December 17, 2021 14:20 BC: 12719 Basic Abstract Algebra: Exercises and Solutions

CHAPTER 3

Binary Relations
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3.1. Basics
DEFINITION 3.1.1. A binary relation R on a set X is a subset AR
of X × X. As it is customary, instead of writing (x, y) ∈ AR , we will
usually write xRy.
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DEFINITION 3.1.2. Let R be a binary relation on X. We say that

R is:
(1) reflexive if: ∀x ∈ X: xRx.
(2) symmetric if: ∀x, y ∈ X: xRy ⇒ yRx.
(3) transitive if: ∀x, y, z ∈ X: (xRy and yRz) ⇒ xRz.
When R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, then R is called an
equivalence relation on X.
DEFINITION 3.1.3. Let R be an equivalence relation on X. The
equivalent class of x ∈ X, denoted by ẋ (or x), is defined by:
ẋ = {y ∈ X : yRx}.
The collection of all equivalent classes of X, denoted by X/R is
called the quotient of X by R, that is,
X/R = {ẋ : x ∈ X}.
Remark. Equivalent relations are concerned with the notion of
equality in a certain sense.
Now, we give basic properties of the quotient.
PROPOSITION 3.1.1. Let R be an equivalence relation on X and
let ẋ be the equivalent class of x ∈ X. Then:
(1) ∀x ∈ X: x ∈ ẋ.
(2) ẋ = ẏ iff xRy.
(3) If ẋ 6= ẏ, then ẋ and ẏ must be disjoint.
After having introduced the equivalence relation, we define an equally
important class of binary relations.
71
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72 3. RELATIONS

DEFINITION 3.1.4. Let R be a relation on X. If R is reflexive,

anti-symmetric and transitive, then we say that R is an order relation
on X.
Remark. Order relations are concerned with ranking elements of
some set with respect to that relation.
DEFINITION 3.1.5. Let R be an order relation on X. If all elements
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of X are comparable, i.e.

∀x, y ∈ X : xRy or yRx,
then R is said a total order. Otherwise, we say that R is a partial
order.
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We finish by giving a generalization of the notions “least upper/

greatest lower bounds”, already known in R with respect to the order
relation “≤”.
DEFINITION 3.1.6. Let E be a non-empty set and A ⊂ E, and
let R be an order relation over E. The element b ∈ A is the largest
element of A if for all x ∈ A: xRb. In such case, b is denoted by max A.
Likewise, call a ∈ A the smallest element of A if for all x ∈ A: aRx.
If that is the case, a is noted min A.
We say that a ∈ E (resp. b ∈ E) is a lower bound (resp. an upper
bound) for A if
∀x ∈ A : aRx (resp. xRb).
If the set of all lower bounds for A has a largest element, it is called
the greatest lower bound or infimum. It is noted inf A.
If the set of all upper bounds for A has a smallest element, it is
called the least upper bound or supremum. It is denoted by sup A.
Remark. When sup A exists, it is unique. Similarly, when inf A
exists, it is unique.

3.2. True or False

Questions. Determine, giving reasons, whether the following state-
ments are true or false.
(1) If a relation is not symmetric, then it is anti-symmetric.
(2) A relation is either symmetric or anti-symmetric.
(3) Let R be a relation on some non-empty set X. If R is both
symmetric and anti-symmetric, then x 6= y implies that x6 R y
(where x, y ∈ X).
(4) Let X be a non-empty set. If R is an anti-symmetric relation
on X, and for any x, y ∈ X, xRy and x 6= y, then y 6 R x.
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3.3. EXERCISES WITH SOLUTIONS 73

(5) Let X be a set and R be a relation supposed symmetric and

transitive. Let x, y ∈ X be such that xRy. By symmetry, we
have yRx and by transitivity we get xRx, i.e. R is reflex-
ive. Hence, a symmetric and transitive relation is necessarily
reflexive.
Answers.
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(1) False! The negation of the definition a symmetric relation just

differs from the one of an anti-symmetric relation.
(2) False. A relation may be symmetric and anti-symmetric si-
multaneously. For instance, one may just consider a relation
R defined on say R, by xRy ⇔ x = y. Alternatively, you may
consider any relation on a singleton.
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(3) True. Indeed, if xRy, then given the fact that the relation is
symmetric, we get yRx too. Since R is also anti-symmetric,
we obtain x = y.
(4) True. This is just a reformulation of the definition of an anti-
symmetric relation using the contrapositive.
(5) False! For example, define a relation R on R by: xRy ⇔
xy 6= 0. Then R is both symmetric and transitive, yet it is
not reflexive since for x = 0, it is seen that x6 R x.

3.3. Exercises with Solutions

Exercise 3.3.1. Is the relation R defined on Z by
xRy ⇐⇒ x = −y
reflexive? Is it symmetric? Is it anti-symmetric? Is it transitive?
Solution 3.3.1.
(1) R is not reflexive: If it were, we would have
∀x ∈ Z : xRx,
i.e.
∀x ∈ Z : x = −x.
But
∃x = 1 ∈ Z such that 1 = x 6= −x = −1.
Hence, R is not reflexive.
(2) R is symmetric because for all x, y ∈ Z:
xRy ⇐⇒ x = −y =⇒ y = −x ⇐⇒ yRx.
(3) R is not anti-symmetric because:
∃1, −1 ∈ Z : 1R(−1) and (−1)R1 yet 1 6= −1.
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74 3. RELATIONS

(4) R is not transitive: For example,

∃1, −1 ∈ Z : 1R(−1) and (−1)R1 but 16 R 1.
Exercise 3.3.2. On the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, we define a relation R
as follows:
1R1, 2R2, 2R3, 3R2, 4R2 and 4R4.
Is the relation R reflexive? Symmetric? Anti-symmetric? Transitive?
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Solution 3.3.2.
(1) R is not reflexive for 36 R 3.
(2) R is not symmetric since 4R2 and 26 R 4!
(3) R is not anti-symmetric as
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2R3 and 3R2 yet 2 6= 3.

(4) R is not transitive because
4R2 and 2R3 yet 46 R 3.
Exercise 3.3.3. Decide whether each of the following relations are
reflexive, symmetric, anti-symmetric or transitive:
(1) On R, define:
xRy ⇐⇒ ex ≤ ey .
(2) The relation in this case is defined as:
∆R∆′ ⇐⇒ ∆ ⊥ ∆′
for all lines ∆ and ∆′ in the plane.
(3) On R, define:
xRy ⇐⇒ cos2 y + sin2 x = 1.
Solution 3.3.3.
(1) (a) R is reflexive because
∀x ∈ R : ex ≤ ex .
(b) R is not symmetric because
∃0, 1 ∈ R : e0 = 1 ≤ e1 yet e1 6≤ e0 .
(c) R is anti-symmetric because:
( (
xRy ex ≤ ey
∀x, y ∈ R : ⇐⇒ =⇒ ex = ey ⇐⇒ x = y.
yRx ey ≤ ex
(d) R is transitive because
( (
xRy ex ≤ ey
∀x, y, z ∈ R : ⇐⇒ =⇒ ex ≤ ez ⇐⇒ xRz.
yRz ey ≤ ez
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3.3. EXERCISES WITH SOLUTIONS 75

(2) (a) R is not reflexive because a line cannot be orthogonal (we

also say perpendicular) to itself!
(b) R is symmetric because if a line ∆ is orthogonal to an-
other line ∆′ , then it is patent that ∆′ too is orthogonal
to ∆.
(c) R is not anti-symmetric. Indeed, we can have two distinct
orthogonal lines ∆ and ∆′ . For instance, the equations
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y = −x + 1 and y = x + 2
define two distinct lines which are orthogonal.
(d) The relation is not transitive. Let’s give a counterexam-
ple. We need three lines ∆, ∆′ and ∆′′ such that
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∆ ⊥ ∆′ and ∆′ ⊥ ∆′′ but ∆ 6⊥ ∆′′ .

Consider
(∆) : y = −x + 1, (∆′ ) : y = x + 2 and (∆′′ ) : y = −x − 1.
Then
∆ ⊥ ∆′ and ∆′ ⊥ ∆′′ but ∆ 6⊥ ∆′′
(∆ and ∆′′ are even parallel!). Hence, ⊥ is not transitive.
(3) (a) The relation R is reflexive. Let x ∈ R. The following
trigonometric formula is well-known
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1.
It is equivalent to xRx, i.e. R is reflexive.
(b) R is symmetric: To see this, let x, y ∈ R be such that
xRy, i.e. cos2 y + sin2 x = 1. Since
∀x, y ∈ R : cos2 y + sin2 y = 1 and cos2 x + sin2 x = 1,
it follows that
cos2 y + sin2 x = 1 ⇐⇒ cos2 y + sin2 x = cos2 y + sin2 y
or sin2 y = sin2 x. Likewise
cos2 y + sin2 x = 1 ⇐⇒ cos2 y + sin2 x = cos2 x + sin2 x
yields cos2 y = cos2 x. Finally, we get
cos2 y + sin2 x = 1 ⇐⇒ cos2 x + sin2 y = 1 ⇐⇒ yRx,
i.e. R is symmetric.
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76 3. RELATIONS

(c) R is not anti-symmetric: Recall that this signifies that

∃x, y ∈ R : xRy and yRx but x 6= y.
For instance, 0R(2π) because
cos2 (2π) + sin2 0 = 1 + 0 = 1,
and (2π)R0 for
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cos2 0 + sin2 (2π) = 1 + 0 = 1,

and yet 0 6= 2π.
(d) R is transitive: Let x, y, z ∈ R and suppose that xRy and
yRz, i.e.
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cos2 y + sin2 x = 1 and cos2 z + sin2 y = 1.

Hence
cos2 y + sin2 x + cos2 z + sin2 y = 1 + 1 = 2.
But
sin2 x + cos2 z + cos2 y + sin2 y = 2,
| {z }
=1

and so
cos2 z + sin2 x = 1,
i.e. xRz, i.e. R is transitive.
Exercise 3.3.4. Let E be the set of prime numbers greater than or
equal to 3. Let R be a relation defined over E by:
n+m
nRm ⇐⇒ ∈ E.
2
(1) Do we have 3R5? 3R11?
(2) Is R reflexive? Symmetric? Anti-symmetric? Transitive?
Solution 3.3.4.
(1) We do not have 3R5 because 3R5 ⇔ (3 + 5)/2 ∈ E and
3+5 8
= = 4 6∈ E.
2 2
We do have 3R11 because
3 + 11
= 7 ∈ E.
2
(2) (a) R is reflexive because
n+n
∀n ∈ E : nRn, since = n ∈ E.
2
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3.3. EXERCISES WITH SOLUTIONS 77

(b) R is symmetric as
∀n, m ∈ E : nRm =⇒ mRn
since (n + m)/2 = (m + n)/2 ∈ E.
(c) R is not anti-symmetric: First, 3 and 7 are in E. Besides,
3R7 since (3 + 7)/2 = 5 ∈ E, and 7R3 as (7 + 3)/2 =
5, and yet 3 6= 7.
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(d) R is not transitive because for 3,7,11∈ E, we have 11R3

and 3R7, but still 116 R 7 since (11 + 7)/2 = 9 6∈ E.
Exercise 3.3.5. Let f : R → R be a function. We define on R a
relation as follows:
xRy ⇐⇒ f (x) = f (y).
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(1) Show that R is an equivalence relation.

(2) Give a condition on f so that R becomes an order relation.
Solution 3.3.5.
(1) That R is an equivalence relation is left to interested readers.
(2) In order that R be an order relation, it has to be anti-symmetric,
given that it is already reflexive and transitive (by the pre-
vious question). Recall that R is anti-symmetric if for all
x, y ∈ R, xRy and yRx, we obtain x = y. Put differently, for
all x, y ∈ R, we must have
f (x) = f (y) =⇒ x = y.
It then becomes clear that the injectivity of f resolves this
issue.
Exercise 3.3.6. On Z, we define a relation R by:
xRy ⇐⇒ x − y is divisible by 4.
Show that R is an equivalence relation, then find all equivalence classes.
Remark. Recall that x − y is divisible by p (p ∈ N) may be stated
as: x is congruent to y modulo p. In symbols, x ≡ y(mod p).
Solution 3.3.6. We show that R is reflexive. Let x ∈ Z. Then
xRx for the simple reason that x − x = 0 is divisible by 4.
To show R is symmetric, let x, y ∈ Z and assume that xRy, that
is, x − y is divisible by 4. This means that x − y = 4k for some k ∈ Z.
Hence y − x = −4k = 4(−k). Since (−k) ∈ Z, we see that y − x is
divisible by 4, whereby yRx.
To show that R is transitive, let x, y, z ∈ Z and assume that xRy
and yRz. This signifies that x − y = 4k and y − z = 4k ′ for certain
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78 3. RELATIONS

k, k ′ ∈ Z. Hence
x − z = x − y + y − z = 4(k + k ′ ).
Since k + k ′ ∈ Z, it follows that x − z is divisible by 4 or that R is
transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.
To find all equivalence classes, we first find equivalence classes of
some particular elements. Let’s start with 0 (for example). We have
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0̇ = {x ∈ Z : xR0} = {x ∈ Z : x is divisible by 4} = 0̇ = {4k : k ∈ Z}.

We also have
1̇ = {x ∈ Z : xR1} = {x ∈ Z : x−1 is divisible by 4} = {4k+1 : k ∈ Z},
and
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2̇ = {4k + 2 : k ∈ Z}, 3̇ = {4k + 3 : k ∈ Z}.

Now, if we calculate the equivalence class of 4, we get back the
equivalence class of 0, i.e. 4̇ = 0̇. Also, 5̇ = 1̇, etc. (i.e. no new classes
are obtained).
It is easy to see that each integer must belong to one and only one
of the equivalence classes: 0̇, 1̇, 2̇ and 3̇ (remember that constitute a
partition of Z).
Remark. The equivalence classes in this case, and as is customary,
are written as
Z4 = Z/4Z = {0̇, 1̇, 2̇, 3̇}.
More generally, if we defined a relation R by xRy iff x−y is divisible
by n, n ≥ 2, then R may be shown to be an equivalence relation whose
equivalence classes are given by:
˙ 1)}.
Zn = Z/nZ = {0̇, 1̇, · · · , (n −
Exercise 3.3.7. We define on R a relation R as follows:
xRy ⇐⇒ x2 − y 2 = x − y.
(1) Show that R is an equivalence relation.
(2) Let x ∈ R. Find its equivalence class. How many elements are
there in this class?
Solution 3.3.7.
(1) We can check each of the properties of an equivalence relation
as done in many cases above, or alternatively we can directly
use the result of Exercise 3.3.5 by observing that
x2 − y 2 = x − y ⇐⇒ x2 − x = y 2 − y,
then we take f (x) = x2 − x.
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3.3. EXERCISES WITH SOLUTIONS 79

(2) Let x ∈ R. Remember that

ẋ = {y ∈ R : xRy}.
To find ẋ, we need to find all y which satisfy
x2 − y 2 = x − y.
We have
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2 2
x − y = x − y ⇐⇒ (x − y)(x + y) = x − y ⇐⇒ (x − y)(x + y − 1) = 0,
and so
y = x or y = 1 − x.
Therefore,
ẋ = {x, 1 − x}.
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In the end, card ẋ is constituted of two elements unless

x = 1 − x, i.e. x = 12 . To recap,
(
{x, 1 − x}, if x 6= 21 ,
ẋ =
{ 12 }, otherwise.
Exercise 3.3.8. On Z, we define an equivalence relation R by:
xRy ⇐⇒ x + y is even.
(1) Show that R is an equivalence relation.
(2) What are the equivalence classes of this relation?
Solution 3.3.8.
(1) (a) Let x ∈ Z. Since x + x = 2x is always even, R is reflexive.
(b) Let x, y ∈ Z. The obvious fact that x + y is even if and
only if y + x is so, amply means that R is symmetric.
(c) The relation R is transitive. To prove this, let x, y, z ∈ Z
and assume that xRy and yRz, i.e. x + y and y + z are
even. So, there exist n, m ∈ Z such that x + y = 2n and
y + z = 2m. Thus,
x + y + y + z = 2n + 2m =⇒ x + z = 2 (n + m − y),
| {z }
∈Z
i.e. x + z is even, that is, xRz.
(2) Observe that with respect to R here, any even number is in
relation with another even number, as is any odd number with
another odd number. More precisely, we have:
0̇ = {y ∈ Z : 0Rz} = {y ∈ Z : 0 + y even } = {0, ±2, ±4, · · · }
and
1̇ = {y ∈ Z : 1Rz} = {y ∈ Z : 1 + y even } = {±1, ±3, ±5, · · · }.
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80 3. RELATIONS

These two classes patently cover all the integers without any
overlap. Since the union of these last two sets gives Z and their
intersection is empty, these two classes constitute a partition
of Z. Since the equivalence classes always form a partition of
the total set, 0̇ and 1̇ are the only equivalence classes with
respect to this equivalence relation.
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Exercise 3.3.9. Over R2 , define a relation, noted -, by:

(x, y) - (x′ , y ′ ) ⇐⇒ x ≤ x′ and y ≤ y ′.
(1) Show that - is an order relation.
(2) Is this a total order?
(3) Let A = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 ≤ 1}. Find the upper bounds
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of A with respect to -. What is sup A? Does max A exist?

Solution 3.3.9.
(1) (a) The relation - is reflexive. Indeed,
∀(x, y) ∈ R2 : (x, y) - (x, y)
because
∀(x, y) ∈ R2 : x ≤ x and y ≤ y.
(b) The relation - is anti-symmetric: Let (x, y), (x′, y ′) ∈ R2
and suppose (x, y) - (x′ , y ′) and (x′ , y ′) - (x, y). Then,
x ≤ x′ , y ≤ y ′ , x′ ≤ x, and y ′ ≤ y.
So, x = x′ , y = y ′, that is, (x, y) = (x′ , y ′). Hence, - is
anti-symmetric.
(c) The relation - is transitive: Let (x, y), (x′, y ′), (x′′ , y ′′) ∈
R2 and assume that (x, y) - (x′ , y ′ ) and (x′ , y ′ ) - (x′′ , y ′′),
i.e. x ≤ x′ , y ≤ y ′ , x′ ≤ x′′ and y ′ ≤ y ′′ . Thus,
x ≤ x′′ and y ≤ y ′′, i.e. (x, y) - (x′′ , y ′′ ).
(2) The order is not total. If it were, for instance (1, 2) and (3, 0)
would be comparable with respect to -. This is not the case
because
(1, 2) 6- (3, 0) and (3, 0) 6- (1, 2)
since
(1 ≤ 3 but 2  0) and (3  1 but 0 ≤ 2).
(3) Recall that with respect to -, an upper bound (m, M) ∈ R2
verifies
∀(x, y) ∈ A : (x, y) - (m, M),
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3.3. EXERCISES WITH SOLUTIONS 81

i.e.
∀(x, y) ∈ A : x ≤ m and y ≤ M.
Let’s find the set of upper bounds. Suppose that (m, M) is an
upper bound of A, then
∀(x, y) ∈ A : x ≤ m and y ≤ M.
In particular, for (0, 1) (which belongs to A) we have:
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(0, 1) - (m, M), i.e. (0 ≤ m and 1 ≤ M).

Similarly, since (1, 0) ∈ A, we get:
(1, 0) - (m, M) and so (1 ≤ m and 0 ≤ M).
From these two observations, we see that
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m ≥ 1 and M ≥ 1.
Conversely, let’s show that if m ≥ 1 and M ≥ 1, then (m, M)
is an upper bound of A. Let (x, y) ∈ A, i.e. x2 + y 2 ≤ 1. So,
x ≤ 1 ≤ m and y ≤ 1 ≤ M. The set of upper bounds is then
given by:
{(m, M) ∈ R2 : m ≥ 1, M ≥ 1}.
The least upper bound of A, that is, sup A is (1, 1). In the
end, max A does not exists because sup A 6∈ A.
Exercise 3.3.10. Find the upper and lower bounds of B with re-
spect to - (the order relation defined in Exercise 3.3.9)
B = {(2, 3), (2, 1)}.
What is sup B? What is inf B? Does max B exist? Does min B exist?
Solution 3.3.10. Let (m, M) be an upper bound of B, so
∀(x, y) ∈ B : x ≤ m and y ≤ M.
That is
2 ≤ m, 3 ≤ M and 2 ≤ m, 1 ≤ M.
So, 2 ≤ m and 3 ≤ M. Hence, the set of upper bounds is given by:
{(m, M) ∈ R2 : m ≥ 2, M ≥ 3}.
The supremum of B, i.e. sup B is equal to (2, 3), and we clearly see
that sup B ∈ B. Thus, max B = (2, 3).
Let (m′ , M ′ ) be a lower bound of B, i.e.
∀(x, y) ∈ B : m′ ≤ x and M ′ ≤ y.
So, the set of lower bounds is:
{(m′ , M ′ ) ∈ R2 : m′ ≤ 2, M ′ ≤ 1}.
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82 3. RELATIONS

The infimum of B, i.e. inf B is equal to (2, 1). Since (2, 1) belongs to
B, we conclude that min B = (2, 1).

Exercise 3.3.11. Let R be the relation defined on N by:

xRy ⇐⇒ x divides y.
(1) Prove that R is an order relation.
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(2) Is a total order?

(3) Let
A = {2, 3, 5}.
Find the sets of upper and lower bounds of A. Determine
sup A and inf A. What about max A and min A?
(4) The same questions for the set B given by
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B = {4, 8, 16}.

Solution 3.3.11.
(1) Recall that x divides y in N if and only if there exists a certain
n ∈ N such that y = nx.
(a) The relation is reflexive because we can divide any natural
number by itself.
(b) To show that R is anti-symmetric, let x, y ∈ N and sup-
pose xRy and yRx, i.e. x divides y and y divides x,
i.e. there exist n, m ∈ N such that y = nx and x = my.
Hence,

y = nmy =⇒ 1 = nm because y 6= 0.

However, the only natural integers n and m satisfying

nm = 1 are n = 1 and m = 1. Hence x = y, i.e. the
relation is indeed anti-symmetric.
(c) Let x, y, z ∈ N, and assume xRy and yRz, i.e. there are
n, m ∈ N such that y = nx and z = my. So z = mnx, i.e.
x divides z, that is xRz, i.e. R is transitive, and so we
have shown that the relation R is an order relation.
(2) The order is not total. We have to find two positive integers
x and y which are not comparable, i.e. such that neither x
divides y, nor y divides x. For example, 3 and 5 are not
comparable as 3 does not divide 5 and 5 does not divide 3.
(3) Let’s find the sets of upper and lower bounds of A. If M is an
upper bound of A, then

∀x ∈ A : x divides M.
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3.3. EXERCISES WITH SOLUTIONS 83

It is clear that M must be a multiple of 2, 3 and 5 at the

same time. Hence, the set of upper bounds of A consists of all
multiples of 2, 3 and 5 simultaneously, i.e. multiples of 30.
Now, if m is a lower bound of A, then
∀x ∈ A : m divides x.
So m must divide 2, 3 and 5 at the same time, and so it is
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clear that the set of lower bounds is reduced to {1}.

Thus, the supremum of A is:
sup A = lcm{2, 3, 5} = 30.
Since 30 6∈ A, it is seen that max A does not exist!
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Finally, clearly inf A = 1, and since 1 6∈ A, we infer that

min A does not exist.
(4) Applying the method of the previous question we find that the
set of upper bounds consists of multiples of 4, 8 and 16 at once
(i.e. the multiples of 16). So
sup B = lcm{4, 8, 16} = 16.
Since 16 ∈ B, we conclude that max B exists and it is equal
to 16.
The set of lower bounds of B is the set of divisors of 4, 8
and 16 simultaneously, i.e. it is formed of numbers 1, 2 and
4. The largest of them is the greatest common divisor, noted
gcd, i.e.
inf B = gcd{4, 8, 16} = 4.
It is also a minimum because 4 ∈ B, i.e. min B = 4.
Exercise 3.3.12. Let X be a non-empty set and let E = P(X) be
the power set of X. We define a binary relation R over E as follows:
ARB ⇐⇒ A ⊂ B.
(1) Show that R is an order relation over E.
(2) Is the order total?
(3) Set X = {3, 4}. Find the upper bounds, the lower bounds, the
supremum, the infimum, the biggest element and the smallest
element (if they exist) of F = {{3}}.
(4) The same questions with X = R and F = {R∗− , R∗+ } where
R∗− = (−∞, 0).
Solution 3.3.12.
(1) (a) Let A ∈ E, then A ⊂ A. Hence, R is reflexive.
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84 3. RELATIONS

(b) Let A, B ∈ E be such that ARB and BRA, i.e. A ⊂ B

and B ⊂ A. So, we get A = B. So R is anti-symmetric.
(c) Finally, R is transitive because
∀A, B, C ∈ E : (A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C =⇒ A ⊂ C).
Therefore, R is an order relation.
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(2) The order is not total. To see why, we need to find A, B ∈ E

such that
A 6⊂ B and B 6⊂ A.
Since we do not have much information about X, the best
counterexample perhaps is to take any A ⊂ X (with A 6= ∅
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and A 6= X) and B = Ac , i.e. the complement of A. So it is

obvious that
A 6⊂ Ac and Ac 6⊂ A.
(3) We have
E = P(X) = {∅, {3}, {4}, {3, 4}}.
Remember that M ∈ E is an upper bound of F = {{3}} if
{3} ⊂ M,
whereby the set of upper bounds is given by
{{3}, {3, 4}}.
Hence sup F = {3}, and since {3} ∈ F = {{3}}, we deduce
that max F exists and it is equal to {3}.
On the other hand, the set of lower bounds is given by:
{∅, {3}},
and so inf F = ∅, and min F does not exist because ∅ 6∈ F .
(4) A set M is an upper bound of F if
R∗− ⊂ M and R∗+ ⊂ M.
It is then seen that the set of upper bounds is reduced to
{R∗ , R}. The set of lower bounds is reduced to {∅}. Whence,
sup F = R∗ , inf F = ∅.
Since R∗ , ∅ 6∈ F , we conclude that neither max F nor min F
exists.
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3.4. SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 85

3.4. Supplementary Exercises

Exercise 3.4.1. Define a relation R over E = {0, 1, 2} as follows
0R0, 0R1, 1R1 and 2R2.
Is R an order relation on E?
The same question with
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0R0, 0R1, 1R1, 1R2 and 2R2.

Exercise 3.4.2. A binary relation R over a set E is said to be
circular when
∀x, y, z ∈ E : (xRy and yRz) =⇒ zRx.
Show that a circular relation that is reflexive is always an equivalence
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relation.
Exercise 3.4.3. Is the relation R defined on R by
xRy ⇐⇒ |x| ≤ |y|
a total order?
Exercise 3.4.4. Determine whether the following relations (defined
on R) are order or equivalence relations:
(1) xRy ⇐⇒ [x] ≤ [y],
(2) xRy ⇐⇒ [x] = [y],
(3) xRy ⇐⇒ cos x = cos y,
where [·] is the usual greatest integer function.
Exercise 3.4.5. Let R be a relation defined over, N × N by
(a, b)R(c, d) ⇐⇒ ad = bc.
Prove that R is an equivalence relation on N × N.
Exercise 3.4.6. Consider the relation defined in Exercise 3.3.10,
then set
A = {(1, 2), (0, 4), (3, 1)}.
Find the upper and lower bounds of A. Find also sup A, inf A and
max A and min A (if they exist).
Exercise 3.4.7. Define on N a relation R by
nRm ⇐⇒ ∃p ∈ N : m = np .
(1) Check that R is an order relation on N.
(2) Let A = {2, 4, 16}. Find the upper and lower bounds of A.
Find sup A, inf A and max A and min A (if they exist).
(3) The same questions with B = {4, 8}.