UNIT-II

MACHINES AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Syllabus
Machines: Construction, principle and operation of (i) DC Motor, (ii) DC
Generator, (iii) Single Phase Transformer, (iv) Three Phase Induction Motor and
(v) Alternator, Applications of electrical machines.
Measuring Instruments: Construction and working principle of Permanent
Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron (MI) Instruments and Wheat Stone
bridge.
Text Books:
[1] Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, Rajendra Prasad,PHI publishers, 2014, 3rd Ed.
[2] Basic Electrical Engineering, D.P.Kothari, I.J.Nagrath, McGrawHill, 2019, 4th Ed
Abbreviations
1Ø: Single Phase
3Ø: Three Phase
DC: Direct Current
f : Frequency(Hertz)
I: Current (units: Amperes)
MC: Moving coil
PMMC: Permanent magnet Moving Coil
V: Voltage (volts)
S.No. Contents Page
Machines
2.1 Introduction, Applications of electrical machines 1
2.2 DC Generator: Construction, principle and operation 4
2.3 DC Motor 9
2.4 Single Phase Transformer 11
2.5 Three Phase Induction Motor 13
2.6 Alternator 16
Measuring Instruments
2.7 Construction and working principle of Permanent Magnet Moving 19
Coil (PMMC)
2.8 Moving Iron (MI) Instruments 20
2.9 Wheat Stone bridge. 22

2.1 Introduction
Electrical energy system accounts for generation, transmission, distribution and
utilization of electrical energy. At every stage, different electrical machineries
(static and rotating machines) serve specific purpose.

An electrical machine is used to convert the electrical energy into mechanical

energy and vice versa. The rotating machine which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy is called Generator. Based on the type of emf generated, it is
classified as alternating current (AC) generator and a direct current (DC)
generator. Transformer is a static electrical machine which changes the value of
the AC voltage without changing frequency for transmission and distribution
systems. The rotating machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy is called electrical motor.

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 Electrical
Principle construction Input Output
Machine
electromagnetic, Stator winding,
Lorentz force, Rotor winding,
DC Motor Electrical Mechanical
Flemings left hand Split rings,
rule Brushes,
Stator winding,
Electromagnetic, Mechanical,
Rotor winding, Electrical
DC Generator Flemings right hand DC
Split rings, (DC power)
rule excitation
Brushes,
Electrical
Faradays laws of Core,
(Step-up/
Transformer electromagnetic Primary winding, Electrical
step-down
induction Secondary winding
Voltage)
Stator winding,
3Ø induction Electromagnetic
Rotor winding, Electrical Mechanical
motor induction
Slip rings.
Stator winding, Mechanical,
Electromagnetic Electrical
Alternator Rotor winding, DC
induction (AC power)
Slip rings. excitation

Applications of electrical machines

DC Generator:
Battery charging in vehicles,
Power generation in small-scale renewable energy systems,
Electroplating processes,
Welding equipment,
Electric traction systems,
Electric vehicles, fans, food processors, Robotics.
DC Motor:
Electric vehicles (EVs)
Industrial machinery (conveyors, pumps, fans)
Household appliances (blenders, vacuum cleaners)
Robotics
Aerospace (actuators, control surfaces)
Transformers:
Power distribution
Voltage regulation
Electrical isolation
Power conversion
Instrumentation
3Ø Induction motors:
Industrial pumps, Machine tools
Electric vehicles
Fans, air conditioners, and refrigerators.
Agriculture, Mining
Marine applications
Renewable energy
Elevators and escalators, conveyor systems
Alternators:
Power generation,
Wind turbines,
Hydroelectric generators,
Aircraft engines.

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 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
First Law: This law states that “Whenever a conductor cuts across the
magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor.
consider a coil placed near a bar magnet and a galvanometer connected across
the coil, as shown in Fig. When the bar magnet (N-pole) is taken nearer to the
coil [see Fig.(a)], there is deflection in the needle of the galvanometer. If now the
bar magnet (N-pole) is taken away from the coil [see Fig.(b)], again there is
deflection in the needle of galvanometer but in opposite direction. The
deflection in the needle of galvanometer indicates that emf is induced in the
coil.
Second Law: This law states that “The magnitude of induced emf in a coil
is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.
d
e  N
dt

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: (Generator action)

This rule is applied to determine the direction of induced emf in a
conductor moving across the field.
“Stretch, first finger, second finger, and thumb of your right hand
mutually perpendicular to each other.
First finger: Direction of magnetic field,
Thumb: direction of motion of conductor then
Second finger: direction of induced emf in the conductor.”

Fleming’s Left-hand Rule: (motor action)

This rule is used to determine the direction of force acting on a current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
First finger magnetic field,
Second finger direction of current and
Thumb direction of force acting on the conductor (Fig.)

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 2.3 DC Generator
Working principle:
 A DC generator is a dynamic DC machine which generates electrical energy from
mechanical energy. The emf induced is called dynamically induced emf.
 It operates on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that whenever a current carrying conductor cuts the magnetic flux,
a dynamically induced emf is generated.
 Its magnitude depends on the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the
conductor. If the conductor is connected to a closed circuit, then a current will
flow through it. The basic elements required in a DC generator to generate a
dynamically induced emf are:
● A steady magnetic field
● A current carrying conductor and
● Relative motion between conductor and magnetic field

The basic working of a DC generator can be explained with the help of a single
rectangular coil ABCD, as shown in Fig. This rectangular coil is placed between
two opposite poles of the magnet.
 When the field coil wound over the magnet is excited by the DC source, the
magnets get energised and magnetic flux is generated between these opposite
poles. The rectangular coil connected to the shaft gets rotated in a specific
direction driven by the prime mover.
 Therefore, the rectangular coil, when it rotates about its axis in the magnetic field
i.e., when it moves from horizontal to vertical position, it cuts the magnetic field
generated by the field windings. Hence, an emf is induced in both the sides of the
coil i.e., on both AB and CD.
 Since the loop is closed, a current will be circulated through the loop. Using
Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of current can be determined. The emf
generated in a DC generator is shown in Fig.
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 Construction:
The schematic diagram of a DC generator with necessary parts is shown in Fig.
The main components are:
(i) Magnetic frame (or) yoke
(ii) Pole cores and pole shoes
(iii) Field or exciting windings
(iv) Armature core and windings
(v) Armature windings
(vi) Commutators
(vii) Brushes
(viii) Bearings
(ix) Shaft
The above 9 parts can be grouped
into 4 major components, namely
magnetic field system, armature,
commutator and brush assembly.
Stator magnetic field system
The magnetic field system is a stationary or fixed part of the DC machine where
the main magnetic flux is generated. Mainframe or yoke, pole core and pole shoes
and field or exciting coils are included in this system, as described below:
(i) Magnetic Frame or Yoke
The outer frame of a DC generator, to which pole core and pole shoes are fixed, is
known as yoke. In large DC generators, it is made up of cast steel or cast iron. Its
important functions are:
● It supports pole core and pole shoes.
● It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
● It protects inner parts of the DC generator.
(ii) Pole Core and Pole Shoes
The curved pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke with
the help of bolts. The poles in the DC generator are called salient poles, since they
are projected inwards. It is made up of laminations to reduce eddy current losses.
Its important functions are:
● Field or exciting coils are wound around the pole core.
● Helps in uniform distribution of magnetic flux to the armature.
● Helps in increasing the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit, which in
turn reduces the reluctance of the magnetic path.
(iii) Field Coils or Exciting Coils
The enamelled copper wire wound over each pole core to produce the required
magnetic field is called field or exciting coils. It always requires a relatively small
DC power to produce the required strong magnetic field. These coils are connected
in such a way that when DC current is used for excitation, the poles on which they
are wound attain opposite polarity i.e., the poles get magnetised to produce the
required flux.
Rotor (Armature)
The rotating component of the DC generator is called armature and it consists of a
laminated cylinder called armature core, placed over the shaft.
(iv) Armature Core
The drum or cylindrical component fixed to the rotating shaft in a DC generator is
the armature core. It accommodates the armature winding in the slots provided at
its outer periphery. The armature core serves the following purposes:
● Provides space for conductors in the slots.
● Provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
In armature core, by using silicon steel material, the hysteresis loss produced due
to the reversal of flux is reduced and to reduce the eddy current loss produced
due to the induced emf in the armature, lamination with 0.3 to 0.5 mm thickness
stamping is used in the armature core.
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 (v) Armature Windings
The insulated conductors made up of bands of steel wire are placed in the
armature slots. These conductors are suitably connected by winding around the
armature core, which forms the armature winding. Since the mechanical power to
electrical power conversion takes place here, armature winding is called the heart
of DC generator. Based on the way the armature conductors are connected,
armature windings are classified as:
(a) Lap winding (b) Wave winding
(a) Lap Winding
If the armature conductors are connected in such a way that the number of poles
and number of parallel paths are equal, then it is called a lap winding. If P =
number of poles and Z = number of armature conductors, then there will be P
parallel paths and Z/P conductors will be connected in series per parallel path.
(b) Wave Winding
The armature conductors are connected in such a way that if the number of
parallel paths is two, irrespective of the number of poles, then it is called wave
winding. If Z = number of armature conductors, then there will be two parallel
paths and in each parallel path Z/2 number of armature conductors will be
connected in series.
(vi) Commutator (Split ring)
The cylindrical wedge-shaped hard-drawn copper bars or segments, which rotate
along with the armature, are called commutators. A ring shape is formed around
the armature shaft using these commutator segments. Each commutator segment
is insulated from each other and also from the rotating shaft. Ends of each
armature coil are connected to the commutator segment. The functions that the
commutator of a DC generator serves are:
● Through the brushes, it provides a connection between the rotating armature
conductors and the stationary external circuit.
● The alternating current induced in the armature conductor is converted into
unidirectional current in a DC generator.
(vii) Brushes
A set of carbon or graphite components attached to the rotating armature gently
via commutator, connecting the external circuit to the DC generator, are called
brushes. The main purpose of brushes is to tap the electrical power generated in
the rotating armature. Brush box or holder is a metal box supporting the brushes.
Springs are used to adjust the pressure exerted on the commutator by the
brushes.
(viii) Bearings
Fitting a high carbon steel ball or roller bearing in the machine can reduce the
friction existing between the rotating and stationary parts of the DC generator.
(ix) Shaft
The mechanical power transfer to the machine is done with the help of a mild steel
shaft having maximum breaking strength. Rotating parts of the DC generator like
armature core, commutator etc., are attached to the shaft.

Requirement of a Split-ring Commutator

Consider an armature core, rotating in clockwise direction, which makes the
current in the left conductor i.e., AB to move upwards and the current in the right
conductor i.e., CD to move downwards, as shown in Figure 3.4(a). It is clear that
in the load, the current is flowing from right to left, as shown in Figure 3.4(a).

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 The direction of current in both the conductors remains same till the armature
core completes a half rotation. After half-rotation of the armature core, the current
through the conductors gets reversed since it is placed in the armature core i.e.,
conductor AB carries current in the downward direction and conductor CD carries
current in the upward direction. This reversal of current in the armature
conductor will make the current to flow from left to right in the load, which results
in alternating current. But the output of DC generator should be unidirectional.

Hence, some mechanism is required to make the current to flow through the load
in the same direction, irrespective of the rotation of armature core. This can be
achieved by using a split-ring commutator. When it is attached to the conductor,
it rotates, thereby making the direction of current unidirectional in the load. This
mechanism is shown in Fig.(b).

EMF Equation
In a DC generator, when the armature core is rotated using the prime mover in the
magnetic field, an induced emf is generated in the armature windings. This
induced emf in the armature windings is called generated emf, denoted as Eg. An
expression for Eg is obtained as follows:

Let P = total number of poles of the DC generator,

  be the flux produced per pole in Webers,
Z = total number of armature conductors,
N = armature speed in rpm,
A = number of parallel paths existing in the armature winding.

In one revolution of armature core, the total flux cut by one conductor of the
armature is given by dT  P  eq (2.1)
The time taken by the armature core to complete one revolution is given by
60
dt  eq (2.2)
N
According to Faraday’s law, the average emf induced in one armature conductor is
d
given by, eg  T eq (2.3)
dt
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 PN
Substituting Eqns. (2.1) and (2.2) in the above equation, we get e g  eq (2.4)
60
Since the total number of conductors connected in series, per parallel path, is
Z
given by Z/A, the average emf induced in the armature is given by E g  e g x
A
Substituting Eqn. (2.4) in the above equation, we get the generated emf in the
 ZNP
armature of DC generator as E g 
60 A
Therefore, from the above equation, it is clear that the induced emf in the DC
generator is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole. Hence, changing
the direction of the magnetic field or the direction of the rotating armature core
can change the polarity of the induced emf. But if both the magnetic field and
armature core rotation are reversed, then the polarity of the induced emf remains
the same.
Case (i) If the armature windings are lap wound, then A = P. Therefore, from Eqn.
 ZN
(3.5), the induced emf in the DC generator becomes E g 
60
Case (ii) If the armature windings are wave wound, then A = 2. Therefore, from
 ZNP
Eqn. (3.5), the induced emf in the DC generator becomes E g 
120

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 2.2 DC Motor

The machine when used to convert DC electrical power into mechanical power,
it known as a DC motor. From construction point of view there is no difference
between a DC generator and motor. The DC motors are very useful where wide
range of speeds and perfect speed regulation is required such as electric
traction.

An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (electrical machine) that

converts DC electrical energy or power (EI) into mechanical energy or power (Z
T) is called a DC motor. Electric motors are used for driving industrial
machines, e.g., hammers, presses, drilling machines, lathes, rollers in paper
and steel industry, blowers for furnaces, etc., and domestic appliances, e.g.,
refrigerators, fans, water pumps, toys, mixers, etc. The block diagram of energy
conversion, when the electro-mechanical device works as a motor, is shown in
Fig. 5.1.

Construction
The construction of a DC motor is exactly similar to DC generator. The
important parts of a DC motor are: yoke or frame, main field system, brushes,
armatures and commutator. The functions of certain components vary with
respect to a DC motor. In a DC motor, the commutator is used to convert the
alternating torque produced in the armature into a unidirectional torque. A
separate supply is given to armature winding to produce the required torque in
the armature. The electrical power is converted into a mechanical power in the
armature winding.

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 Working Principle:
The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is
experienced by it. The direction of this force is determined by Fleming’s Left
Hand Rule and its magnitude is given by the relation:
F = Bil newton

Fig. Working principle of a motor

For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic
field produced by a bipolar machine [see Fig.(a)]. When DC supply is connected
to the coil, current flows through it which sets up its own field as shown in
Fig.(b). By the interaction of the two fields (i.e., field produced by the main
poles and the coil), a resultant field is set up as shown in Fig.(c). The tendency
of this is to come to its original position i.e., in straight line due to which force
is exerted on the two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.

Alternately, it can be said that the main poles produce a field Fm. Its direction
is marked in Fig. When current is supplied to the coil (armature conductors), it
produces its own field marked as Fr. This field tries to come in line with the
main field and an electromagnetic torque develops in clockwise direction as
marked in Fig.

In actual machine, a large number of conductors are placed on the armature.

All the conductors, placed under the influence of one pole (say, North pole)
carry the current in one direction (outward). Whereas, the other conductors
placed under the influence of other pole i.e., south pole, carry the current in
opposite direction as shown in Fig. A resultant rotor field is produced. Its
direction is marked by the arrow-head F r. This rotor field F r tries to come in
line with the main field F m and torque (T e) develops. Thus, rotor rotates.

It can be seen that to obtain a continuous torque, the direction of flow of

current in each conductor or coil side must be reversed when it passes through
the magnetic neutral axis (MNA). This is achieved with the help of a
commutator.

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 2.4 Single Phase Transformer
A transformer is a static device that transfers AC electrical power from one
circuit to the other at the same frequency but it changes the voltage levels.

Working principle:
The basic principle of a transformer is electromagnetic induction. A 1Ǿ
transformer consists of 2 windings placed over a laminated silicon steel core.
The winding having less number of turns is called low-voltage winding and the
winding having more number of turns is called high voltage winding.

Fig. 2.2 (a) Single-phase transformer (core and windings)

(b) Flux linking with primary and secondary
 The winding to which AC supply is connected is called a primary winding and
the other one is called a secondary winding to which load is connected.
 Once AC supply of voltage V1 is given to primary winding, an alternating flux is
set-up in the magnetic core which links with the primary and secondary
winding. Consequently, self-induced emf E1 and mutually-induced emf E2 are
induced in primary and secondary, respectively.
 These induced emf’s are developed in phase opposition to V1 as per Lenz’s law.
The self-induced emf in the primary is also called back emf since it acts in
opposite direction to the applied voltage.
 Although, there is no electrical connection between primary and secondary
winding, still electric power is transferred from one circuit (primary side) to the
other circuit (secondary side). It is because of magnetic coupling, i.e., the
alternating flux which is set-up in the core linking with both the windings.
 The magnitude of induced emf in a coil depends upon rate of change of flux
linkages i.e., e N. since, the rate of change of flux for both the winding is the
same, the magnitude of induced emf in primary and secondary will depend
upon their number of turns, i.e., primary induced emf E1 N1 and secondary
induced emf E2 N2.
 When N2 > N1, the transformer is called a step-up transformer,
when N2 < N1 the transformer is called step-down transformer.
EMF equation of transformer:
E1  4.44 f m N 1
E 2  4.44 f m N 2

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 Turn ratio: The ratio of primary to secondary turns is called turn ratio, i.e.,
N
turn ratio  1
N2
Transformation ratio: The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is
called voltage transformation ratio of the transformer. It is represented by K.
V E N I
K  2  2  2  1
V1 E1 N1 I 2
Transformer on load:

Construction: The main parts of a transformer are:

(i) Core: The purpose of core is to provide a path of low reluctance for magnetic
flux.
(ii) Windings: These are made up of copper which are placed on transformer
core. The windings connected to supply is known as primary winding and the
winding connected to load is called secondary winding.
(iii) Tank: The transformer with core and windings is placed in proper container
called transformer tank.
(iv) Transformer oil: The insulating oil which is used in the tank of
transformer is called transformer oil. It provides 3 functions.
 It carries away the heat produced in the core and windings.
 Additional insulation for windings.
 Protects the insulation from dust and moisture.
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 (v) Conservator: A conservator performs the following functions: It maintain
the oil level in the tank. It provides space for expansion of oil when temperature
of transformer increases.
(vi) Breather: The function of breather is to prevent entry of moisture in the air
and allows dry air into the transformers. Moisture reduces the dielectric
strength of the oil.
(vii) Terminal bushings: Connections from the transformer windings are
brought out by means of bushings mounted on the transformer tank.
(viii) Explosion vent: It provides instantaneous relieving of dangerous
pressure and protects the transformer tank against explosion.
(ix) Oil gauge: For indicating the level of the oil in the conservator, an oil level
indicator is fixed to eat. It is essential that the oil level in the conservator is
maintained above the predetermined minimum level.
(x) Buchholz relay: It is used for protection of oil filled transformers from
incipient faults below oil level.

2.5 3Ø Induction Motor

The Induction machines are also called asynchronous machines i.e., the
machines which never run at a synchronous speed. Whenever we say induction
machine we mean to say induction motor. Induction motors may be single-
phase or three-phase. The single phase induction motors are usually built in
small sizes (upto 3 H.P). Three phase induction motors are the most commonly
used AC motors in the industry because they have simple and rugged
construction, low cost, high efficiency, reasonably good power factor, self-
starting and low maintenance cost. Almost more than 90% of the mechanical
power used in industry is provided by three phase induction motors.
Working principle:
When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding of a 3-phase wound
induction motor, a revolving field is set up in the stator core. The resultant
magnetic field set-up by the stator core, at any instant, is shown in Fig. The
direction of the resultant field is marked by an arrow head Fm. As per the
supply sequence, let this field is rotating in an anti-clockwise direction at
synchronous speed S radian per second.
The revolving field is cut by the stationary rotor conductors and an emf is
induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor conductors are short circuited,
current flows through them in the direction as marked in Fig. 9.9(a). A
resultant field Fr is set-up by the rotor current carrying conductors. This field
tries to come in line with the stator revolving field Fm, due to which an
electromagnetic torque Te develops and rotor starts rotating in same direction
as that of stator revolving field.
Reversal of Direction of Rotation of Three-phase Induction Motors
In sec it has been seen that a revolving field is set up in the stator of a 3-
phase induction motor when 3-phase supply is given to its winding and the
direction of rotation depends upon the supply sequence. In section 9.3, it has
been see that rotor of a three phase induction motor rotates in the same
direction as that of the revolving field.
The direction of rotation of the revolving field or that of the rotor can be
reversed if the sequence of supply is reversed. The supply sequence can be
reversed by interchanging the connections of any two supply leads at the stator
terminals.
Hence, the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can be
reversed by interchanging the connections of any two supply leads at the
stator terminals.
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 Construction
A 3-phase induction motor consists of two main parts, namely stator and rotor.
1. Stator: It is the stationary part of the motor. It has three main parts,
namely. (i) Outer frame, (ii) Stator core and (iii) Stator winding.
(i) Outer frame: It is the outer body of the motor. Its function is to support the
stator core and to protect the inner parts of the machine. For small machines
the fame is casted but for large machines it is fabricated. To place the motor on
the foundation, feet are provided in the outer frame as shown in Fig
(ii) Stator core: When AC supply is given to the induction motor, an
alternating flux is set -up in the stator core. This alternating field produces
hysteresis and eddy current loss. To minimise these losses, the core is made of
high grade silicon steel stampings.
The laminations are assembled under hydraulic pressure and are keyed to the
frame. Each stamping is insulated from the other with a thin varnish layer.
Slots are punched on the inner periphery of the stampings, as shown in Fig., to
accommodate stator winding.
(iii) Stator winding: The stator core carries a three phase winding which is
usually supplied from a three phase supply system. The six terminals of the
winding (two of each phase) are connected in the terminal box of the machine.
The stator of the motor is wound for definite number of poles, the exact
number being determined by the requirement of speed. It will be seen that
greater the number of poles, the lower is the speed and vice-versa, since
1  120 f 
Ns   Ns  
P  P 
∵ . The three- phase winding may be connected in star or delta externally
through a starter.
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 2. Rotor: The rotating part of the motor is called rotor. 2 types of rotors are
used for 3-phase induction motors. (i) Squirrel cage rotor (ii) Phase wound rotor.
(i) Squirrel cage rotor: A squirrel cage rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical
core having semi-closed circular slots at the outer periphery. Copper or
aluminium bar conductors are placed in these slots and short circuited at each
end by copper or aluminium rings, called short circuiting rings, as shown in
Fig. In this, the rotor winding is permanently short-circuited and no external
resistance can be added in the rotor circuit. Fig. clearly shows that the slots
are not parallel to the shaft but these are skewed. The skewing provides the
following advantages:
(a) Humming is reduced, that ensures quiet running.
(b) At different positions of the rotor, smooth and sufficient torque is obtained.
(c) It reduces the magnetic locking of the stator and rotor,
(d) It increases the rotor resistance due to the increased length of the rotor bar
conductors.

(ii) Slip ring rotor: This rotor is also cylindrical in shape which consists of
large number of stampings. A number of semi-closed slots are punched at its
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 outer periphery. A 3-phase insulated winding is placed in these slots. The rotor
is wound for the same number of poles as that of stator. The rotor winding is
connected in star and its remaining three terminals are connected to the slip
rings. The rotor core is keyed to the shaft. Similarly, slip-rings are also keyed to
the shaft but these are insulated from the shaft. (see Fig.)
In this case, depending upon the requirement any external resistance can be
added in the rotor circuit. In this case also the rotor is skewed. A mild steel
shaft is passed through the centre of the rotor and is fixed to it with key. The
purpose of shaft is to transfer mechanical power.

Slip:
In an induction motor, the speed of rotor is always less than synchronous
speed. The difference between the speed of revolving field (Ns) and the rotor
speed (N) is called slip.
The slip is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed (Ns) and is
represented by symbol S.
N N
Mathematically,% Slip, %S  S x100
NS
NS  N
S
NS
Rotor speed, N  NS 1  S
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed
i.e., Slip speed = Ns – N

Problem: A three-phase, 6-pole induction motor is supplied from a 50 Hz, 400

V supply. Calculate (a) the synchronous speed, and (b) the speed of the rotor
when the slip is 4 per cent.
120f 120x50
Ans) Synchronous speed, Ns    1000rpm
P 6
N  Nr
Percentage slip, %S  S x100
NS
1000  N r
In this case, 4  x100  N r  960rpm
1000
2.6 Alternator
The mechanical power or energy is converted into electrical power or
energy with the help of an AC machine called alternator or synchronous
generator. However, when the same machine can be used to convert electrical
power or energy into mechanical power or energy, then it is known as a
synchronous motor.
Thus, the same machine can be operated as a generator or as a motor
and in general, it is called as a synchronous machine. In fact, it is a machine
which rotates only at synchronous speed (NS = 120 f/P) under all conditions.
To understand the construction, working and performance of the machine its
study is divided into number of main topics as chapters, to be followed.
Working principle
When a conductor or coil cuts across the magnetic field an emf is
induced in it by the phenomenon called electromagnetic induction. This can be
achieved either by rotating a coil in the stationary magnetic field or by keeping
the coil stationary and rotating the magnetic field. (The magnetic field can be
rotated by placing the field winding on the rotating part of the machine).

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 For illustration see Figs.(a) and (b), two positions of a coil rotating in a
stationary magnetic field are shown. Whereas, in Figs. (c) and (d), two positions
of a rotating electro-magnet in a coil placed on stationary armature are shown.
At first instant, the emf induced in the coil is zero since flux cut by the coil is
zero. However, at second instant, the emf induced in the coil is maximum (say
positive). The two instants t1 and t2 are marked on the wave diagram shown in
Fig. 6.5(e). In one revolution the induced emf completes one cycle and its wave
shape is shown in Fig.(e).

Relation between Frequency, Speed and Number of Poles

In Fig. 6.6, a machine is shown having P number of poles on the rotor revolving
at a speed at Ns rpm When a conductor passes through a pair of poles one
cycle of emf is induced in it.

Fig. 6.6 One cycle is produced when a coil passes through a pair of poles
P
No. of cycle made per revolution = 
2
N
No. of revolutions made per second =  S
60
No. of cycles made per second = No. of cycles/revolution × No. of revolutions/s
P N PNS
f= x S= cycles/sec  or  Hz
2 60 120
Construction:
The important parts of a synchronous machine are (1) Stator (2) Rotor
1. Stator: The outer stationary part of the machine is called stator; it has the
following important parts:
(i) Stator frame: It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron and it
protects the inner parts of the machine. It can be also made of any other strong
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 material since it is not to carry the magnetic field. Cast iron is used only
because of its high mechanical strength.
(ii) Stator Core: The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made
from number of stamping which are insulated from each other. Its function is
to provide an easy path for the magnetic lines of force and accommodate the
stator winding.
(iii) Stator Winding: Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in
which three-phase or one-phase winding is placed. Enamelled copper is used
as winding material.
2. Rotor: The rotating part of the machine is called rotor. From construction
point of view, there are two types of rotors named as
(i) Salient pole type rotor; (ii) Non-salient pole type rotor.
(i) Salient pole type rotor: In this case, projected poles are provided on the
rotor. The cost of construction of salient pole type rotors is low, moreover
sufficient space is available to accommodate field winding but these cannot
bear high mechanical stresses at high speeds. Therefore, salient pole type
construction is suited for medium and low speeds and are usually employed at
hydro-electric and diesel power plants as synchronous generators. Since the
speed of these machines (generators) is quite low, to obtain the required
frequency, the machines have large number of poles as shown in Figs. 6.7 and
6.8. To accommodate such a large number of poles, these machines have larger
diameter and small length.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measuring instruments are classified as follows:
S.No. Measuring quantity instrument
Depending on the quantity Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wattmeter,
1
measured Energy meter, Ohmmeter.
Depending on the different Moving Iron type, Moving coil type,
2
principles Dynamometer type, Induction type.
Deflecting type, Integrating type,
3 Depending on how the quantity
Measured, Recording type.
The more common electric metres may be roughly divided into the following classes:
1. According to the function performed as
i. Ammeters
ii. Voltmeters
iii. Ohm meters
iv. Watt meters
2. According to the circuit in which they are used as
i. Direct current
ii. Alternating current
3. According to the principle of operation as
i. Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
ii. Dynamo metre
iii. Magnetic vane
iv. Induction.
The essential parts of these instruments generally include
1. Means for providing a deflection torque (obtained by the interaction of
magnetic fields);
2. A spring or other means to provide a counter torque; and
3. A pointer to indicate the resultant position of the moving element of the metre.
2.7 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

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 Two spiral springs of phosphor bronze are mounted one above the other below
the coil. The springs serves 2 purposes. It leads the current into and out of the
coil and also provides the controlling torque. A light pointer is attached to the
spindle which moves over a calibrated scale. The damping torque is provided by
eddy currents induced in the aluminium former.

Working
 When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current and
voltage, the operating current flows through the coil.
 When the current is passed through the coil, a deflecting torque is produced
due to the reaction between permanent magnetic field and the magnetic field of
the coil. This deflecting torque is proportional to the value of current in the coil
Td  I .
 Due to this torque, the coil moves and the pointer deflects over the calibrated
scale. When the coil moves, the springs are twisted or rewound, thus the spring
offers a controlling torque to the moving system.
 The controlling torque due to spring is directly proportional to the deflecting of
the moving part Td   . When the deflecting and controlling torque are equal
Td  TC .
 The pointer comes to rest at its final position, hence,   I . Since the deflection
   is directly proportional to the current  I  , these instruments have uniform
scale.

Deflecting torque: It is directly proportional to the current or the voltage to be

measured. So, the instrument can be used to measure direct current and DC
voltage.
Control torque : The torque which controls the deflecting torque is called
control torque(Spring control).It brings the pointer back to zero position when
the deflecting torque is removed.
Damping torque: Eddy current damping. When the moving coil made of
aluminium former is moved due to the force exerted on it, it cuts the magnetic
flux lines produced by the permanent magnet. Hence, eddy currents are
induced in the former.
2.8 Moving Iron (MI) Instruments
In this type of instruments ammeters and voltmeters the current carrying coil
is stationary but the iron core rotates hence it is called moving iron
instruments. These instruments are mostly used to measure the current and
voltage in an alternating and direct current circuits. Therefore there are 2 types
of moving iron instruments
(i) Attractive type: These operate on the principle of attraction of a single
piece of soft iron into a magnetic field
(ii) repulsion type: It operate on the principle of repulsion of 2 adjacent iron
pieces magnetized by the same magnetic field
Attraction type moving iron instrument:
It works on the principle of attraction of a single piece of soft iron into a
magnetic field.
Construction: Fig. shows the construction details of attraction type moving
iron instrument it consists of a fixed coil or solenoid through which the current
is passed. A Oval shaped soft iron is attached to the spindle in such a way that
it can move in and out of the coil. A pointer is attached to the spindle, so that it
may deflect along with the moving iron over a calibrated scale to stop the
spindle is pivoted in jewel bearings at both the ends. A spiral spring is attached
BEEE (23CS2T03) MIC23 Unit-2 Machines and Measuring Instruments 20
 to the spindle to provide controlling torque. An aluminum vane is attached to
the attached to the spindle which moves in a closed air chamber to provide
damping torque.

Working:
 when the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage,
the operating current flows through the coil.
 Whenever current flows through the coil the electromagnetic field is set up
along its axis. In other words, the coil behaves like a magnet and therefore it
attracts the soft iron piece towards it, thus providing the deflecting torque  Td 
 The deflecting torque causes the pointer attached to the moving system moves
from zero position over a calibrated scale. The deflecting torque depends upon
the value of magnetic flux (current flowing through the coil).
 The spiral spring offers the controlling torque which depends upon the angle of
twist. When the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque  Td  TC  the
pointer will come to rest at a position.
 The deflecting torque  Td  is proportional to square off the current I 2 and
controlling torque  TC  is proportional to angle of twist ‘  ’. At a steady position
of deflection, Td  TC , hence   I 2 . In case of AC measurement,   I 2rms .
 Hence, the scale is not uniform, being crowded at the beginning and spread out
near the finishing end of the scale .

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 2.9 Wheatstone bridge.
A very important device used in the measurement of medium resistances
is the Wheatstone bridge. A Wheatstone bridge has been in use longer than
almost any electrical measuring instrument. It is still an accurate and reliable
instrument and is extensively used in industry.
The Wheatstone bridge is an instrument for making comparison
measurements and operates upon a null indication principle. This means the
indication is independent of the calibration of the null indicating instrument or
any of its characteristics.
For this reason, very high degrees of accuracy can be achieved using
Wheatstone bridge. Accuracy of 0.1% is quite common with a Wheatstone
bridge as opposed to accuracies of 3% to 5% with ordinary ohmmeter for
measurement of medium resistances.

Fig. shows the basic circuit of a Wheatstone bridge. It has four resistive
arms, consisting of resistances P, Q, R and S together with a source of emf (a
battery) and a null detector, usually a galvanometer G or other sensitive
current meter. The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential
difference between points c and d.
The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current through
the galvanometer or when the potential difference across the galvanometer is
zero. This occurs when the voltage from point b to point a equals the voltage
from point d to point b; or, by referring to the other battery terminal, when the
voltage from point d to point c equals the voltage from point b to point c.
For bridge balance, we can write, I1P  I 2 R eq. (3.1)
For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions also exist:
E E
I1  I3  and I2  I 4  where E = emf of the battery. eq. (3.2)
PQ R S
Combining Eqns. 3.1 and 3.2 and simplifying, we obtain :
P R
 from which QR = PS eq. (3.3)
P Q R S
eq 3.3 is the well known expression for the balance of Wheatstone bridge. If
three of the resistances are known, the fourth may be determined from eq.3.3
P
and we obtain : R  S
Q
where R = unknown resistance,
S = 'standard arm' of the bridge and
P and Q = 'ratio arms'.

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