicle during the transit

Off- Loading

 It should be carried out by means of chain block with shear log or crane
 Slings should be placed around the circumferential of the pipe and should not bethreaded
through the pipe bore.
 Hooks located at the ends of the pipes should not be used.

Stacking

 Pipes can be directly placed on the ground free from rock and other projections.
 Stacking in tyres is permissible provided timber bearer is placed between succeeding tyres.

Stringing

 It consists of placing of pipes on the ground in line ready for laying.

 Trench Excavation

 Trench should be sufficient width to provide a free working space.

 Free working place – not less than 150 mm on either side.

Inspection and Repairs

1. Inspection of pipes before laying

 Visually inspected for evidence of damage

 Examination of joint surfaces which may damage during transit.

2. Repairing Damaged Pipes

 Minor damages may be repairable at site.

Laying
 Lowered in to the trench with tackle suitable for the weight of pipe
 While lifting the position of the sling should be checked when the pipe is just clear off to
ensure proper balance.
 Laying of pipe should be preferably proceed upgrade of a slope
 Expansion joints shall be provided for buried line at maximum interval of 100m but for exposed
pipes shall not exceed 45 m.
 When laying is not in progress the open end of the pipe line should be fitted with temporary
end closers.
 The pipe buoyant in the event of the trench become flooded and any movements of the pipes
should be prevented either by partial refilling of the trench or by temporary strutting.

Jointing
Basic requirements of joining of the pipelines are

 Cleanliness of all the parts particularly joint surfaces

 Correct location of components
 Centralization of spigot within the socket
 Provision of the correct gap between the end of the spigot and the back of the socketto
ensure flexibility at each joints
 Any lubrication used shall be approved as composition and method of application
 The section of the pipeline laid and jointed immediately to protect it from weathereffects
 A minimum cover of 100 mm is considered adequate
 A polythene sheet also is used to cover the joints to prevent evaporation of water.
 A small change in the direction may be setting out adjacent pipe at a slight angle toone
another.
 Joints in pipe
Pipe joints are the assemblies used to connect one pipe with other without any leakage or
other losses.

CLASSIFICATION

1. Based on the Rigidity & Flexibility

Rigid Joint
Semi Rigid Joint
Flexible Joint

2. Based on Functions & location

Spigot and Socket Joint

Expansion Joint
Flanged Joint
Screwed Joint
Rigid joints
 Rigid Joints are those which admit no movement at all and comprise flanged, welded and turned
and bored joint.
 Flanged joints require perfect alignment and close fittings and are frequently used where a
longitudinal thrust must be taken such as at the valves and meters.
 The gasket used between the flanges of pipes shall be compressed fibre board or natural or
synthetic rubber.
 Welded joints produce a continuous line of pipe with the advantage that interior and exterior
coatings can be made properly and are not subsequently disrupted by the movement of joints.

Semi rigid joints

 A semi rigid joint allows partial movement due to vibration etc.
 The socketed end of the pipe should be kept against the flow of water and thespigot end
of the other pipe is inserted in to this socket.
 A rope is then placed at the outer end of the socket and is made by tight fit byapplying
wet clay leaving two holes for the escape of the entrapped air inside.

Flexible joints
 Flexible joints are used where rigidity is undesirable such as filling of granular and when
two sections cannot be welded.
 They comprise mainly mechanical and rubber ring joints which permit some degree of
deflection at each joint and are therefore able to withstand vibration and movements.
 In the rubber jointing special type of rubber gasket are used to connect cast ironpipe which
are cast with a special type of spigot.
 Rubber joint is to be preferred to lead joining
 Spigot & socket joint
 This is mostly suitable for cast iron pipes
 This type of joint is connected by inserting the spigot end of one pipe in to thesocket or
bell end of the other.
 The connecting procedure includes; wrapping of jute around the spigot before inserting it
in to the socket.
 Then in the remaining space or gap between spigot and socket is filled by moltenlead.
 Cooling time will be given for the solidification of molten lead.
 The flexibility of this joint is less and need skilled labour.

Expansion joint
 The main advantage of the expansion joints is its flexibility.
 In some cases the pipes are laid over the ground and exposed to the atmosphere.
 Due to thermal stresses the pipe will tend to expand and contract which ultimately results in the
formation of cracks in the external surface of the pipe and leak in the joints.
 In this type of joint the socket end is connected rigidly to an annular ring which can freely over
the spigot joint.
 The provision of gasket will aid the pipe movement at the time of expansion dueto thermal
stress.

Flanged joint
 This type of joint mostly used for temporary pipe network.
 The pipe has flanges at both the ends .This ends are connected by bolts and nut orwelding.
 During the connection process a rubber gasket is placed between the two endswhich will
prevent leakage.
 This joint is commonly used in plumbing station boiler house etc.
 But if this joint is used in steel pipe it will be better to connect by nuts and bolt rather by
other connection.

Screwed joint
 The screwed joints are usually adopted when the pipe diameter is less
 In this joint the ends of the pipes are threaded outside, while socket or coupling has threads
on both the ends of the pipe to join them.
 For making water tight zinc paint or hemp yarn should be placed in the threads ofthe pipe,
before screwing socket over it.

Testing

All pipe lines should be tested before come in service.

Hydrostatic Test

 Filling the pipe line with water and raising pressure to selected limit.
 Draw graph between the quantity of water added and the time.

Site Test Pressure

 Absorption of water by the pipe material under selected pressure

 The important factors of considerations are
 The density of the pipe material.
 Amount of surplus water present in the pipe at the commencement of test.
 The amount and quality of cement matrix in case of concrete pipe
 Thickness of the pipe unit under test
 The pressure applied
 The duration of the test.

The field test pressure to be imposed should not be less than the greatest of the following

 1.5 times the maximum sustain operating pressure

 1.5 times the maximum pipe line static pressure
 Sum of maximum sustained pressure and maximum surge pressure
 Sum of maximum pipeline static pressure and maximum surcharge pressure.
 The pressure should be applied and maintain for at least four hours, if there is no leakage
then the pipe line is ok

Allowable leakage

Leak detection

 Visual inspection of each joints if not covered by back fill

 Use of a bar probe to detect signs of water in the vicinity of joints if backfilled
 Aural inspection using a stethoscope or listening stick in contact with pipeline

 Use of an electronic listening device which detect and amplifies the sound ofescaping
water
 Injection of dye into the test water
 Introduction of Nitrous oxide solution into the test water using IR- gasconcentration;
escaped through the leaks.
 Appurtenances in the distribution system
The various devices fixed along the water distribution system are known as
appurtenances.

The necessity of the various appurtenances in distribution system are as follows

 To control the rate of flow of water

 To release or admit air into pipeline according to the situation
 To prevent or detect leakages
 To meet the demand during emergency and
 Ultimately to improve the efficiency of the distribution

The following are the some of the fixtures used in the distribution system.

 Valves
 Fire hydrants and

 Water meter

Types of valves
In water works practice, to control the flow of water, to regulate pressure, to
release or to admit air, prevent flow of water in opposite direction valves are required.

The following are the various types of valves named to suit their function
 Sluice valves
 Check valves or reflex valves
 Air valves
 Relief valves
 Altitude valves
 Drain valves or Blow off valves
 Scour valve

Sluice valves
These are also known as gate-valves or stop valves. These valve control the flow of
water through pipes. These valves are cheaper, offers less resistance to the flow of water than
other valves. The entire distribution system is decided into blocks by providing these valves
at appropriate places. They are provided in straight pipeline at 150-200m intervals. When two
pipes lines interest, valves are fixed in both sides of intersection. When sluice valve is closed,
it shuts off water in a pipeline to enable to undertake repairs in that particular block. The flow
of water can be controlled by raising or lowering the handle or wheel.
Check valve or reflux valve

These valves are also known as non-return valves. A reflux valve is an automatic
device which allows water to go in one direction only. The swing type of reflux valve as shown
in fig is widely used in practice.

When the water moves in the direction of arrow, the valve swings or rotates around the
pivot and it is kept in open position due to the pressure of water. When the flow of water in
this direction ceases, the water tries to flow in a backward direction. But this valve prevents
passage of water in the reverse direction.
Reflux valve is invariably placed in water pipe, which obtain water directly from
pump. When pump fails or stops, the water will not run back to the pump and thus pumping
equipment will be saved from damage.
 Air valves
These are automatic valves and are of two types namely
1. Air inlet valves
2. Air relief valves

1. Air inlet valves

These valves open automatically and allow air to enter into the pipeline so that the
development of negative pressure can be avoided in the pipelines. The vacuum pressure
created in the down streamside in pipelines due to sudden closure of sluice valves. This
situation can be avoided by using the air inlet valves.

2. Air relief valves

Sometimes air is accumulated at the summit of pipelines and blocks the flow of water
due to air lock. In such cases the accumulated air has to be removed from the pipe lines. This
is done automatically by means of air relief valves.

Air Valve

This valve consists of a chamber in which one or two floats are placed and is connected
to the pipe line. When there is flow under pressure in the pipeline water occupies the float
chamber and makes the float to close the outlet. But where there is accumulation of air in the
pipeline, air enters the chamber, makes the float to come down, thus opening the outlet. The
accumulated air is driven out through the outlet.

Relief valves
 These are also known as automatic cut off valves or safety valves.
 They are located at every point along the water pipe where pressure is likely to
maximum.
 When pressure of water exceeds a predetermined limit the valve operates
automatically and it will save a particular section of water pipe before bursting the pipe.
Altitude valves
 They are mainly used on those lines which supply water to elevated tanks or standpipes.
 They close automatically when the tank is full and open when the pressure on thepump side
is less than that on the tank side of the valve.

Drain valves or blow off valves

These are also called wash out valves they are provided at all dead ends and depression of pipelines
to drain out the waste water. These are ordinary valves operated by hand.
 Scour valves
These are similar to blow off valves. They are ordinary valves operated by hand. They are located at the
depressions and dead ends to remove the accumulated silt and sand. After the complete removal of silt; the
value is to be closed

Fire hydrants
A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in case of fire. They are
located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads and also at junction roads. They are of two types
namely.

1. Flush Hydrants. 2. Post Hydrants

1. Flush Hydrants

The flush hydrants is kept in underground chamber flush with footpath covered by
C.I. cover carrying a sign board “F-H”.

2. Post Hydrants

The post hydrant remain projected 60 to 90cm above ground level as shown in fig 7.4 They have
long stem with screw and nut to regulate the flow. In case of fire accident , the firefighting squad
connect their hose to the hydrant and draw the water and spray it on fire.

A good fire hydrant

1. Should be cheap
2. Easy to connect with hose
3. Easily detachable and reliable
4. Should draw large quantity of water

Post fire hydrant

Bib cock
 These are water taps which are attached at the end
of water pipes and from whichthe consumer
obtain water.
 It is operated from a handle.
 They may also push type and they operate
automatically.
 They should be water tight; the leaky bib cocks are
the source of waste water.

Stop cocks
 These are small size sluice valves and they are
installed in service pipes, serving thebib cocks.
 They operate on the same principles of sluice.
 They are placed on water pipes leading to
flushing tanks, wash basins, water tanks etc.

WATER METER

These are the devices which are installed on the pipes to measure the quantity of water
flowing at a particular point along the pipe. The readings obtained from the meters help in working
out the quantity of water supplied and thus the consumers can be chargedaccordingly. The water
meters are usually installed to supply water to industries, hotels, big institutions etc. metering
prevents the wastage of purified water.

Types
1. Positive displacement type meter

2. Velocity meter

 They should accurately measure discharge (2% tolerance)

 They should easy to repair and maintenance
Should not too costly
 They should be non-corrosive.
Pumps
The function of pump is to leave the water or any fluid to higher elevation or at higher
pressure. Pumps are driven by electricity, diesel or steam power. They are helpful in pumping water
from the sources that is from intake to the treatment plant and from treatment plant to the
distribution system or service reservoir. In homes also pumps are used to pump water to upper
floors or to store water in tanks over the buildings.

Types of pumps and their suitability

Based on the mechanical principle of water lifting pumps are classified as the following

Sl.No Type of Pump Examples Suitability

1. Displacement pumps Reciprocating This type of pumps are suitable
pumps. Rotary, chain, for moderate heads and small
gearwheel, pump and discharges suitable for fire
wind mills. protection, water supply of
Individual houses.
2. Velocity pumps Centrifugal pumps, This type of pumps are used
deep well, turbine widely in water supply schemes
pumps, jet pumps containing sand, silt etc.
3. Buoyancy pumps Airlifting pumps Airlifting pumps are generally
adopted for pumping of water
from deep wells to a lift of
about 60m containing mud, silt,
debris etc.
4. Impulse pumps Hydraulic Ram Used for Small water supply
Projects to left the water for
aheight of about 30m or so.
 Centrifugal pumps – components

Centrifugal force is made use of in lifting water. Electrical energy is converted to potential
or pressure energy of water.

Component parts of centrifugal pump

Centrifugal pump consists of the following parts as shown in fig

Centrifugal Pump

1. CASING: The impellor is enclosed in the casing, which is so designed that kinetic energyof the
liquid is converted into pressure energy before it leaves the casing.
2. Delivery pipe
3. Delivery valve
4. Impeller
5. Prime mover
6. Suction pipe
7. Strainer and foot valve
Description
The pump consists of an Impeller is enclosed in a water tight casing. Water at lower
level is sucked into the impellor through a suction pipe. Suction pipe should be air tight and bends
in this pipe should be avoided. A strainer foot valve is connected at the bottom of the suction pipe
to prevent entry of foreign matter and to hold water during Pumping. Section pipe is kept larger
in diameter than delivery pipe to reduce cavitation and losses due to friction. An electric motor is
coupled to the central shaft to impart energy.

Working principle
When the impellor starts rotating it creates reduction of pressure at the eye of the impellor,
which sucks in water through the suction pipe. Water on entering the eye is caught between the
vanes of the impeller. Rapid rotation of the impellor sets up acentrifugal force and forces
the water at high velocity outwards against the causing convert the velocity energy into pressure
energy which is utilized to overcome thedelivery head

Operation and maintenance

Priming – Priming means filling up of the suction and casing completely with
Water.

Pressure and suction developed by the impellor is proportional to the density ofthe fluid
and the speed of rotation. Impellor running in air will produce only negligible negative pressure on
the head. Hence it is required that is the casing and impellor is filled with water through a funnel
and cock. Trapped air is released through pet cock. Initially the delivery valve is closed and the
pump started. The rotation impellor pushes the water in the casing into the delivery pipe and the
water in the casing into the delivery pipe and the resulting vacuum is filled by water raising through
the suction pipe. The pass valve is opened while closing the bypass valve, while stopping the pump
delivery valve is closed first and the pump switched off.

Maintenance may be 1) preventive maintenance 2) Break down maintenance.

Preventive maintenance

Locates the sources of trouble and keep the equipment in good operating condition. It
involves oiling, greasing of stuffing boxes, observing the temperature of the motor and the pump
bearings, checking the valves, strainer, electrical contacts, earthings etc.

Break down maintenance

Involves replacement of worn-out components and testing. Sufficient amount of spares of

impellors, bearings, slip-ring brushes, starter-contacts, gland packing, greases, oils, jointing
materials, valves are to be kept in stock to attend to the emergencies. It is usual to have one stand
by pump in addition to the required number of pumps.
 Reciprocating pump

Air lift pumps

Point to be observed in selecting a pump

1. Capacity and efficiency - The pump should have the capacity required and optimum
efficiency.

2. Lift - Suction head from the water level to the pump level

3. Head – It is also called delivery head. Generally the total head (suction and deliveryhead)
should meet all possible situations with respect to the head.

4. Reliability – A reputed manufacture or similar make pump already in use may give thefailure
 rate and types of troubles.

5. Initial cost: The cost of the pump and its installation cost should be minimum.

6. Power – Power requirements should be less for operation

7. Maintenance – Maintenance cost should be minimum. Availability of spares and cost ofspares
are to be ascertained.

Horse-power of pump

The horse-power (H.P.) of a pump can be determined by calculated the work done by a pump in
raising the water up to H height.

Let the pump raise ‘W’ kg of water to height ‘H’ m

Then work done by pump = W X H Kg m

= WQH m kg/sec

Where W  density of water in kg/m3.

Q  water discharge by pump in m3/sec

Discharge x Total head
The water horse power = ------------------------------------
75

W×Q×H
W.H.P. =
75

W. H. P
Break Horse Power = ----------------
Efficiency

W. H. P
=
75 × 
Selection of pump horse power

Basic data regarding the water availability like diameter, depth of the well, depth of the
water table, seasonal variations of water table, drawdown duration of pumping and safe yield are
to be collected accurately before selecting a pump.

There are many varieties of specifications and choices available in the market and it is a
tricky problem facing an engineer to select the best suited for his requirement.