Elements on sets

In mathemtatics a set is a way of gathering objects which have similar properties in a meaningful
way.

Exemple1:

1. The numbers 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, …, 30, 33, …

Thoses numbers have at least two same properties,
They are natural numbers
They are multiple of three

So we can label those numbers by a symbol, say A and gather them is a set as follow:
𝐴 = {𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3}

𝐴 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑁: 𝑛 = 3𝑘, 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}

𝐴 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑁: 𝑛 ≡ 0[3]}

2. We can consider the set of all the multiple of three that lies between -5 and 8, and we call
this set by B, we have:
𝐵 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑍: −5 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≡ 0[3]}
𝐵 = {−3, 0, 3, 6}

3. The polygons that have only three sides can be considered together as forming the set of all
the triangles

In general If p(x) is predicate, where x lie in a given set E, we can define the set A of all the x element
of E that make p(x) true:

𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑝(𝑥)}

𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ⟺ (𝑝(𝑎) est vraie)

Equality of two sets:

Two sets are equal il and only if they contain the same elements :

𝐴 = 𝐵 ⟺ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)

If 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑝(𝑥)}, and 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑞(𝑥)}, then we have :

𝐴 = 𝐵 ⟺ [(𝑝(𝑥) ⟺ 𝑞(𝑥)]

Cardinality of a set:

The cardinality of a set is the number of elements it contains:

Exemple2:

𝑖𝑓 𝐸 = {1,2,3} 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 3 and we write |𝐸 | = 3

|𝑁 | = ∞

𝐼𝑓 𝑃 = {𝑝 ∈ 𝑁: 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑃 | = ∞

Inclusion and equality :

Let 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑝(𝑥)}, and 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑞(𝑥)}

We say that A is a subset of B and we note it by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, whenever we have :

∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵

We can put it otherwise: ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑝(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑞(𝑥)

Exemple3:

𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3}
𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 6}

We have here 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴 since we have :

𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 6

⟹ 𝑥 = 6𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
⟹ 𝑥 = 3 × (2𝑘)

⟹ 𝑥 = 3 × 𝑘 ′ , 𝑘 ′ = 2𝑘
⟹ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3

⟹𝑥∈𝐴
Remark 1:

In the last exemple 𝑝(𝑥) is the predicate “ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 6”

and q(x) is the predicate “𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3”

and we have shown that 𝑝(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑞(𝑥)

Remark 2:

we know tha the implication 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑝 is always true, so whatever is a set 𝐴 we have

𝐴⊂𝐴

Without forgetting that 𝑝 ⟺ 𝑝, which means that 𝐴 = 𝐴, for any set 𝐴.

Exemple4:

ℕ⊂ℤ⊂ℚ⊂ℝ⊂ℂ

Theorem1 :

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two propositions , we have :

(𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞) ⟺ [(𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝)]

Proof:

Briefly, we know that the equivalence of two propositions means by definition that these
propositions have the same truth value, so both implication are true (true implies true, and false
imply false)
Conversely if 𝑝 then 𝑞 we cannot have 𝑝 true and 𝑞 false, so either 𝑝 is false or both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true

In the case of 𝑝 is false the second implication imposes to us that 𝑞 must be false

So 𝑝 and 𝑞 must have the same truth value, wich means that they are equivalent.

You can prove this theorem by using truth-table.

Theorem2:

Let A and B be two sets, we have :

(𝐴 = 𝐵) ⟺ (𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴)

Proof:

Use the theorem1 and the definition of the equality of two sets.

The empty set :

An empty set is a set that contains no elements. We note it by the symbole ∅ (phi).

By definition of the empty set we have |∅| = 0

Exemple5:

𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅: 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0}

Since ∆< 0, there no such 𝑥 as 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0, so the set 𝐴 is empty, 𝐴 = ∅

Theorem:

1. The empty set is a subset of every set

2. The empty set is unique

Proof:
1. If A is any set then must prove that ∅ ⊂ 𝐴
To do it we must prove that the proposition [∀𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ∅ ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴] is true.
For any x : 𝑥 ∉ ∅ because the empty set contains no element.
So : 𝑥 ∈ ∅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
The false implies both the true and the false
Then 𝑥 ∈ ∅ ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 is true
Which is by definition : ∅ ⊂ 𝐴
2. By contradiction, suppose that there are two empty sets, say ∅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅2 :
𝑥 ∈ ∅1 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 so 𝑥 ∈ 𝜙1 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝜙2 is true so 𝜙1 ⊂ 𝜙2
𝑥 ∈ ∅2 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 so 𝑥 ∈ 𝜙2 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝜙1 is true so 𝜙2 ⊂ 𝜙1

This means by theorem2 that 𝜙1 = 𝜙2

Union and intersection

Let A and B be two sets.

From these two sets we define an others sets:

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}
𝐴 △ 𝐵 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴)

If 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐸, the complement of 𝐴 is 𝐸, which we note as 𝐴𝐸̅ , is a new set defined as :

𝐴̅𝐸 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

Exemple6 :
𝐸 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛}

𝑂 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑍: 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑}

We have :

𝐸∪𝑂 = 𝑍
𝐸∩𝑂 =∅

𝐸−𝑂 = 𝑂−𝐸 = ∅
𝐸̅ 𝑍 = 𝑂

𝑂̅ 𝑍 = 𝐸
Exercice1 :

𝐴 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑍: 2|𝑛}
𝐵 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑍: 3|𝑛}
𝐶 = {𝑛 ∈ 𝑍: 6|𝑛}

1. Write C in a set building form

2. Prove that 𝐶 ⊂ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
3. Prove that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐶 by using a proof by contraposition.
4. Conclude that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐶

Theorem3:

Whatever are the finite sets A and B we have :

|𝐴 ∪ 𝐵| = |𝐴| + |𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵|

Exercice2 :

Use theorem3 to show that:

|𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 | = |𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶 | − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 | − |𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 | + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 |
Exercice3 :

In a group of students, every student is studying at least logic or sets. 20 are studying at least logic
,15 are studying at least sets, and 7 are studying both logic and sets.

How many people are there in the group.

Solution:
𝐼𝑓 𝐿 = { 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐}
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑆 = {𝑠𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠}

Then the group of all the students is 𝐿 ∪ 𝑆

And the set of students studying both logic and sets is 𝐿 ∩ 𝑆

We have by theorem3:
|𝐿 ∪ 𝑆 | = |𝐿| + |𝑆 | − |𝐿 ∩ 𝑆 |

= 20 + 15 − 7
Therefore the number of the students in the group is 28.

Exercice 4:

There 150 people, and 3 kinds of fruits, orange, peach and grapes

58 people eat oranges

49 people eat peaches

57 people eat grapes

14 people est oranges and grapes

13 people eat oranges and peaches

17 people eat peaches and grapes

4 people eat oranges, peaches and grapes

How many people eat nothing

Solution:

Use exercice 2

Properties of union and intersection

Theorem 4:

Let A,B,C be three subsets of a sest E. we have :

1. 𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴
2. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 )
3. 𝐴∩𝐴 = 𝐴
4. 𝐴∩∅ = ∅
5. 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 )
Theorem 5:

1. 𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴
2. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 )
3. 𝐴∪𝐴 = 𝐴
4. 𝐴∪∅ = 𝐴
5. 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 )

Proof:

Left as an exercice that could be solved using truth-table.