MOUNT PARK PUBLIC SENIOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL
VADATHORASALUR, THIRUKOVILUR MAIN ROAD

A CHEMISTRY PROJECT
ON
ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN C IN FRUITS

BY
SYED USAMA A
CLASS: XII

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 CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

A CHEMISTRY PROJECT
ON
ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN C IN FRUITS

SUBMITTED BY
SYED USAMA A
CLASS: XII

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 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that SYED USAMA A student of class XII, MOUNT PARK PUBLIC
SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL has completed the project titled “ESTIMATION OF
VITAMIN C IN FRUITS” during the academic year 2024-2025 towards partial fulfillment of
credit for the chemistry practical evaluation of CBSE 2025, and submitted satisfactory report as
complied in the following pages under the
Supervision of Mr. RAJESH .B.Tech. , Department of Chemistry, Mount Park Public Senior
Secondary School Vadathorasalur.

Teacher incharge signature

Principal signature

External signature

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 ACKNOWLEGDEMENT

As a student of class XII, SYED USAMA A did this project as a part of my studies
entitled “ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN C IN FRUITS”.I owe a deep sense of
gratitude to my Chemistry teacher
Mr. RAJESH for his valuable advice, guidance help me in doing this project from conception to
completion. At the same time I can't forget to express my thankfulness to the Principal of our
School for extending her generous patronage and constant encouragement.
Finally, I am thankful to my parents for helping me economically and my friends for giving me a
helping hand at every step of the project.

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 INDEX

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO

1. INTRODUCTION 6
2. BENEFITS OF VITAMIN C FOR THE 9
BODY

3. MEDICAL USES 12
4. HISTORY 17
5. DEFICIENCY 18
6. DIET 19
7. SOURCES 21
8. ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN C IN 25
FRUITS

9. TYPES OF FRUITS RICH IN 26

VITAMIN C

10. PH VALUES OF COMMON FRUITS 28

11. CONCLUSION 31
12. 32
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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INTRODUCTION:

Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found

in citrus and other fruits, berries and vegetables. It is also a generic prescription
medication and in some countries is sold as a non-prescription dietary supplement. As
a therapy, it is used to prevent and treat scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C
deficiency.

Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue, the formation of

collagen, and the enzymatic production of certain neurotransmitters. It is required for
the functioning of several enzymes and is important for immune system function. It
also functions as an antioxidant.
Vitamin C may be taken by mouth or by intramuscular, subcutaneous or intravenous
injection. Various health claims exist on the basis that moderate vitamin C deficiency
increases disease risk, such as for the common cold, cancer or COVID-19. There are
also claims of benefits from vitamin C supplementation in excess of the
recommended dietary intake for people who are not considered vitamin C deficient.
Vitamin C is generally well-tolerated. Large doses may
cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin.
The United States Institute of Medicine recommends against consuming large
amounts.

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Most animals are able to synthesize their own vitamin C. However, apes (including humans)
and monkeys (but not all primates), most bats, most fish, some rodents, and certain other
animals must acquire it from dietary sources because a gene for a synthesis enzyme has
mutations that render it dysfunctional.

Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and in 1933, was the first
vitamin to be chemically produced. Partly for its discovery, Albert Szent-Györgyi
was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

ASCORBIC ACID

The name "vitamin C" always refers to the l-enantiomer of ascorbic acid and its oxidized
form, dehydroascorbate (DHA). Therefore, unless written otherwise, "ascorbate" and
"ascorbic acid" refer in the nutritional literature to l-ascorbate and l-ascorbic acid
respectively. Ascorbic acid is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose. In biological
systems, ascorbic acid can be found only at low pH, but in solutions above pH 5 is
predominantly found in the ionized form, ascorbate.

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Numerous analytical methods have been developed for ascorbic acid detection. For example,
vitamin C content of a food sample such as fruit juice can be calculated by measuring the
volume of the sample required to decolorize a solution of dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP)
and then calibrating the results by comparison with a known concentration of vitamin C.

In this project, we aim to determine the Vitamin C content in various fruits using a redox
titration technique known as iodometric titration. This method is based on the ability of
Vitamin C to act as a reducing agent. The Vitamin C in the fruit sample reacts with iodine,
reducing it to iodide ions, while the Vitamin C itself is oxidized.

The accurate quantification of Vitamin C is important in various fields such as nutrition,

food science, and quality control in the food industry. By comparing the Vitamin C content
in different fruits, we can assess their nutritional value and contribute to a better
understanding of dietary sources of this vital nutrient.

This experiment will not only help in determining the Vitamin C content but will also
provide hands-on experience in applying titration techniques and chemical analysis in
real-world applications.

ADVANTAGES:

. Accuracy and Precision: The iodometric titration method provides accurate

and reliable results when performed correctly, making it suitable for quantitative
analysis.

. Cost-Effective: The chemicals and equipment required (iodine solution, starch

indicator, titration apparatus) are relatively inexpensive and widely available, making
this method affordable for routine analysis.

. Simple Procedure: The method is straightforward and does not require

advanced or expensive instrumentation, making it accessible to most laboratories or
educational settings.

. Versatile: It can be applied to a wide variety of fruits and fruit-based

products, making it useful for comparing Vitamin C content across different samples.

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 . Hands-on Learning: Provides an excellent learning opportunity for students
to apply chemical principles such as redox reactions, stoichiometry, and titration
techniques.

DISADVANTAGES:

. Interference from Other Substances: Other reducing agents present in the

fruit, such as flavonoids or sugars, may interfere with the reaction and lead to
overestimation of Vitamin C content. This reduces the specificity of the method.

. Sensitivity to Oxygen and Light: Vitamin C is easily oxidized by exposure

to oxygen and light. If samples are not handled carefully, the Vitamin C content may
degrade before the titration, leading to inaccurate results.

. Manual Technique: The accuracy of the method relies on manual titration,

which can introduce human error. Mistakes in the addition of iodine or observing the
endpoint (color change) can lead to inaccuracies.

. Time-Consuming: The process of preparing samples, performing the

titration, and repeating trials for consistency can be time-consuming, especially if
analyzing multiple samples.

. Limited to Aqueous Samples: The method is primarily suited for liquid

extracts. Solid or dry samples require additional steps (like extraction) before
analysis, which can complicate the process.

BENEFITS OF VITAMIN C FOR THE BODY

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a vital nutrient with several important functions in the body. Its
regular intake is essential for maintaining good health. Below are the key benefits and body
uses of Vitamin C:

1. Antioxidant Protection:

● Neutralizes Free Radicals: Vitamin C acts as a powerful antioxidant, protecting

cells from damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are unstable molecules that
can harm cells and tissues, contributing to aging and diseases such as cancer and
heart disease.
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2. Boosts Immune System:

● Supports Immune Function: Vitamin C enhances the production and activity of

white blood cells, particularly lymphocytes and phagocytes, which help protect the
body against infections. It also strengthens the skin’s barrier function, acting as a
first line of defense.

● Reduces the Duration of Colds: While it may not prevent colds, Vitamin C has
been shown to reduce the severity and duration of cold symptoms.

3. Collagen Synthesis:

● Essential for Skin, Tendons, and Bones: Vitamin C is crucial for the production of
collagen, a protein that provides structure to skin, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and
blood vessels. Without sufficient Vitamin C, collagen formation is impaired, leading
to weakened connective tissues.

● Wound Healing: It plays a key role in wound healing by promoting the formation of
new connective tissue and blood vessels.

4. Enhances Iron Absorption:

● Improves Iron Uptake: Vitamin C increases the absorption of non-heme iron (the
type found in plant-based foods). This helps prevent iron deficiency anemia,
especially in individuals with low iron intake or vegetarians.

5. Cardiovascular Health:

● Reduces Heart Disease Risk: By protecting blood vessels and reducing oxidative
stress, Vitamin C contributes to better heart health. It may help lower blood pressure
and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by improving endothelial function and
lowering cholesterol levels.

6. Cognitive Function and Brain Health:

● Protects Against Cognitive Decline: The antioxidant properties of Vitamin C protect

the brain from oxidative damage, which is associated with neurodegenerative diseases
like

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 Alzheimer’s. It also plays a role in neurotransmitter synthesis, supporting overall
brain function.

7. Prevention of Scurvy:

● Prevents Scurvy: Scurvy is caused by a severe Vitamin C deficiency, leading

to symptoms like fatigue, bleeding gums, joint pain, and slow wound healing.
Regular intake of Vitamin C-rich foods prevents this condition.

8. Anti-inflammatory Properties:

● Reduces Inflammation: Vitamin C has anti-inflammatory effects, which can

help manage chronic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis by lowering
inflammation markers in the body.

9. Skin Health and Anti-Aging:

● Reduces Wrinkles and Aging Signs: As Vitamin C promotes collagen production,

it helps maintain skin elasticity and firmness, reducing wrinkles and signs of aging.
It also helps brighten the skin and reduces hyperpigmentation by inhibiting melanin
production.

10. Supports Eye Health:

● Prevents Eye Diseases: Vitamin C may lower the risk of cataracts and age-related macular
degeneration (AMD). It helps protect the eyes from oxidative damage caused by exposure to
light

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MEDICAL USES

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Vitamin C has a definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin C
deficiency. Beyond that, a role for vitamin C as prevention or treatment for various diseases
is disputed, with reviews often reporting conflicting results. No effect of vitamin C
supplementation reported for overall mortality. It is on the World Health Organization's List
of Essential Medicines and on the World Health Organization's Model Forumulary. In 2021,
it was the 255th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than
1 million prescriptions.

. SCURVY

Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C. Without this

vitamin, collagen made by the body is too unstable to perform its function and several

other enzymes in the body do not operate correctly. Early symptoms are malaise and lethargy,
progressing to shortness of breath, bone pain and susceptibility to bruising. As the disease
progressed, it is characterized by spots on and bleeding under the skin and bleeding gums.
The skin lesions are most abundant on the thighs and legs. A person with the ailment looks
pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there is fever, old
wounds may

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become open and suppurating, loss of teeth, convulsions and, eventually, death. Until quite
late in the disease the damage is reversible, as healthy collagen replaces the defective
collagen with vitamin C repletion.

Notable human dietary studies of experimentally induced scurvy were conducted

on conscientious objectors during World War II in Britain and on Iowa state prisoners in the
late 1960s to the 1980s. Men in the prison study developed the first signs of scurvy about
four weeks after starting the vitamin C-free diet, whereas in the earlier British study, six to
eight months were required, possibly due to the pre-loading of this group with a 70 mg/day
supplement for six weeks before the scorbutic diet was fed. Men in both studies had blood
levels of ascorbic acid too low to be accurately measured by the time they developed signs
of scurvy. These studies both reported that all obvious symptoms of scurvy could be
completely reversed by supplementation of only 10 mg a day. Treatment of scurvy can be
with vitamin C-containing foods or dietary supplements or injection.

. SEPSIS

People in sepsis may have micronutrient deficiencies, including low levels of vitamin C. An
intake of 3.0 g/day, which requires intravenous administration, appears to be needed to
maintain normal plasma concentrations in people with sepsis or severe burn injury. Sepsis
mortality may be reduced with administration of intravenous vitamin C.

. COMMON COLD

Research on vitamin C in the common cold has been divided into effects on prevention,
duration, and severity. Oral intakes of more than 200 mg/day taken on a regular basis was not
effective in prevention of the common cold. Restricting analysis to trials that used at least
1000 mg/day also saw no prevention benefit. However, taking a vitamin C supplement on a
regular basis did reduce the average duration of the illness by 8% in adults and 14% in
children, and also reduced the severity of colds. Vitamin C taken on a regular basis reduced
the duration of severe symptoms but had no effect on the duration of mild symptoms.
Therapeutic use, meaning that the vitamin was not started unless people started to feel the
beginnings of a cold, had no effect on the duration or severity of the illness.

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Vitamin C distributes readily in high concentrations into immune cells, promotes natural
killer cell activities, promotes lymphocyte proliferation, and is depleted quickly during
infections, effects suggesting a prominent role in immune system function. The European
Food Safety Authority concluded there is a cause and effect relationship between the dietary
intake of vitamin C and functioning of a normal immune system in adults and in children
under three years of age.

. COVID-19

During March through July 2020, vitamin C was the subject of more US FDA warning
letters than any other ingredient for claims for prevention and/or treatment of COVID-19. In
April 2021, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines
stated that "there are insufficient data to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin
C for the prevention or treatment of COVID-19." In an update posted December 2022, the
NIH position was unchanged:

● There is insufficient evidence for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the
Panel) to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of
COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients.

● There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the
use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients.

For people hospitalized with severe COVID-19 there are reports of a significant reduction in
the risk of all-cause, in-hospital mortality with the administration of vitamin C relative to no
vitamin
C. There were no significant differences in ventilation incidence, hospitalization duration or
length of intensive care unit stay between the two groups. The majority of the trials
incorporated into these meta-analyses used intravenous administration of the vitamin. Acute
kidney injury was lower in people treated with vitamin C treatment. There were no
differences in the frequency of other adverse events due to the vitamin. The conclusion was
that further large-scale studies are needed to affirm its mortality benefits before issuing
updated guidelines and recommendations.

. CANCER

There is no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in
healthy people or those at high risk due to smoking or asbestos exposure. It has no effect on
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the risk of prostate cancer, and there is no good evidence vitamic C supplementation affects
the risk of colorectal cancer or breast cancer.

. CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

There is no evidence that vitamin C supplementation decreases the risk cardiovascular

disease, although there may be an association between higher circulating vitamin C levels
or dietary vitamin C and a lower risk of stroke. There is a positive effect of vitamin C
on endothelial dysfunction when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. (The
endothelium is a layer of cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels.)

. BLOOD PRESSURE

Serum vitamin C was reported to be 15.13 μmol/L lower in people with hypertension
compared to normotensives. The vitamin was inversely associated with both systolic blood
pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). Oral supplementation of the vitamin
resulted in a very modest but statistically significant decrease in SBP in people with
hypertension. The proposed explanation is that vitamin C increases intracellular
concentrations of tetrahydrobiopterin, an endothelial nitric oxide synthase cofactor that
promotes the production of nitric oxide, which is a potent vasodilator. Vitamin C
supplementation might also reverse the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-monomethyl-L-
arginine 1, and there is also evidence cited that vitamin C directly enhances the biological
activity of nitric oxide

. TYPE 2 DIABETES

There are contradictory reviews. From one, vitamin C supplementation cannot be

recommended for management of type 2 diabetes. However, another reported that
supplementation with high doses of vitamin C can decrease blood glucose, insulin and
hemoglobin A1c.

. IRON DEFICIENCY

One of the causes of iron-deficiency anemia is reduced absorption of iron. Iron absorption can be
enhanced through ingestion of vitamin C alongside iron-containing food or supplements.
Vitamin C helps to keep iron in the reduced ferrous state, which is more soluble and more easily
absorbed.
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 .COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT AND ALZHEIMER'S
DISEASE
Lower plasma vitamin C concentrations were reported in people with cognitive
impairment and Alzheimer's disease compared to people with normal cognition.

.EYE HEALTH

Higher dietary intake of vitamin C was associated with lower risk of age-related
cataracts. Vitamin C supplementation did not prevent age-related macular
degeneration.

. PERIODONTAL DISEASE

Low intake and low serum concentration were associated with greater progression of
periodontal disease.

HISTORY

Scurvy was known to Hippocrates, described in book two of his Prorrheticorum and in his
Liber de internis affectionibus, and cited by James Lind. Symptoms of scurvy were also
described
by Pliny the Elder: (i) Pliny. "49". Naturalis historiae. Vol. 3.; and (ii) Strabo,

in Geographicorum, book 16, cited in the 1881 International Encyclopedia of Surgery.

SCURVY AT SEA

the 1497 expedition of Vasco da Gama, the curative effects of citrus fruit were known. In the
1500s, Portuguese sailors put in to the island of Saint Helena to avail themselves of planted
vegetable gardens and wild-growing fruit trees. Authorities occasionally recommended plant
food to prevent scurvy during long sea voyages. John Woodall, the first surgeon to the
British East India Company, recommended the preventive and curative use of lemon juice in
his 1617 book, The Surgeon's Mate. In 1734, the Dutch writer Johann Bachstrom gave the
firm opinion, "scurvy is solely owing to a total abstinence from fresh vegetable food, and
greens." Scurvy had long been a principal killer of sailors during the long sea voyages.

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According to Jonathan Lamb, "In 1499, Vasco da Gama lost 116 of his crew of 170; In 1520,
Magellan lost 208 out of 230; ... all mainly to scurvy."

The first attempt to give scientific basis for the cause of this disease was by a ship's surgeon
in the Royal Navy, James Lind. While at sea in May 1747, Lind provided some crew
members with two oranges and one lemon per day, in addition to normal rations, while others
continued
on cider, vinegar, sulfuric acid or seawater, along with their normal rations, in one of the
world's first controlled experiments. The results showed that citrus fruits prevented the
disease. Lind published his work in 1753 in his Treatise on the Scurvy.

Fresh fruit was expensive to keep on board, whereas boiling it down to juice allowed easy
storage, but destroyed the vitamin (especially if it was boiled in copper kettles). It was 1796
before the British navy adopted lemon juice as standard issue at sea. In 1845, ships in the
West Indies were provided with lime juice instead, and in 1860 lime juice was used
throughout the Royal Navy, giving rise to the American use of the nickname "limey" for the
British. Captain James Cook had previously demonstrated the advantages of carrying "Sour
krout" on board by taking his crew on a 1772–75 Pacific Ocean voyage without losing any of
his men to scurvy. For his report on his methods the British Royal Society awarded him the
Copley Medal in 1776.

The name antiscorbutic was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries for foods known
to prevent scurvy. These foods included lemons, limes, oranges, sauerkraut, cabbage, malt,
and portable soup. In 1928, the Canadian Arctic anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson
showed that the Inuit avoided scurvy on a diet largely of raw meat. Later studies on
traditional food diets of the Yukon First Nations, Dene, Inuit, and Métis of Northern Canada
showed that their daily intake of vitamin C averaged between 52 and 62 mg/day.

DEFICIENCY

Plasma vitamin C is the most widely applied test for vitamin C status. Adequate levels are
defined as near 50 μmol/L. Hypovitaminosis of vitamin C is defined as less than 23 μmol/L,
and deficiency as less than 11.4 μmol/L.[11] For people 20 years of age or above, data from
the US 2017–18 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed mean serum
concentrations of 53.4 μmol/L. The percent of people reported as deficient was 5.9%.
Globally,

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vitamin C deficiency is common in low and middle-income countries, and not
uncommon in high income countries. In the latter, prevalence is higher in males than in
females.

Plasma levels are considered saturated at about 65 μmol/L, achieved by intakes of 100 to

200 mg/day, which are well above the recommended intakes. Even higher oral intake does
not further raise plasma nor tissue concentrations because absorption efficiency decreases
and any excess that is absorbed is excreted in urine.

DIAGNOSTIC TESTING

Vitamin C content in plasma is used to determine vitamin status. For research purposes,
concentrations can be assessed in leukocytes and tissues, which are normally maintained at
an order of magnitude higher than in plasma via an energy-dependent transport system,
depleted slower than plasma concentrations during dietary deficiency and restored faster
during dietary repletion, but these analysis are difficult to measure, and hence not part of
standard diagnostic testing.

DIET

RECOMMENDED CONSUMPTION

Recommendations for vitamin C intake by adults have been set by various national agencies:

● 40 mg/day: India National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad

● 45 mg/day or 300 mg/week: the World Health Organization

● 80 mg/day: the European Commission Council on nutrition labeling

● 90 mg/day (males) and 75 mg/day (females): Health Canada 2007

● 90 mg/day (males) and 75 mg/day (females): United States National

Academy of Sciences
● 100 mg/day: Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition
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 ● 110 mg/day (males) and 95 mg/day (females): European Food Safety Authority

● In 2000, the chapter on Vitamin C in the North American Dietary Reference Intake was
updated to give the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) as 90 milligrams per day for
adult men, 75 mg/day for adult women, and setting a Tolerable upper intake
level (UL) for adults of 2,000 mg/day. The table (right) shows RDAs for the United
States and Canada for children, and for pregnant and lactating women, as well as the
ULs for adults.

● For the European Union, the EFSA set higher recommendations for adults, and also
for children: 20 mg/day for ages 1–3, 30 mg/day for ages 4–6, 45 mg/day for ages
7–10,
70 mg/day for ages 11–14, 100 mg/day for males ages 15–17, 90 mg/day for
females ages 15–17. For pregnancy 100 mg/day; for lactation 155 mg/day.

● Cigarette smokers and people exposed to second hand smoke have lower serum
vitamin C levels than nonsmokers. The thinking is that inhalation of smoke causes
oxidative damage, depleting this antioxidant vitamin. The US Institute of Medicine
estimated that smokers need 35 mg more vitamin C per day than nonsmokers, but
did not formally establish a higher RDA for smokers.

● The US National Center for Health Statistics conducts biannual National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to assess the health and nutritional status
of adults and children in the United States. Some results are reported as What We
Eat In America. The 2013–2014 survey reported that for adults ages 20 years and
older, men consumed on average 83.3 mg/d and women 75.1 mg/d. This means that
half the women and more than half the men are not consuming the RDA for vitamin
C. The same survey stated that about 30% of adults reported they consumed a
vitamin C dietary supplement or a multi-vitamin/mineral supplement that included
vitamin C, and that for these people total consumption was between 300 and 400
mg/d.

TOLERABLE UPPER INTAKE LEVEL

In 2000, the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academy of Sciences set

a Tolerable upper intake level (UL) for adults of 2,000 mg/day. The amount was chosen

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 because human trials had reported diarrhea and other gastrointestinal disturbances at

intakes of greater than 3,000 mg/day. This was the Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect

Level (LOAEL), meaning that other adverse effects were observed at even higher
intakes. ULs are progressively lower for younger and younger children. In 2006, the
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) also pointed out the disturbances at that dose
level, but reached the conclusion that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for
vitamin C, as did the Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition in 2010.

FOOD LABELING

● For US food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is
expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For vitamin C labeling purposes,
100% of the Daily Value was 60 mg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 90 mg
to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A table of the old and new adult daily
values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

● European Union regulations require that labels declare energy, protein, fat, saturated
fat, carbohydrates, sugars, and salt. Voluntary nutrients may be shown if present in
significant amounts. Instead of Daily Values, amounts are shown as percent of
Reference Intakes (RIs). For vitamin C, 100% RI was set at 80 mg in 2011.

SOURCES

Although also present in other plant-derived foods, the richest natural sources of vitamin C
are fruits and vegetables. Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement.

FOOD PREPARATION

Vitamin C chemically decomposes under certain conditions, many of which may occur
during the cooking of food. Vitamin C concentrations in various food substances decrease
with time in proportion to the temperature at which they are stored. Cooking can reduce the
vitamin C content of vegetables by around 60%, possibly due to increased enzymatic
destruction. Longer cooking times may add to this effect. Another cause of vitamin C loss
from food is leaching, which transfers vitamin C to the cooking water, which is decanted and
not consumed.

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SUPPLEMENTS

Vitamin C dietary supplements are available as tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-
vitamin/mineral formulations, in antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder.
Vitamin C is also added to some fruit juices and juice drinks. Tablet and capsule content
ranges from 25 mg to 1500 mg per serving. The most commonly used supplement
compounds are ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate. Vitamin C molecules
can also be bound to the fatty acid palmitate, creating ascorbyl palmitate, or else
incorporated into liposomes.

FOOD FORTIFICATION

Countries fortify foods with nutrients to address known deficiencies. While many countries
mandate or have voluntary programs to fortify wheat flour, maize (corn) flour or rice with
vitamins, none include vitamin C in those programs. As described in Vitamin C Fortification
of Food Aid Commodities (1997), the United States provides rations to international food
relief programs, later under the auspices of the Food for Peace Act and the Bureau for
Humanitarian Assistance. Vitamin C is added to corn-soy blend and wheat-soy blend
products at 40 mg/100 grams. (along with minerals and other vitamins). Supplemental
rations of these highly fortified, blended foods are provided to refugees and displaced
persons in camps and to beneficiaries of development feeding programs that are targeted
largely toward mothers and children. The report adds: "The stability of vitamin C (L-
ascorbic acid) is of concern because this is one of the most labile vitamins in foods. Its main
loss during processing and storage is from oxidation, which is accelerated by light, oxygen,
heat, increased pH, high moisture content (water activity), and the presence of copper or
ferrous salts. To reduce oxidation, the vitamin C used in commodity fortification is coated
with ethyl cellulose (2.5 percent). Oxidative losses also occur during food processing and
preparation, and additional vitamin C may be lost if it dissolves into cooking liquid and is
then discarded."

PHARMACOLOGY

Pharmacodynamics is the study of how the drug – in this instance vitamin C – affects the
organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is the study of how an organism affects the drug.

PHARMACODYNAMICS
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Pharmacodynamics includes enzymes for which vitamin C is a cofactor, with function
potentially compromised in a deficiency state, and any enzyme cofactor or other
physiological function affected by administration of vitamin C, orally or injected, in excess
of normal requirements. At normal physiological concentrations, vitamin C serves as
an enzyme substrate or cofactor and an electron donor antioxidant. The enzymatic functions
include the synthesis of collagen, carnitine, and neurotransmitters; the synthesis
and catabolism of tyrosine; and the metabolism of microsomes. In nonenzymatic functions it
acts as a reducing agent, donating electrons to oxidized molecules and preventing oxidation
in order to keep iron and copper atoms in their reduced states. At non-physiological
concentrations achieved by intravenous dosing, vitamin C may function as a pro-oxidant,
with therapeutic toxicity against cancer cells. [53][54]

Vitamin C functions as a cofactor for the following enzymes:

● Three groups of enzymes (prolyl-3-hydroxylases, prolyl-4-hydroxylases, and

lysyl hydroxylases) that are required for the hydroxylation of proline and
lysine in the synthesis of collagen. These reactions add hydroxyl groups to the
amino
acids proline or lysine in the collagen molecule via prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl
hydroxylase, both requiring vitamin C as a cofactor. The role of vitamin C as a
cofactor is to oxidize prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase from Fe2+ to Fe3+ and
to reduce it from Fe3+ to Fe2+. Hydroxylation allows the collagen molecule to assume
its
triple helix structure, and thus vitamin C is essential to the development and
maintenance of scar tissue, blood vessels, and cartilage.

● Two enzymes (ε-N-trimethyl-L-lysine hydroxylase and γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase)

are necessary for synthesis of carnitine. Carnitine is essential for the transport of fatty
acids into mitochondria for ATP generation.

● Hypoxia-inducible factor-proline dioxygenase enzymes (isoforms: EGLN1,

EGLN2, and EGLN3) allows cells to respond physiologically to low
concentrations of oxygen.

● Dopamine beta-hydroxylase participates in the

biosynthesis of norepinephrine from dopamine.

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 ● Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase amidates peptide hormones by
removing the glyoxylate residue from their c-terminal glycine residues. This
increases peptide hormone stability and activity.

As an antioxidant, ascorbate scavenges reactive oxygen and nitrogen compounds, thus

neutralizing the potential tissue damage of these free radical compounds. Dehydroascorbate,
the oxidized form, is then recycled back to ascorbate by endogenous antioxidants such
as glutathione. In the eye, ascorbate is thought to protect against photolytically generated
free- radical damage; higher plasma ascorbate is associated with lower risk of cataracts.
Ascorbate may also provide antioxidant protection indirectly by regenerating other biological
antioxidants such as α-tocopherol back to an active state. In addition, ascorbate also functions
as a non- enzymatic reducing agent for mixed-function oxidases in the microsomal drug-
metabolizing system that inactivates a wide variety of substrates such as drugs and
environmental carcinogens.

PHARMACOKINETICS

Ascorbic acid is absorbed in the body by both active transport and passive

diffusion. Approximately 70%–90% of vitamin C is active-transport absorbed when intakes

of 30–180 mg/day from a combination of food sources and moderate-dose dietary
supplements such as a multi-vitamin/mineral product are consumed. However, when large
amounts are consumed, such as a vitamin C dietary supplement, the active transport system
becomes saturated, and while the total amount being absorbed continues to increase with
dose, absorption efficiency falls to less than 50%. Active transport is managed by Sodium-
Ascorbate Co-Transporter proteins (SVCTs) and Hexose Transporter proteins (GLUTs).
SVCT1 and SVCT2 import ascorbate across plasma membranes. The Hexose Transporter
proteins GLUT1, GLUT3 and GLUT4 transfer only the oxydized dehydroascorbic acid
(DHA) form of vitamin C. The amount of DHA found in plasma and tissues under normal
conditions is low, as cells rapidly reduce DHA to ascorbate.

SVCTs are the predominant system for vitamin C transport within the body. In both vitamin
C synthesizers (example: rat) and non-synthesizers (example: human) cells maintain
ascorbic acid concentrations much higher than the approximately 50 micromoles/liter
(μmol/L) found in plasma. For example, the ascorbic acid content of pituitary and adrenal
glands can exceed

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2,000 μmol/L, and muscle is at 200–300 μmol/L. The known coenzymatic functions of
ascorbic acid do not require such high concentrations, so there may be other, as yet unknown
functions. A consequence of all this high concentration organ content is that plasma vitamin
C is not a good indicator of whole-body status, and people may vary in the amount of time
needed to show symptoms of deficiency when consuming a diet very low in vitamin C.

Excretion (via urine) is as ascorbic acid and metabolites. The fraction that is excreted as
unmetabolized ascorbic acid increases as intake increases. In addition, ascorbic acid converts
(reversibly) to DHA and from that compound non-reversibly to 2,3-diketogulonate and then
oxalate. These three metabolites are also excreted via urine. During times of low dietary
intake, vitamin C is reabsorbed by the kidneys rather than excreted. This salvage process
delays onset of deficiency. Humans are better than guinea pigs at converting DHA back to
ascorbate, and thus take much longer to become vitamin C deficient.

ESTIMATION OF VITAMIN C IN FRUITS

MATERIALS NEEDED:

. Fruit extract (Juice from the fruit sample)

. Standard iodine
solution Starch
.
indicator solution
. Distilled water
. Titration setup (Burette, flask, pipette, etc.)

. Sodium thiosulfate solution (for some variations of the titration)

METHOD (IODOMETRIC TITRATION):

. Preparation of the fruit sample:

o Extract the juice from the fruit (filter if necessary to remove pulp and solids).

. Titration setup:

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 o Take a measured volume of the fruit juice sample and place it into a flask.

o Add a few drops of starch indicator to the sample. Starch acts as an

indicator by forming a blue-black complex with iodine.

. Titration process:

o Titrate the fruit juice with the iodine solution. As the iodine reacts with
Vitamin C, the blue-black color (from the iodine-starch complex) will form
once all the Vitamin C has reacted.

o Continue adding iodine until a permanent blue color appears, indicating

that all the Vitamin C has been oxidized.

TYPES OF FRUITS RICH IN VITAMIN C

Here are some fruits known for their high Vitamin C content:

1. Citrus Fruits:

● Oranges: A widely recognized source of Vitamin C, with about 70 mg per medium-

sized fruit.

● Lemons: Often used in beverages or as a seasoning, one lemon contains around 30

mg of Vitamin C.

● Grapefruits: Half a grapefruit provides about 38 mg of Vitamin C.

● Limes: Common in drinks and cooking, one lime contains around 20 mg of Vitamin C.

● Tangerines: Smaller than oranges but packed with Vitamin C, providing around 23
mg per fruit.

2. Berries:
● Strawberries: About 59 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams. They are rich in antioxidants
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 and beneficial for heart health.

● Blackberries: Contain around 21 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

● Raspberries: Approximately 26 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

● Blueberries: Though lower in Vitamin C than some berries, they still provide
about 10 mg per 100 grams.

3. Tropical Fruits:

● Kiwi: One medium-sized kiwi contains around 71 mg of Vitamin C, higher

than an orange.

● Pineapple: Contains around 48 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

● Papaya: One cup of papaya delivers about 88 mg of Vitamin C.

● Mango: Contains about 36 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

● Guava: One of the richest sources of Vitamin C, providing about 228 mg per 100 grams.

● Passion Fruit: Offers about 30 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

4. Melons:

● Cantaloupe: Contains about 37 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

● Watermelon: While not as high in Vitamin C, it still offers around 8 mg per 100 grams.

5. Stone Fruits:

● Cherries: Sour cherries contain about 10 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

● Peaches: Contain around 6.6 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

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 ● Apricots: Provide about 10 mg per 100 grams.

6. Other Fruits:
● Acerola Cherries: One of the richest sources of Vitamin C, containing as much as 1677 mg per 100
grams.

● Lychee: A single lychee contains around 7 mg of Vitamin C, with 100 grams providing about 71 mg.

● Pomegranate: Contains approximately 10 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams.

● Grapes: Offer around 10 mg of Vitamin C per 100 grams, with red and black
grapes being slightly richer than green.

PH VALUES OF COMMON FRUITS

. Citrus Fruits (High Acidity):

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 o Lemons: pH 2.0 - 2.6

o Limes: pH 2.0 - 2.4

o Oranges: pH 3.0 - 4.0

o Grapefruits: pH 3.0 - 3.3

o Tangerines: pH 3.0 - 4.0

. Berries (Moderate Acidity):

o Strawberries: pH 3.0 - 3.5

o Blueberries: pH 3.1 - 3.4

o Blackberries: pH 3.2 - 3.6

o Raspberries: pH 3.2 - 3.5

. Tropical Fruits:

o Kiwi: pH 3.1 - 3.3

o Pineapple: pH 3.2 - 4.0

o Mango: pH 3.4 - 4.8

o Papaya: pH 5.2 - 5.7 (Less acidic than most tropical fruits)

o Guava: pH 3.9 - 4.7

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 o Passion Fruit: pH 3.0 - 3.5

Melons (Lower Acidity):

o Cantaloupe: pH 6.0 - 6.5

o Watermelon: pH 5.2 - 5.6

Stone Fruits:

o Cherries: pH 3.2 - 4.0

o Peaches: pH 3.3 - 4.1

o Apricots: pH 3.3 - 4.8

Other Fruits:

o Apples: pH 3.3 - 4.0

o Pears: pH 3.5 - 4.6

o Pomegranates: pH 2.9 - 3.2

o Grapes: pH 3.4 - 4.5

o Bananas: pH 4.5 - 5.2 (less acidic)

o Acerola Cherries: pH 3.0 - 3.4

Understanding the pH:

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 ● Acidic fruits have a pH below 7 (typically between 2.0 and 5.0), where lower
numbers indicate higher acidity.

● Neutral pH is 7.0, though few fruits are close to neutral.

● Basic or alkaline fruits would have a pH above 7, but most fruits are naturally acidic.

The acidity in fruits affects their flavor (sourness), shelf life, and preservation, with more
acidic fruits typically being more tart and having better preservation properties.

CONCLUSION:

In this project, the estimation of Vitamin C in fruits using iodometric titration provided
valuable insights into the nutritional content of various fruits. The experiment demonstrated
that Vitamin C, a vital antioxidant and essential nutrient, varies significantly between
different types of fruits. Citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons, along with tropical fruits
like guava and kiwi, were shown to have high levels of Vitamin C, reinforcing their
importance in daily diets for promoting immune function, skin health, and overall well-being.

The experiment also highlighted the role of Vitamin C in enhancing iron absorption,
supporting collagen synthesis, and protecting the body against oxidative stress. By
understanding the Vitamin C content in fruits, we can make informed dietary choices to meet
our nutritional needs and prevent deficiencies such as scurvy.

While the iodometric titration method is a cost-effective and accessible technique for determining
Vitamin C content, it also comes with certain limitations, such as the potential for interference
from other substances and the need for careful handling of samples to avoid degradation.
In conclusion, this project not only provided practical knowledge of Vitamin C estimation but also
emphasized the importance of consuming a variety of fruits to ensure an adequate intake of this crucial
nutrient

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C

2.https://medlineplus.gov/vitaminc.html

3.https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-vitamin-c/art-20363932

4.https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/supplement/vitamin-c-ascorbic-acid

5.https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-1001/vitamin-c-ascorbic-acid

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