Time domain specifications (t r , t s , t p and M p ) and s - domain n2

H ( s)  2
specifications ( and ωn ) are related. s  2n s  n2

Overshoot
Peak time

1.8
tr 
ωn

tp 
d
Rise time 1 2
M p  e  , 0   1
Settling time
4.6
ts 

Time domain specifications (t r , t s , t p and M p ) and s - domain n2
H ( s)  2
specifications ( and ωn ) are related. s  2n s  n2

Overshoot
Peak time

1.8
tr 
ωn


Can bet papproximated by ζ  0.6(1-M p ),
 d
Rise time 1 2
M p  e  , 0   1
Settling time
4.6
ts 
   n : magnitude of real part of the poles 
 Example: Transformation of time-domain specifications to s-plane

Find the allowable regions in the s - plane for the poles of a transfer
function of a system if the system response requirements are t r  0.6 sec,
M p  10%, and t s  3 sec .
 Example: Transformation of time-domain specifications to s-plane

Find the allowable regions in the s - plane for the poles of a transfer
function of a system if the system response requirements are t r  0.6 sec,
M p  10%, and t s  3 sec .

1.8 4.6
tr  Mp e  1 2
ts 
ωn 
1.8 4.6
tr   0.6 M p  e
 1 2
 0.1 t s  3
ωn 
1.8 4.6
 ωn   0.6 
0.6 3

3  ωn 1.53  
Example: Transformation of time-domain specifications to s-plane

Im
3  ωn

  0.6 1
Not
suitable

1
1.53   Re
 Example: Transformation of time-domain specifications to s-plane

Find the allowable regions in the s - plane for the poles of a transfer
function of a system if the system response requirements are t r  0.6 sec,
M p  10%, and t s  3 sec .
Not Im
3  ωn suitable

  0.6 1
Not
suitable

1
1.53   Re

Not
suitable
 Example: Transformation of time-domain specifications to s-plane

Find the allowable regions in the s - plane for the poles of a transfer
function of a system if the system response requirements are t r  0.6 sec,
M p  10%, and t s  3 sec .
Not Im
3  ωn Suitable
suitable

region Not
suitable

  0.6 1
Not
suitable

1
1.53   Re

Not
suitable
 Transient and steady state response analysis
 Transient Response: which goes from the initial state to the final state.
 Steady-State Response: in which the system output behaves as t approaches infinity.

Test signals:

Unit Step: () ( )

Ramp: () ( )

Parabolic: () ( )

1- First order systems:

( )
The closed-loop transfer function is
( )

1) Unit-Step Response: ( ) ( )

By partial fractions ( ) ()
( )

2) Unit-Ramp Response: ( ) ( )

By partial fractions ( ) ()
( )

2- Second order systems:

The closed-loop transfer function

( )
( ) ( ) ( )

damping ratio
undamped natural frequency
damping factor

√ damped natural frequency

β=√
θ=
The behavior of the second-order system can be described in terms of .
( )
1. Undamped (Maginally) case: =0
( ) ( )
( )
2. Underdamped case: 0< <1
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
3. Critically damped case: =1 ( )
( )
4. Overdamped case: >1
( ) ( ) ( )

1
 Unit-step response curves of the system

Definitions of Transient-Response Specifications:

 Delay time : The time required for the response to reach half of its final value.

 Rise time : The time required for the response to rise from
 10% to 90 % of its final value for overdamped systems.
 0 % to 100% of its final value for underdamped systems.

 Peak time : The time required for the response to reach the first peak of the overshoot.

 Maximum (percent) overshoot :The maximum peak value of the response curve measured from unity
√

 Settling time : The time required for the response curve to reach and stay within a range about the final value of size
percentage of the final value (2% or 5%).
For 𝝳=2 , 

2
Stability Analysis

Routh's Stability Criterion tells us whether or not there are unstable roots in a polynomial equation without actually solving for them.
Procedures for a control system:
1. Determine the characteristics equation q(s)

( )
( )( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )
This means: If ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

2. Write the polynomial in s in the following form: ( ) ( )

3. Ensure that the coefficients are not zero or negative in the presence of at least one positive.
4. Arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows and columns according to the following pattern:

5. The number of roots of the equation is equal to the number of changes in sign of the coefficients of the first column of the
array, only the signs are needed.
6. Special Cases:
1) If a first term in any row is zero, but the remaining terms are not zero or there is no remaining term, then the zero term is
replaced by a very small positive number  and the rest of the array is evaluated.
 Example 1: ( ) 

If the sign of the coefficient above the zero ( ) is the same as that below it, it indicates that there are a pair of
imaginary roots.

 Example 2: ( ) 
One sign change

One sign change

If the sign of the coefficient above the zero ( ) is opposite that below it, it indicates that there is one sign
change.

3
 2) If all the coefficients in any derived row are zero, we form an auxiliary polynomial with the coefficients of the last row
and by using the coefficients of the derivative of this polynomial in the next row.
 Example 1: ( )

Auxiliary polynomial ( ) 

( ) Indicates that there are two pairs of roots of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
The terms in the row are replaced by the coefficients of the derivative of ( )
( )

This indicates that there are roots of equal magnitude lying radially opposite in the s plane, two real roots with
equal magnitudes and opposite signs and/or two conjugate imaginary roots.

7. Relative Stability Analysis: we substitute s = ̇ - ( = constant) into the characteristic equation, write the polynomial in
terms of ̇ and apply Routh's stability criterion to the new polynomial. This test reveals the number of roots that lie to the right
of the vertical line s = - .
( )
8. Determine the range of K for stability. For the closed-loop transfer function ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )

For stability, all coefficients in the first column must be positive. Therefore,

Classification of Control Systems

Consider the unity-feedback control system with the following open-loop transfer function

( )( )( ) ( )
( )
( )( )( ) ( )

A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2 if N = 0, N = 1, N = 2

Steady-State Errors.

Consider the system shown. The closed-loop transfer function is

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

The transfer function between the error signal e(t) and the input signal r(t) is
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

( )
( )
( )

4
 ( )
The steady-state error is ( ) ( ) ( )

1) Static Position Error Constant . The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step input is

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( )( )( ) ( )
( )
( )( )( ) ( )

For N=0
For N 1

2) Static Velocity Error Constant . The steady-state error of the system for a unit-ramp input is
( )
( ) ( )
For N=0
For N 1

For N 2

3) Static Acceleration Error Constant . The steady-state error of the system for a unit- parabolic input is
( )
( ) ( )
For N=0, 1
For N 2

For N 3

Root -Locus Analysis and Design

If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the closed-loop poles depends on the value of the loop gain chosen. From
the design viewpoint, simple gain adjustment may move the closed-loop poles to desired locations. If the gain adjustment alone does
not yield a desired result, addition of a compensator to the system will become necessary.

The closed-loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation. Root-locus method, is one in which the roots of the characteristic
equation are plotted for all values of a system parameter. Note that the parameter is usually the gain, but any other variable of the
open-loop transfer function may be used.

The root locus is the locus of roots of the characteristic equation of the closed-loop system as a specific parameter (usually, gain K) is
varied from zero to infinity.

Angle and Magnitude Conditions

( ) ( )
For a closed-loop transfer function of the characteristics equation ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Angle condition: [ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( )
Magnitude condition: | ( ) ( )
The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the roots of the characteristic equation, or the closed-loop
poles.

Root –Locus Procedures:

By Example: consider the following system

5
1. Write the characteristics equation in the form of poles and zeros as follows

( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
From ( ) ( )
Ex.  ( )( )
Poles are 0, -1, -2

2. Locate the segments of the real axis that are root loci which always lie to the left of the odd number of poles and zeros.
Ex.  No.1 is 0 No.2 is -1 No.3 is -2
segments lie to the left of 0-1 & -2

3. Notes:
1) Number of separate loci = Number of open loop poles.
2) Number of loci  = Number of open loop poles- Number of open loop zeros .
3) The root loci must be symmetrical with the horizontal real axe.
4) The loci  along linear asymptotes.

4. Determine the asymptotes which are centered at with angels .

∑ ( ) ∑ ( ) ( )
, q =0, 1, 2, … ( )

( )
Ex.  , q =0, 1, 2 

5. Determine the point at which the loci cross the imaginary axis using
a) Routh's Criterion  the roots of the auxiliary equation.

Ex.  ( )

Auxiliary polynomial ( ) & ( ) √

b) Characteristics Equation  the roots for s= j .

Ex.  ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

For   √

Note that: √ for the loci crossing but √ for the asymptotes crossing

6. Determine the breakaway point on the real axis by solving the roots for

Ex.  ( )  ( )  ( )

doesn't on the root loci

the breakaway point is

̇
7. Use the magnitude condition to find the gain ̇ at a specified root ̇ | ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ̇

Ex.  At s=-0.3337 j0.578 ( )( )

 K=1.0383

6
 Note that to determine the location of s at which k=6 ̇( ̇ )( ̇ )

√ similarly the 3rd pole at which K=1.0383 is

The value of K corresponding to any point s on a root locus can be obtained using the magnitude
condition, or graphically by
K=

8. Use the angle condition to prove that a point is on the root locus :
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( )
[ ( )(
]
)
( )  [ ( ) ( ) ( )] [ ]
9. For complex-conjugate open-loop poles determine the angle of departure from [ ]
[ ] as angle of the first zero angle of one pole on the real axis
angle of departure of one of the two complex-conjugate poles

angle of the second pole of the two complex-conjugate poles

10. Draw the root loci

Example 2 sketch the root-locus plot of a system shown

Solution:
( )
The characteristics equation is
Poles are √ Zero is
The segments of the real axis that are root loci lies to the left of -2
Number of separate loci = 2. Number of loci  = 1

There is one asymptote at

The breakaway point on the real

doesn't on the root loci the breakaway point is

The angle of departure

7
To show the occurrence of a circular root locus in the present system,
we need to derive the equation for the root locus. For the present system,
the angle condition is
[ ( ) ( √ ) ( √ )]

If is substituted into this last equation, we obtain

[ ( ) ( √ ) ( √ )]

√ √
( ) ( ) ( )

Taking tangents of both sides of this last equation using the relationship

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

√ √

we obtain √ √
[( ) ]

( )

These two equations are the equations for the root loci for the present system. Notice that the first equation, is the equation for
the real axis.
The second equation for the root locus is an equation of a circle with center at , and the radius equal to √

Note that equations for the root locus can be derived for simple systems only.

Comments on the Root-Locus Plots.

( )( ) ( )
For ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )

If m – n 2, then the coefficient is the negative sum of the roots of the equation and is independent of K. In such a case, if some
of the roots move on the locus toward the left as K is increased, then the other roots must move toward the right as K is increased

Also noted that a slight change in the pole-zero configuration may cause significant changes in the root-locus configurations.

8
State Variable:

1. State Equation
2. Output Equation
3. State Transmission Matrix ( ) ( ) ( ) [( )]
4. Transfer Function ( )
5. Characteristics Equation ( )

Where: A, B, D, E are coefficient matrices and

R is vector of inputs
C is vector of outputs
X is vector of state variables ( ) ( ) ( ) [( ) ( )]

Note that:

The state equation and the output equation are known as dynamic equation.

I is the identity matrix [ ]

The inverse of a matrix

[ ]  Determinant

 Adjacent [ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ]  Determinant ( [( ) ( )]) ( [( ) ( )]) ( [( ) ( )])

 Transpose [ ]

[( ) ( )] [( ) ( )] [( ) ( )]
 Adjacent [ [( ) ( )] [( ) ( )] [( ) ( )]]
[( ) ( )] [( ) ( )] [( ) ( )]

9
Example 1: Determine the transfer function using S.F.G

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]

[ ][ ] [ ]

Solution:

State Diagram:

( )

( )
∑
( )

Example 2:

( ) [ ] , [ ]

Find

1. Matrix A
2. ( ) if ( ) and all initial values = 0

Solution

( ) ( ) ( ) [( )]

( )
( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) [ ]
10
[ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]

[ ]

( ) ( ) ( ) [( ) ( )]

( ) ( )
[ ] ( )[ ] { [ ][ ] }
( ) ( ) ( )( )

( )
( ) { } { }
( )( ) ( ) ( )

( )

( )

Example 3:

Consider the shown system:

Find

1. Dynamic equation
2. Transfer function

Solution:

From the block diagram:

[ ( ) ( )

( )

( )

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ] ( )

Dynamic Equation

[ ][ ] [ ] ( )

[ ] [ ] [ ]

11
[ ] Determinant [( ) ( ) ] [ ( )] [ ]

 Transpose [ ]

 Adjacent [ ]

( ) ( ) ( )
 Adjacent [ ]

( )
( ) [ ][ ][ ]

( )
[ ( ) ][ ]

12
University of Hertfordshire DAG 29/09/03
Faculty of Engineering & Information Sciences
Control Systems Formula Sheet

1. SYSTEMS MODELLING

Time Domain Laplace Domain

f(t) F(s) or L[f(t)]

a.f(t) + b.g(t) (a and b constant) a.F(s) + b.G(s)

df sF(s) − f ( 0)
f ′( t ) = f& ( t ) =
dt
2
d f s2 F(s) − sf ( 0) − f ′ ( 0)
f ′′( t ) = 2
dt
d fn
s n F(s) − s n −1 f ( 0) − s n− 2 f ′ ( 0) − ....− f ( n−1) ( 0)
dt n
t 1
∫ f ( t ) dt
0 s
F(s)

f(t-T) (T is a time delay) e-sT F(s)

δ(t) 1

1 1
s
tn n!
sn +1
e-at 1
s+ a
tn e-at n!
(s + a) n+1
sin(bt) b
s + b2
2

cos(bt) s
s + b2
2

e-at sin(bt) b
(s + a) 2 + b 2
e-at cos(bt) s+ a
(s + a) 2 + b 2

Initial and Final Value Theorem

lim lim lim lim
f ( 0) =
t→0
[ f ( t )] = s→∞ [sF(s)] f ( ∞) =
t →∞
[ f ( t )] = s→0 [sF(s)]

1
Transfer Function Definition

The Laplace Transform of the output L [ y(t) ] Y(s)

G(s) = = =
The Laplace Transform of the input L [ u(t) ] U(s)

Assuming all initial conditions are zero.

System Transfer Function Differential Equation

Gain G(s) = K y = Ku

Integrator 1
G (s) =
s
∫
y = u. dt

K dy
First Order G (s) = T + y = Ku
1 + sT dt

Kω 2n d 2y dy
Second Order G (s) = 2 2
+ 2ζω n + ω n2 y = Kω n2 u
s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n dt dt

System Unit Step Response (assuming all ic’s = 0)

First Order  −t 
y = K 1 − e T 
 

Second Order   ζω n 
y = K1 − e −ζω n t  cos(ω d t ) + sin(ω d t ) 
  ωd  

π
where ω d = ω n 1 − ζ 2 , ωn = ,
t max 1 − ζ 2

πζ

overshoot = e
−
1 − ζ2
, ζ=
( ln(overshoot )) 2
π 2 + ( ln(overshoot ))
2

2
Rules for Block Diagram Manipulation

GA (s) GB (s) GA (s)GB(s)

GA (s)
+ GA (s) ± GB (s)

±
GB (s)

G(s)
=
G(s) G(s)

1
G(s)

G(s)
G(s)

+ +
G(s) G(s)
± ±

G(s)

+ + G(s)
G(s)
±
±
1
G(s)

+
G(s)
G(s)
1 + G(s)H(s)

H(s)

3
2. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

lim lim
Steady State Output y ss = y( t ) = sY(s)
t→∞ s→ 0

e ss = u - yss
Steady State Error

Steady State Error for Unity Feedback Systems

Step Ramp Parabolic

u(t) = 1 u(t) = t u(t) = t2/2

Type 0 1 ess = ∞ ess = ∞

e ss =
1+ Kp

Type 1 ess = 0 1 ess = ∞

e ss =
Kv

Type 2 ess = 0 ess = 0 1

e ss =
Ka

Position Error Constant lim

Kp = [G (s)]
s→ 0 o

Velocity Error Constant lim

Kv =
s→ 0
[sG o (s)]

Acceleration Error Constant

Ka =
lim
s→0
[s G (s)]
2
o

4
3. SIMPLE CONTROLLERS

Controller
Gc(s)

Proportional K

Ki
Proportional + Integral K+
s
 s + α K
or K  where α = i K
 s 

K + Kds
Proportional + Derivative
Kd
or K(1 + sTd ) where Td = K

Ki
Proportional + Integral + Derivative K+ + Kds
s
(Three Term Controller)
s+a
Lead Controller K where a < b
s+b

1 + sT
or K where α < 1
1 + sαT
s+a
Lag Controller K where a > b
s+b

1 + sT
or K where α > 1
1 + sαT

4. ROUTH STABILITY CRITERION

D(s) = ansn + an-1sn-1 + an-2sn-2 + an-3sn-3 + an-4sn-4 + an-5sn-5 + ... = 0

sn an an-2 an-4
a n −1a n − 2 − a n a n −3
b n −1 =
sn-1 an-1 an-3 an-5 a n −1

sn-2 bn-1 bn-3 bn-5

. . . . a n −1a n − 4 − a n a n −5
. . . . b n −3 =
a n −1
. . .
s0 hn-1

5
5. ROOT LOCUS

No Drawing Rules

1 All loci start for K = 0 at the Open Loop Poles and finish for K = ∞ at either Open Loop Zeros or s = ∞.

2 There will always be a locus on the real axis to the LEFT of an ODD number of Open Loop Poles and Zeros.

3 If there are n Open Loop Poles and m Open Loop Zeros, there will be n-m loci ending at infinity on asymptotes
at angles to the real axis of

180° 540° 900°

± , ± , ± , K
n−m n−m n−m

4 The asymptotes meet on the real axis at

n m
∑ pi - ∑ zi
i =1 i =1
σ =
n - m
where pi is the position of the i’th open loop pole and zi is the position of the i’th open loop zero.

5 Where two real loci meet on the real axis they “breakaway” from the real axis at ±90° to form two complex
loci, symmetrical about the real axis.

Where two complex loci meet on the real axis they “break-in” to form two real loci, moving in opposite
directions along the real axis.
dK
The “breakaway” and “break-in” points are given by the roots of = 0
ds

6 The points of intersection of a locus with the imaginary axis can be determined by solving the equation

D ( jω ) + KN ( jω ) = 0

Remember both the real part and the imaginary parts must be satisfied in this equation. Hence this will give two
simultaneous equations one that will give values of ω while the other gives the K value at the crossing point.

7 The angle of departure of a locus from a complex open loop pole is given by;

n m
φ d = 180° − ∑φ
i=1
i + ∑ψ i=1
i
i≠ d

where φi is the angle from the i’th open loop pole and ψi is the angle from the i’th zero.

The angle of arrival of a locus at a complex zero is given by;

n m
ψ a = 180° + ∑φ
i=1
i − ∑ψ
i =1
i

i≠ a

6
 n

Magnitude Condition ∏Pi =1

i
K= m

∏Z
i =1
i

n m

Angle Condition 180° = ∑ φi

i =1
- ∑ψ
i =1
i

1 - ζ2
Lines of constant damping ω=± σ where s = σ + jω
ζ

NB Straight line through the origin of the s plane. Also lines makes an
angle cos-1 ζ with the negative real axis

σ 2 + ω 2 = ω 2n
Lines of constant undamped
natural frequency NB Circle with centre on the origin of the s plane and radius ωn

6. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS

u(t) = sin(ωt) y(t) = R.sin(ωt + φ)

G(s)

R = G ( jω ) = a 2 + b 2
G(jω ) = a(ω ) + jb(ω )

 b
φ = ∠G ( jω ) = tan −1   g = 20 log 10 R
 a

u(t) = sin(ωt) y(t) = R.sin(ωt + φ)

G1(s) G2 (s) G3 (s)

R = R1 R 2 R 3 g = g1 + g 2 + g 3 φ = φ1 + φ 2 + φ 3

7
Nyquist Diagrams of Common System Elements

G(s) R φ Nyquist Diagram

Gain Term

K 0°
K K

Integrator
1
1 ω -90°
s

Differentiator

ω 90°
s

First Order “Lag”

1 − tan −1( ωT)

1

1
1 + ω 2 T2
1 + sT

First Order “Lead”

1 + ω 2 T2 tan −1( ωT) 1

1 + sT

Second Order Term

ω 2n  2ζω ω 
ω 2n − tan −1  2 n 2 
s2 + 2ζω n s + ω 2n (ω 2
n −ω )
2 2
+ ( 2ζω nω )
2  ωn − ω 

Pure Time Delay

−ωTD
e − sTD 1
(in radians)

8
Bode Plots of Common System Elements

g (dB)
G(s) Gain Plot Phase Plot
φ(deg)

Gain Term
20log10 K 2 0 lo g 1 0 K 0

K
0°

Integrator  1
20 log10  
 ω 0
1
0
1
s -90°
-90
-20 dB/dec

Differentiator 20 log10 ( ω )
20 dB/dec 90

s
90°
0 0
1

First Order “Lag”  

1 1/T 0.1/T 1/T 10/T
20 log10  

0
0

1  1 + ω 2T 2 
-3dB -45
1 + sT
− tan −1( ωT) -90
-20 dB/dec

First Order “Lead”

20 log10  1 + ω 2T2 
20 dB/dec

  90

1 + sT
3dB 45

tan −1( ωT)

0 0
1/T 0.1/T 1/T 10/T

Second Order Term   -20 log10 (2ζ) ωn

 ω 2n  0
20 log10   0
ω 2n 
(ω ) 2
2 ωn

2
n − ω2 + (2ζω n ω ) 
s2 + 2ζω n s + ω 2n -90

 2ζω ω 
− tan −1  2 n 2  180
 ωn − ω  -40 dB/dec

9
7. DIGITAL CONTROL

Discrete Time Domain z Domain Laplace Domain

(T = sample time period)
f(k) F(z) or Z[f(k)] F(s)

a.f(k) + b.g(k) a.F(z) + b.G(z) a.F(s) + b.G(s)

f(k+1) zF(z) - zf(0) esT F(s)

f(k-1) z-1F(z) e-sT F(s)

δ(k) 1 1

δ(k-n) z-n e-snT

1 z 1
z−1 s
k Tz 1
( z − 1) 2 s2
1 2 T 2  z(z + 1)  1
k  
2! 2!  (z − 1) 3  s3
e-ak z 1
z − e − aT s+ a
ke-ak Tze − aT 1

(z − e )− aT 2 (s + a) 2
1 - e-ak z(1 − e − aT ) a
( z − 1)( z − e − aT
) s(s + a )
-ak
k - (1 - e )/a [
z z(aT − 1 + e − aT ) + (1 − e − aT − aTe − aT ] a
a (z − 1) ( z − e
2 − aT
) s (s + a )
2

sin(ak) z sin( aT) a

2
z − 2 z cos( aT) + 1 s + a2
2

cos(ak) z(z − cos( aT)) s

z 2 − 2 z cos( aT) + 1 s + a2
2

e-ak sin(bk) z e− aT sin( bT) b

z 2 − 2 ze − aT cos( bT) + e−2 aT (s + a) 2 + b 2
e-ak cos(bk) z(z − e − aT cos( bT)) s+ a
z 2 − 2 ze − aT cos( bT) + e −2 aT (s + a) 2 + b 2
Zero Order Hold GH (z) 1− e − sT
(A/D and D/A s
converters)

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8. STATE SPACE METHODS

Continuous Digital

Standard x& = Ax + Bu x (k + 1) = Fx (k ) + G u (k )
Form for State y = Cx + Du y( k ) = C x ( k ) + D u ( k )
Space Model

G (s) = C(sI − A ) B + D
Transfer −1
G ( z) = C( zI − F) G + D
−1
Function
Matrix

Characteristic det (sI − A) = 0 det ( zI − F) = 0

Equation

State Time  t  k
Response
∫
x( t ) = e  x(0) + e − Aτ Bu( τ)dτ 
At x( k + 1) = F k +1 x(0) + ∑ FiGu( k − i)
 0
 i=0

Transition
Matrix [
Φ( t ) = e At = L-1 ( sI − A ) −1 ] F = e AT

A2t 2 A3t 3
Φ ( t ) = e At = I + At + + +L G = A −1 [ F − I]B
2! 3!

State x& = Ax + B( u − Kx) x (k + 1) = Fx (k ) + G (u (k ) − K x (k ) )

Feedback
Equation

Characteristic
Equation with det (sI − A + BK) = 0 det ( zI − F + GK) = 0
state feedback

Controllability
Matrix
2
[ n −1
M c = BM ABM A BMLM A B ] [ 2 n −1
M c = GM FGM F GMLM F G ]
Controllable 

0 1 0 L 0  0  0 1 0 L 0  0
0 0 1 L 0  0  0 0 1 L 0  0
Canonical       
x& c =  M M M O M xc +  M u x c (k + 1) =  M M M O M  x c (k ) +  M  u (k )
Form 
0 0 0 1 
      
 L 0  0 0 0 L 1  0
 −a 0 −a1 −a 2 L 
− a n −1  1  − a 0 − a1 − a2 L 
− a n −1  1

y = [b0 b1 L L b n − 2 b n − 1 ]x c y( k ) = [b 0 b1 L L b n − 2 b n −1 ]x c ( k )

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Ackermann’s If desired CE is If desired CE is
Formula for
s n + α n −1 s n −1 + L + α 1 s + α 0 = 0 z n + α n −1 z n −1 + L + α 1 z + α 0 = 0
State Feedback

K = [0 0 K 1]M c−1φ(A ) K = [ 0 0 K 1]M c−1 φ( F)

where where
φ(A ) = α 0I + α1A + L + α n −1A n −1 + A n φ( F) = α 0 I + α 1 F + L + α n −1 F n −1 + F n

State x&$ = Ax$ + Bu + P( ~

y − y$ ) x (k + 1) = Fx̂ (k ) + Gu (k ) + P(~y (k ) − ŷ(k ))
Estimator
Equation

Characteristic det (sI − A + PC) = 0 det ( zI − F + PC) = 0

Equation for a
State
Estimator

Observability C  C 
Matrix  CA   CF 
   
Mo =  CA 2  Mo =  CF2 
   
L  L 
 n −1   n −1 
 CA   CF 

Observable  0 0 L 0 −a 0   b0   0 0 L 0 − a0   b0 
 − a 1   b   1
1 0 L 0 0 L 0 − a 1   b 
Canonical   1    1 
x& o =  0 1 M 0 −a 2  x o +  b 2  u x o (k + 1) =  0 1 M 0 − a 2  x o (k ) +  b 2  u (k )
Form 
L L O L M 
      
  M   L L O L M   M 
  
 b n −1   0  
0 0 L 1 − a n −1  0 L 1 − a n −1  b n −1 

y = [ 0 0 0 L 0 1]x o y(k ) = [0 0 0 L 0 1]x o ( k )

Ackermann’s If desired CE is If desired CE is

Formula for
s n + α n −1 s n −1 + L + α 1 s + α 0 = 0 z n + α n −1 z n −1 + L + α 1 z + α 0 = 0
State Estimators

[
P = φ(A ) M o−1 [ 0 0 K 1] ]T [
P = φ( F) M o−1 [ 0 0 K 1] ]T
where where
φ(A ) = α 0I + α1A + L + α n −1A n −1 + A n φ( F) = α 0 I + α 1 F + L + α n −1 F n −1 + F n

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