CHAPTER 38

INDUCTANCE

An inductor is a circuit element that stores energy in the magnetic

field surrounding its current-carrying wires, just as a capacitor stores energy in
the electric field between its charged plates. Previously we used the ideal parallel-plate
capacitor as a convenient representation o f any capacitor; in this chapter we similarly use
the ideal solenoid to represent an inductor.
In Chapter 31 we showed that a capacitor is characterized by the value o f its capacitance,
which can be calculated from the geometry o f its construction and which then describes the
behavior o f the capacitor in an electrical circuit. In this chapter, we show that an inductor is
characterized by its inductance, which depends on the geometry o f its construction and
which describes its behavior in a circuit.
When a circuit contains both an inductor and a capacitor, the energy stored in the circuit
can oscillate back and forth between them. Just as the energy in a mechanical oscillator can
oscillate between kinetic and potential. Such circuits, which behave as electromagnetic
oscillators, are discussed at the end o f this chapter.

inductance. Like the capacitance C, the inductance L is

38-1 INDUCTANCE always taken to be a positive quantity.
Equation 2 shows that the SI unit of inductance is the
Capacitance is defined by Eq. 1 of Chapter 31, volt • second/ampere. This combination o f units has been
given the special name of the henry (abbreviation H), so
f 'c - i , . ( 1) that
1 henry = 1 volt • second/ampere.
This equation, which is ultimately based on Coulomb’s
law, asserts that the potential difference across a ca­ This unit is named after Joseph Henry (1797-1878), an
pacitor is proportional to the charge q stored in the capaci­ American physicist and a contemporary o f Faraday. In an
tor; the proportionality constant, C“ ‘, gives the (inverse electrical circuit diagram, an inductor is represented by
o f the) capacitance. We regard the quantities in Eq. 1 as the symbol , which resembles the shape o f a sole­
being magnitudes only; the sign of the potential difference noid.
is such that the plate with the positive chaise has the To find the relationship between the sign of and the
higher potential. sign of di/dt, we use Lenz’ law. Figure 1 shows an ideal
The inductance L of a circuit element (such as a sole­ solenoid in which a steady current / has been established
(perhaps by a battery, not shown in the figure). Let us
noid) is defined by a similar relationship.

( 2)
^ dt
where all quantities are again taken to be magnitudes
only. This equation, which we later show to be based on
Faraday’s law, asserts that a time-varying current through
the inductor gives rise to an em f across the inductor,
and that the em f is proportional to the rate of change Figure 1 An arbitrary inductor, represented as a solenoid.
o f the current. The proportionality constant L gives the The current i establishes a magnetic field B.

821
822 Chapter 38 Inductance

This technique is based on Faraday’s law. We first deter­

mine the magnetic field B for the geometry o f a particular
(a)
inductor (which for the time being we assume contains no
magnetic material). This enables the magnetic flux <I>£
decreasing
through each turn of the coil to be obtained. We assume
that the flux has the same value for each o f the turns of
the coil. The product N 0g is known as the number o f /lux
(b) linkages o f the inductor. The em f can be found from
Faraday’s law
increasing
_ d{N<i»g)
—— (5)
Figure 2 (a) A decreasing current induces in the inductor an dt
em f that opposes the decrease in current, (b) An increasing
current induces in the inductor an em f that opposes the increase. Equations 2 and 5 relate the em f in an inductor to the
current (Eq. 2) or to a property that is proportional to the
current (O^ in Eq. 5). Comparing the two equations (and
taking the magnitude o f all quantities), we find
suddenly decrease the (battery) em f in the circuit. The di ^ d(N<t>g)
current i at once starts to decrease. This decrease in
dt dt '
current is the change which, according to Lenz’ law, the
inductance must oppose. To oppose the falling current, Integrating with respect to the time, we find
the induced em f must provide an additional current in the
Li = N<t>g,
same direction as i.
or
If instead we suddenly increase the (battery) emf, the
current i starts at once to increase. Now Lenz’ law shows L= ( 6)
that the increase in current is opposed by the inductance
through an additional current in a direction opposite to i. Equation 6, which is based on Faraday’s law, permits the
In each case, the induced em f acts to oppose the change inductance to be found directly from the number o f flux
in the current. Figure 2 summarizes the relationship be­ linkages. Note that, since O j is proportional to the current
tween the sign o f di/dt and the sign o f <?/.. In Fig. 2a, F* is /, the ratio in Eq. 6 is independent o f / and (like the capaci­
greater than such that Fj, — = \L di/dt\. Since / is tance) depends only on the geometry of the device.
decreasing, di/dt is negative, so we can write this as
V , - V , = - L di/dt. (3) The Inductance of a Solenoid
In Fig. is positive and F„ is greater than F*,soEq. Let us apply Eq. 6 to calculate L for a section o f length / of
3 applies in this case as well. Equation 3 is particularly a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A\ we assume the
useful when we use the loop theorem to analyze circuits section is near the center o f the solenoid so that edge
containing inductors. effects need not be considered. In Section 35-6, the mag­
netic field B inside a solenoid carrying a current i was
shown to be
B = p^ni, (7)
38-2 CALCULATING THE
INDUCTANCE__________________ where n is the number o f turns per unit length. The num­
ber of flux linkages in the length / is
We calculated the capacitance of an arbitrary charged N<t>g = {nltBA),
conductor (free of dielectric substance) by using Cou­
lomb’s law in the form o f Gauss’ law to find the electric which becomes, after substituting for B,
field E in terms o f the charge q stored in the capacitor, by N<l>B = pon^liA. ( 8)
writing the potential difference as
Equation 6 then gives the inductance directly:
A F = - J E 'ds (4)
(9)
we can then substitute for E and deduce the dependence
o f A F on q, and Eq. 1 then gives the capacitance. We The inductance per unit length o f the solenoid can be
demonstrated this technique in the examples of Section written
31-2.
j= Pon^A. ( 10)
We adopt a similar technique to calculate inductance.
 Section 38-2 Calculating the Inductance 823

This expression involves only geometrical factors— the

cross-sectional area and the number of turns per unit
length. The proportionality to is expected; if we double
the number o f turns per unit length, not only is the num­
ber N o f turns doubled, but the flux through each turn
is doubled, and the number o f flux linkages increases by a
factor o f 4, as does the inductance.
Equations 9 and 10 are valid for a solenoid o f length
very much greater than its radius. We have neglected the
spreading o f the magnetic field lines near the end of a
Figure 3 A cross section of a toroid, showing the current in
solenoid, just as we neglected the fringing of the electric
the windings and the magnetic field in the interior.
field near the edges o f the plates of a capacitor.

The Inductance of a Toroid

We now calculate the inductance o f a toroid o f rectangu­ constant of the material. Since the applied field Bq in­
lar cross section, as shown in Fig. 3. The magnetic field B cludes the factor/<o, we can account for the effect o f the
in a toroid was given by Eq. 23 of Chapter 35, magnetic material by replacing/ig with the quantity k „Hb,
in analogy with the similar substitution made in the case
( 11) of capacitors containing dielectrics.
In the case of an inductor, the field Bqwould appear in
where N is the total number o f turns o f the toroid. Note the inductor if no magnetic material were present. The
that the magnetic field is not constant inside the toroid field B appears in the inductor when it is filled with mag­
but varies with the radius r. netic material. In the expressions for inductance, we can
The flux through the cross section o f the toroid is account for the presence o f a magnetic material filling the
inductor by substituting for A>. or. in analogy with
hdr Eq. 13,
L ~ k ^ L q, (15)
_ HoiNh p dr _ n^lNh b
where L is the inductance with the magnetic material
In I ~ 2^*" a ’
present and L q is the inductance o f the empty inductor.
Thus a solenoid filled with a magnetic substance o f perme­
where h dr is the area o f the elementary strip between the
ability constant has an inductance given by
dashed lines shown in Fig. 3. The inductance can then be
found directly from Eq. 6: L = K ^m ^lA, (16)
which we find by substituting for/^ in Eq. 9.
L= ( 12)
2n a Because the permeability constants o f paramagnetic or
diamagnetic substances do not differ substantially from 1,
Once again, L depends only on geometrical factors. the inductances of inductors filled with such substances
are nearly equal to their values when empty, and no major
Inductors with Magnetic Materials
change in the properties o f the inductor is obtained by
In Section 31-5, we showed that the capacitance C of a filling the inductor with a paramagnetic or a diamagnetic
capacitor filled with a dielectric substance is increased by material. In the case of a ferromagnetic material, how­
a factor k^, the dielectric constant, relative to the capaci­ ever, substantial changes can occur. Although the perme­
tance Co when no dielectric is present: ability constant is not defined in general for ferromagnetic
materials (because the total field does not increase in lin­
C KjCq (13)
ear proportion to the applied field), under particular cir­
We were able to convert equations derived for empty cumstances B can be several thousand times Bq. Thus the
capacitors to account for the case with the dielectric by “effective” permeability constant for a ferromagnet can
replacing the permittivity constant €q with the product have values in the range o f 10^ to 10^, and the inductance
Ke«0- of an inductor filled with ferromagnetic material (that is,
When a magnetic field Bqacts on a magnetic substance, one in which the windings are made on a core o f a mate­
the total field B (including the applied field Bq plus the rial such as iron) can be greater than the inductance of a
field due to the dipoles o f the material) can be written similar set of windings on an empty core by a factor of 10^
to 10^. Ferromagnetic cores provide the means to obtain
B= k„B o (14)
large inductances, just as dielectric materials in capacitors
as we showed in Section 37-3. Here k „ is the permeability permit large capacitances to be obtained.
824 Chapter 38 Inductance

la S
Sample Problem 1 A section of a solenoid of length / = 12 cm
and having a circular cross section of diameter d = \ . 6 cm 5 —
carries a steady current of i = 3.80 A. The section contains 75
turns along its length, {a) What is the inductance of the solenoid
4 T
when the core is empty? (b) The current is reduced at a constant
rate to 3.20 A in a time of 15 s. What is the resulting emf devel­
oped by the solenoid, and in what direction does it act? Figure 4 An LR circuit.

Solution (a) The inductance of the solenoid is found from

Eq. 9:
*1------------v w w -
L = p^n^lA R
= (An X 10-^ H/mK75 tums/0.12 m )\0 A 2 mX7r)(0.008 m)^
= 1.2 X 10-5 H = 12//H. 4 t

Note that we have expressed//qin units of H /m . An inductance

can always be expressed as po times a quantity with the dimen­ Figure 5 The LR circuit of Fig. 4 when the switch is closed
sion of length. A similar situation holds for capacitance; see on a.
Section 31-2.
(b) The rate at which the current changes is
di ^ 3.20 A - 3.80 A The rate at which charge builds up is determined by the
= -0 .0 4 0 A/s, capacitive time constant Tc, defined by
dt 15 s
and the corresponding em f has magnitude given by Eq. 2: Tc = R C . (18)
= \L dildt\ = (12 //HX0.040 A/s) = 0.48 pW. If in this same circuit the battery em f S is suddenly
removed when the capacitor has stored a charge qo, the
Because the current is decreasing, the induced em f must act in
charge does not immediately fall to zero but approaches it
the same direction as the current, so that the induced emf op­
poses the decreases in the current. exponentially, as described by Eq. 36 o f Chapter 33,
q = q ^ ‘/^<^. (19)
Sample Problem 2 The core of the solenoid of Sample The same time constant Xcdescribes the rise and the fall of
Problem 1 is filled with iron while the current is held constant at the charge on the capacitor.
3.20 A. The magnetization of the iron is saturated such that A similar rise (or fall) of the current occurs if we sud­
B = 1.4 T. What is the resulting inductance? denly introduce an em f S into (or remove it from) a sin­
gle-loop circuit containing a resistor R and an inductor L.
Solution The “effective” permeability constant of the core When the switch S in Fig. 4 is closed on a, the current in
subject to this particular applied field is determined from
the resistor starts to rise. If the inductor were not present,
= A =.B the current would rise rapidly to a steady value S/R. Be­
Bo Horn cause of the inductor, however, an induced em f 6^ ap­
1.4 T pears in the circuit and, from Lenz’ law, this em f opposes
= 557. the rise o f current, which means that it opposes the bat­
(4k X 10"’ T-m/AX75 tums/0.12 mX3.20 A)
tery em f <3 in polarity. Thus the current in the resistor
The inductance is given by Eq. 15 as depends on the sum o f two emfs, a constant one S due to
the battery and a variable one o f the opposite sign due
L = k ^ L o = (557X12 pH ) = 6.7 mH.
to the inductance. As long as this second em f is present,
the current in the resistor is less than S/R.
As time goes on, the current increases less rapidly, and
the induced em f which is proportional to di/dt, be­
comes smaller. The current in the circuit approaches the
38-3 L R CIRCUITS
value S/R exponentially, as we prove below.
Now let us analyze this circuit quantitatively. When the
In Section 33-7 we saw that if we suddenly introduce an
switch S in Fig. 4 is thrown to a, the circuit reduces to that
em f S, perhaps by using a battery, into a single-loop cir­
o f Fig. 5. Let us apply the loop theorem, starting at x in
cuit containing a resistor R and a capacitor C, the charge
Fig. 5 and going clockwise around the loop. For the direc­
does not build up immediately to its final equilibrium
tion of current shown, x is higher in potential than y,
value C<s but approaches it exponentially, as described by
which means that we encounter a change in potential of
Eq. 31 o f Chapter 33:
Vy— Vy = —iR as we traverse the resistor. Point y is
q = C S { l - e ~ ‘/^^). (17) higher in potential than point z because, for an increasing
 Section 38-3 LR Circuits 825

current, the induced em f opposes the rise o f the current by must be determined by substituting i{t) and its derivative
pointing as shown. Thus as we traverse the induc­ dildt into Eq. 20. Differentiating Eq. 21, we obtain
tor from y to z we encounter a change in potential o f
V^— Vy = —L(di/dt), according to Eq. 3. Finally, we en­ (22)
counter a rise in potential o f + 5 in traversing the battery dt R xl ^
from z to X. The loop theorem gives Doing the substitutions and the necessary algebra, we find
that Eq. 20 is satisfied if
-iR -L ^ + S = 0
dt
'‘ - i <«>
or
Ti is called the inductive time constant. In analogy with the
r di , capacitive time constant Xc = RC, it indicates how rap­
L —h iR — (20)
dt idly the current in an LR circuit approaches the steady
To solve Eq. 20, we must find the function i{t) such that value.
when it and its first derivative are substituted in Eq. 20 the To show that the quantity = L/R has the dimension
equation is satisfied. of time, we have
Although there are formal rules for solving equations [L] _ henry _ volt • second/ampere
such as Eq. 20, it is also possible to solve it by direct [7?] ohm ohm
integration (see Problem 20). It is even simpler in this case
to try to guess at the solution, guided by physical reason­ _ / ------ volt — \ _ jgcond,
ing and by previous experience. We can test the proposed \ am pere-ohm /
solution by substituting it into Eq. 20 and seeing whether where the quantity in parentheses equals 1 because
the resulting equation reduces to an identity. 1 ohm = 1 volt/ampere (as in /? = V/i).
In this case we guess at a solution similar to that for the The physical significance of x^ follows from Eq. 21. If
buildup o f charge on a capacitor in an RC circuit (Eq. 17). we put / = Ti into this equation, it reduces to
We also require on physical grounds that the solution i{t)
have two mathematical properties. (1) The initial current /= | ( l - O = ( l - 0 . 3 7 ) | = 0 .6 3 |.
must be zero; that is, /(O) = 0. The current builds up from
the value o f zero just after the switch is closed. (2) The
The time constant x^ is that time at which the current in
current must approach the value S/R as t becomes large.
the circuit is less than its final steady value S/Rhy& factor
This second requirement follows from the expectation
of l/e (about 37%).
that the change in current gradually decreases, and when
The complete solution for the current in an LR circuit
di/dt dies away the influence of the inductor on the circuit
can be written
disappears. We therefore try as a solution the function
/(0 = ; ^ ( 1 - ^ ' ^ ' ^ ) . (24)
( 21)
Figure 6 shows the potential drop Vg [=\Vy— V^\ =
Note that this mathematical form has the two properties /(/)7?] across the resistor R and the potential drop
/(O) = 0 and / —» S/R as / —*• “ . The time constant Ki [=\V^ — Vy\ = L(di/dt)\ across the ided inductor.

>

t (ms)
( 6)

Figure 6 The variation with time of (a) the potential difference across the resistor in the
circuit of Fig. 5, and (b) the potential difference across the inductor in that circuit. The
curves are drawn for R = 2000 Q, L = 4.0 H, and = 10 V. The inductive time constant
is 2 ms; successive intervals equal to are marked by the triangles along the horizontal axis.
826 Chapter 38 Inductance

If the switch S in Fig. 4 is thrown to b when the current If we connect the oscilloscope terminals across the in­
in the circuit has some value /‘o. the effect is to remove the ductor (points y and z in Fig. 5), the waveform displayed is
battery from the circuit. The equation that governs the that of the derivative o f the current, which has the same
subsequent decay of the current in the circuit can be form as as shown in Fig. Ic, According to Eq. 22, this
found by putting <? = 0 in Eq. 20, which gives form is
(27)
L ^ + iR = 0. (25) ^ dt
dt
when the applied em f has the value S. When the applied
By direct substitution or by integration, it can be shown
em f is zero, differentiating Eq. 26 shows that
that the solution to this equation is
/(O = (26) Vi^ = L ^ = - S e - ‘i \
^ dt
where /qis the current at / = 0 (which now means the time
since 6 = i^R in this case. We see that this result is just the
at which the switch is thrown to b). The decay o f the
negative of Eq. 27. This agrees with the alternating series
current occurs with the same exponential time constant
of positive and negative exponentials shown in Fig. 7c.
= L/R as does the rise in the current. Note the similar­
Note that adding the curves o f Fig. lb and Ic gives Fig.
ity with Eq. 19 for the decay o f the charge on a capacitor.
Throwing the switch in Fig. 4 back and forth between a
la. That is, -h = <?, which must be true according
and b can be accomplished electronically by removing the to the loop theorem.
battery from Fig. 5 and replacing it with a generator that
produces a square wave, of the form shown in Fig. la.
This waveform oscillates back and forth between the Sample Problem 3 A solenoid has an inductance of 53 mH
values S and 0 in a fixed time interval, which we choose to and a resistance of 0.37 il. If it is connected to a battery, how
be much greater than t^,. long will it take for the current to reach one-half its final equilib­
If we connect the terminals o f an oscilloscope across the rium value?
resistor (points x and y in Fig. 5), the waveform displayed
Solution The equilibrium value of the current, which is
is that o f the current in the circuit, which is identical in reached at r —► is from Eq. 24. If the current has half this
form to V^, as shown in Fig. lb. The current builds up to value at a particular time /©, this equation becomes
its maximum value <?//? when the applied em f has the
value €, and it decays exponentially to zero (according to
Eq. 26) when the applied em f is zero. 2R
or
1
2•
Solving for to by rearranging and taking the (natural) logarithm
of each side, we find
, L , 53 X 10-5 H , ^
1 i 1 L to = Ti. In 2 = - In 2 = In 2 = 0.10 s.
(a)

Vp|-T

38-4 ENERGY STORAGE IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD_____________
( 6)

V r---- When a stone is lifted from the Earth, the external work
done is stored as potential energy of the Earth-stone sys­
----- t tem. We can regard the process of separating the two
objects as a way o f storing energy in the gravitational field.
When the stone is released, the energy can be recovered in
(c) the form o f kinetic energy as the stone and Earth move
Figure 7 (a) A source of em f varying as a square wave is ap­ closer together. In a similar manner, the work done in
plied to the circuit of Fig. 5. (b) The potential difference separating two charges o f different signs is stored as the
across the resistor, (c) The potential difference across the in­ energy o f the electric field of the charges; that energy can
ductor. be recovered by allowing the charges to move together.
 Section 38-4 Energy Storage in a Magnetic Field 827

We can also consider the energy stored in the (gravita­

= II ^ (29)
tional or electric) field surrounding an isolated body, such dt ‘ dt
as the Earth or a single charge. We regard the energy or
stored in that field as representing the energy expended in dUg = L id i. (30)
assembling the body from its constituent mass or charge
elements, assumed initially to be at rest at infinite separa­ Suppose we start with no current in the inductor (/ = 0)
tions. and no stored energy in its magnetic field. We gradually
Energy can similarly be stored in a magnetic field. For increase the current to the final value i. The energy Ug
example, consider two long, rigid, parallel wires carrying stored in the magnetic field can be found by integrating
current in the same direction. The wires attract each Eq. 30, which gives
other, and the work done in separating them is stored in
the magnetic field surrounding them. We can recover that J \[/g = Li di
additional stored magnetic energy by letting the wires or
move back to their original positions. Vg = \L P , (31)
We also regard energy as stored in the magnetic field of
an isolated wire, in analogy with the energy of the electric which represents the total stored magnetic energy in an
field of an isolated charge. Before considering this subject inductance L carrying a current /.
in general it is helpful to consider the energy stored in the If the switch in Fig. 4 is thrown from a \o b after a
magnetic field o f an inductor, just as we introduced en­ current / is established, the stored energy in the inductor
ergy storage in an electric field in Section 31 -4 by consider­ dissipates through Joule heating in the resistor. The
ing the electric energy stored in a capacitor. current in this case is given by Eq. 26.
Figure 5 shows a source of em f connected to a resistor An analogous situation holds in charging and discharg­
R and an inductor L. The loop theorem applied to this ing a capacitor. When the capacitor has accumulated a
circuit gives charge q, the energy stored in the electric field is

<? = //? + L ^ ,
1
dt
as we already found in Eq. 20. Recall that the loop We derived this expression in Section 31-4 by setting the
theorem is basically an expression of the principle of con­ stored energy equal to the work that must be done in
servation of energy for single-loop circuits. Multiplying setting up the field. The capacitor can discharge through a
each side o f this expression by /, we obtain resistor, in which case the stored energy is again dissipated
through Joule heating.
6 i = i^R + L i ^ , (28) The necessity to dissipate the energy stored in an induc­
dt
tor is the reason that a “make before break” switch is
which has the following physical interpretation in terms needed in the circuit of Fig. 4. In this type of switch, the
of work and energy: connection to b is made before the connection to a is
broken. If such a switch were not used, the circuit would
1. If a charge dq passes through the seat of em f S in Fig. 5 be momentarily open when the switch was thrown from a
in a time dt, the seat does work on it in the amount S dq. to b, in which case the current would be interrupted; the
The rate o f doing work is (€ dq)/dt or S i. Thus the left side energy stored in the inductor would dissipate suddenly as
o f Eq. 28 is the rate at which the seat ofemfdelivers energy a spark across the switch terminals.
to the circuit.
2. The second term in Eq. 28, PR, is the rate at which
energy is dissipated in the resistor. This energy appears as Sample Problem 4 A coil has an inductance of 53 mH and
the internal energy associated with atomic motions in the resistance of 0.35 Q. (a) If a 12-V emf is applied, how much
resistor. energy is stored in the magnetic field after the current has built
3. Energy delivered to the circuit but not dissipated in the up to its maximum value? (b) In terms of t^, how long does it
take for the stored energy to reach half of its maximum value?
resistor must, by our hypothesis, be stored in the magnetic
field. Since Eq. 28 represents a statement of the conserva­
Solution (a) From Eq. 2 1 the maximum current is
tion of energy for LR circuits, the last term must represent
the rate at which energy is stored in the magnetic field. . _ < ? _ 12V _ _ _
R 0.35 Q
Let {7b represent the energy stored in the magnetic field;
Substituting this current into Eq. 31, we find the stored energy:
then the rate at which energy is stored is dUsIdt. Equating
the rate o f energy storage to the last term of Eq. 28, we Us = i L i i = i(53 X 10-^ HK34.3 A)^
obtain = 31 J.
828 Chapter 38 Inductance

(b) Let / be the current at the instant the stored energy has half Energy Density and the Magnetic Field
its maximum value. Then
We now derive an expression for the energy density (en­
ergy per unit volume) Ug in a magnetic field. Consider a
or very long solenoid of cross-sectional area A whose interior
contains no material. A portion o f length / far from either
But / is given by Eq. 21 and (see above) is SIR , so that
end encloses a volume Al. The magnetic energy stored in
this portion o f the solenoid must lie entirely within this
■|(1 . volume because the magnetic field outside the solenoid is
R 'JlR essentially zero. Moreover, the stored energy must be uni­
This can be written formly distributed throughout the volume o f the solenoid
because the magnetic field is uniform everywhere inside.
e~<hL= 1 _ 1/72 = 0.293,
Thus we can write the energy density as
which yields
Ug
= ln 0.293 = -1 .2 3

or or, since
t= \ 2 1 xl.
U g = iL i\
The stored energy reaches half its maximum value after 1.23
time constants. we have
iL P
M« = -
Sample Problem 5 A 3.56-H inductor is placed in series with a Al •
12.8-f2 resistor, an emf of 3.24 V being suddenly applied to the To express this in terms o f the magnetic field, we can solve
combination. At 0.278 s (which is one inductive time constant) Eq. 1 {B = n^iri) for i and substitute in this equation. We
after the contact is made, find (a) the rate P at which energy is
can also substitute for L using the relation L = n^ri^lA
being delivered by the battery, (b) the rate at which internal
energy appears in the resistor, and (c) the rate Pg at which energy
(Eq. 9). Doing so yields finally
is stored in the magnetic field.
(32)
Solution (a) The current is given by Eq. 21. At r = t^., we
obtain This equation gives the energy density stored at any point
(in a vacuum or in a nonmagnetic substance) where the
/• = I (I - €-"'•■) = (1 - ^ - ) = 0.1600 A. magnetic field is B. The equation is true for all magnetic
field configurations, even though we derived it by consid­
The rate P at which the battery delivers energy is then ering a special case, the solenoid. Equation 32 is to be
P = ^ i = (3.24 VXO. 1600 A) = 0.5184 W. compared with Eq. 28 of Chapter 31,
(^) The rate Pg at which energy is dissipated in the resistor is Ue = i€o£■^ (33)
given by
which gives the energy density (in a vacuum) at any point
Pg = i ^ R = (0.1600 A)2(12.8 Q ) = 0.3277 W. in an electric field. Note that both Ug and Ug are propor­
(c) The rate Pg (= dUg/dt) at which energy is being stored in tional to the square o f the appropriate field quantit>.
the magnetic field is given by Eq. 29. Using Eq. 22 with / = B or E.
we obtain The solenoid plays a role for magnetic fields similar to
that o f the parallel-plate capacitor for electric fields. In
each case we have a simple device that can be used for
setting up a uniform field throughout a well-defined re­
From Eq. 29 the desired rate is then gion of space and for deducing, in a simple way, properties
of these fields.
^ dt dt
= (3.56 H)(0.1600 A)(0.3348 A/s) = 0.1907 W.
Note that, as required by energy conservation, Sample Problem 6 A long coaxial cable (Fig. 8) consists of two
concentric cylindrical conductors with radii a and b, where
b '» - a. Its central conductor carries a steady current /, and the
or outer conductor provides the return path, (a) Calculate the en­
P = 0.3277 W + 0.1907 W = 0.5184 W. ergy stored in the magnetic field for a length / of such a cable.
(b) What is the inductance of a length / of the cable?
 Section 38-5 Electromagnetic Oscillations: Qualitative 829

Sample Problem 7 Compare the energy required to set up, in a

cube 10 cm on edge, (a) a uniform electric field of 1.0 X 10^ V /m
and (b) a uniform magnetic field of 1.0 T. Both these fields would
be judged reasonably large but they are readily available in the
laboratory.

Solution (a) In the electric case we have, where Vq is the vol­

ume of the cube,

= (0.5X8.9 X 10-*2 CVN-m^XlO* W/mYiO.l m)^

= 4.5 X 10-5 J.
(b) In the magnetic case, from Eq. 32 we have

Figure 8 Sample Problem 6. Cross section of a coaxial cable, u =u V -

' " ® ® ( 2 X 4 ; r X lO - ’ T - t n / A )
which carries steady equal but opposite currents in its inner
and outer conductors. In the region between the conductors = 400 J.
the lines of B form circles. In terms of fields normally available in the laboratory, much
larger amounts of energy can be stored in a magnetic field than in
an electric one, the ratio being about 10^ in this example. Con­
Solution (a) In the space between the two conductors versely, much more energy is required to set up a magnetic field
Ampere’s law, of reasonable laboratory magnitude than is required to set up an
electric field of similarly reasonable magnitude.

f
leads to
B (ln r )= ^ i
or
5 = M
In r ’
38-5 ELECTROMAGNETIC
Ampere’s law shows further that the magnetic field is zero for OSCILLATIONS:
points outside the outer conductor (why?). The outer conductor QUALITATIVE_________________
is so thin that we can neglect the magnetic energy stored in that
conductor. We similarly assume that the inner conductor is so
small that the magnetic energy in its volume is negligible. We We now turn to a study o f the properties o f circuits that
therefore consider the stored magnetic energy to reside entirely contain both a capacitor C and an inductor L. Such a
in the space between the conductors. circuit forms an electromagnetic oscillator, in which the
The energy density for points between the conductors, from current varies sinusoidally with time, much as the dis­
Eq. 32, is placement of a mechanical oscillator varies with time. In
fact, as we shall see, there are several analogies between
2/^ 2/Zo \ 2n r) * electromagnetic and mechanical oscillators. These analo­
gies help us understand electromagnetic oscillators based
Consider a volume element d V consisting of a cylindrical shell
on our previous study of mechanical oscillators (Chap­
whose radii are r and r-\- dr and whose length (perpendicular to
the plane of Fig. 8) is /. The energy dUg contained in it is ter 15).
For the time being, we assume the circuit to include no
resistance. The circuit with resistance, which we consider
in Section 38-7, is analogous to the damped oscillator we
The total stored magnetic energy is found by integration: discussed in Section 15-8. We also assume that no source
o f em f is present in the circuit; oscillating circuits with em f
u .- \ d u .- ^ f / s . present, which we also consider in Section 38-7, are analo­
47t a
gous to forced mechanical oscillators such as we discussed
(b) We can find the inductance L from Eq. 3\ {Ub = \L i^ \ in Section 15-9.
which leads to With no source o f em f present, the energy in the circuit
comes from the energy initially stored in one or both o f
In a the components. Let us assume the capacitor C is charged
You should also derive this expression directly from the defini­ (from some external source that doesn’t concern us) so
tion of inductance, using the procedures of Section 38-2 (see that it contains a charge q^, at which time it is removed
Problem 15). from the external source and connected to the inductor L.
830 Chapter 38 Inductance

Uu Ue Ub Ue

\ ♦♦
“ 1

W)

H e

u. Up. Ub Ur
(a)

t'----
_ ‘ t4J»^ •^f J
(/i)

Ub Up

Figure 9 Eight stages in a single cycle of oscillation of a resistanceless LC circuit. The bar
graphs show the stored magnetic and electric energies. The arrow through the inductor shows
the current.

The LC circuit is shown in Fig. 9a. At first, the enei^y tor back into the capacitor as its electric field builds up
stored in the capacitor is again. Eventually (see Fig. 9e) all the energy has been
transferred back to the capacitor, which is now fully
U = —— (34) charged but in the opposite sense o f Fig. 9a. The situation
Ue 2 c '
continues as the capacitor now discharges until the energy
while the energy Ug = iLi^ stored in the inductor is ini­ is completely back with the inductor, the magnetic field
tially zero, because the current is zero. and the corresponding energy having their maximum
The capacitor now starts to discharge through the in­ values (Fig. 9g). Finally, the current in the inductor
ductor, positive charge carriers moving counterclockwise, charges the capacitor once again until the capacitor is
as shown in Fig. 9b. A current i = dq/dt now flows fully charged and the circuit is back in its original condi­
through the inductor, increasing its stored energy from tion (Fig. 9a). The process then begins again, and the cycle
zero. At the same time, the discharging of the capacitor repeats indefinitely. In the absence of resistance, which
reduces its stored energy. If the circuit is free o f resistance, would cause energy to be dissipated, the charge and
no energy is dissipated, and the decrease in the energy current return to their same maximum values in each
stored in the capacitor is exactly compensated by an in­ cycle.
crease in the energy stored in the inductor, such that the The oscillation of the LC circuit takes place with a
total energy remains constant. In effect, the electric field definite frequency v (measured in Hz) corresponding to
decreases and the magnetic field increases, energy being an angular frequency (o (= 2 7 tv and measured in rad/s).
transferred from one to the other. As we discuss in the next section, to is determined by L
At a time corresponding to Fig. 9c, the capacitor is fully and C. By suitable choices of L and C, we can build oscilla­
discharged, and the energy stored in the capacitor is zero. ting circuits with frequencies that range from below audio
The current in the inductor has reached its maximum frequencies (10 Hz) to above microwave frequencies (10
value, and all the energy in the circuit is stored in the GHz).
magnetic field of the inductor. Note that, even though To determine the charge ^ as a function of the time, we
^ = 0 at this instant, dq/dt differs from zero because can measure the variable potential difference Vdt) that
charge is flowing. exists across the capacitor C, which is related to the
The current in the inductor continues to transport charge q by
charge from the top plate o f the capacitor to the bottom
plate, as in Fig. 9d\ energy is now flowing from the induc­
 Section 38-6 Electromagnetic Oscillations: Quantitative 831

TABLE 1 ENERGY IN OSCILLATING

SYSTEMS
(a) Mechanical Electromagnetic
Spring Us = Capacitor Ue =
Block K = Inductor Ug = \L i^
(h) V = dx/dt i = dq/dt

Figure 10 {a) The potential difference across the capacitor in object (the block), and certain electromagnetic quantities
the circuit of Fig. 9 as a function of time. This quantity is pro­
“correspond” to certain mechanical ones, namely.
portional to the charge on the capacitor. (^) The potential dif­
ference across a small resistor inserted into the circuit of Fig. q corresponds to jc, i corresponds to v,
9. This quantity is proportional to the current in the circuit. (35)
1/C corresponds to k. L corresponds to m.
The letters indicate the corresponding stages in the oscillation
of Fig. 9. Comparison of Fig. 9, which shows the oscillations o f a
resistanceless LC circuit, with Fig. 6 of Chapter 8, which
shows the oscillations in a frictionless block-spring sys­
We can determine the current by inserting into the circuit
tem, indicates how close the correspondence is. Note how
a resistor R so small that its effect on the circuit is negligi­
ble. The potential difference Vj^(t) across R is proportional
Vand / correspond in the two figures; also x and q. Note
also how in each case the energy alternates between two
to the current, according to
forms, magnetic and electric for the LC system, and ki­
Vr = iR- netic and potential for the block-spring system.
In Section 15-3 we saw that the natural angular fre­
If we were to display Vdt) and Vp{t\ such as on the screen
quency o f a mechanical simple harmonic oscillator is
o f an oscilloscope, the result might be similar to that
shown in Fig. 10.
0) = 2nv = .
Vm
The correspondence between the two systems suggests
Sample Problem 8 A 1.5-//F capacitor is charged to 57 V. The that to find the frequency of oscillation o f a (resistance­
charging battery is then disconnected and a 12-mH coil is con­
less) LC circuit, k should be replaced by 1/C and m by L,
nected across the capacitor, so that LC oscillations occur. What
which gives
is the maximum current in the coil? Assume that the circuit
contains no resistance. CO (36)

Solution From the conservation-of-energy principle, the max­

This formula can also be derived from a rigorous analysis
imum stored energy in the capacitor must equal the maximum
of the electromagnetic oscillation, as shown in the next
stored energy in the inductor. Using Eqs. 31 and 34, we obtain
section.
— = \L i^

where is the maximum current and is the maximum

charge. Note that the maximum current and maximum charge 38-6 ELECTROMAGNETIC
do not occur at the same time but one-fourth of a cycle apart; see OSCILLATIONS:
Figs.9and 10. Solving f o r a n d substituting CFfor^„,, we find QUANTITATIVE________________
rr /1 .5 X 10^ F
W l2 X 1 0 -’ H We now derive an expression for the frequency o f oscilla­
tion o f a (resistanceless) LC circuit using the conserva-
tion-of-energy principle. The total energy U present at
any instant in an oscillating LC circuit is
Analogy to Simple Harmonic Motion
1 q^
Figure 6 o f Chapter 8 shows that in an oscillating block- U=Ub+U^ = ^L P + - ^ , (37)
spring system, as in an oscillating LC circuit, two kinds o f
energy occur. One is potential energy o f the compressed which indicates that at any arbitrary time the energy is
or extended spring; the other is kinetic energy o f the mov­ stored partly in the magnetic field o f the inductor and
ing block. These are given by the familiar formulas in the partly in the electric field o f the capacitor. If we assume
first column o f Table 1. The table suggests that a capacitor the circuit resistance to be zero, no energy is dissipated
is in some way like a spring, an inductor is like a massive and U remains constant with time, even though i and q
832 Chapter 38 Inductance

vary. In more formal language, dU/dt must be zero. This

leads to

We let q represent the charge on a particular plate of the

capacitor (for instance, the upper plate in Fig. 9), and i
then represents the rate at which charge flows into that
plate (so that i > 0 when positive charge flows into the
plate). In this case Figure 11 The stored magnetic energy and electric energy
dq ^ di d^q and their sum in an LC circuit as functions of the time.
i = -r and -r = , T (= 2 k !(a) is the period of the oscillation.
dt dt dt^
and substituting into Eq. 38 we obtain
d^q , 1
(39)
The phase constant 0 in Eq. 41 is determined by the
Equation 39 describes the oscillations of a (resistanceless) conditions at r = 0. If the initial condition is as repre­
LC circuit. To solve it, note the similarity of Eq. 4 o f sented by Fig. 9a, then we put <^ = 0 in order that Eq. 41
Chapter 15, may predict q = q„,at t = 0. What initial physical condi­
d ^x Ic
^ + - x = 0, (40) tion is implied by <f>= 90“? 180°? 270”? Which o f the
dr m states shown in Fig. 9 correspond to these choices o f <f>?
which describes the mechanical oscillation of a particle on The stored electric energy in the LC circuit, using Eq.
a spring. Fundamentally, it is by comparing these two 41, is
equations that the correspondences of Eq. 35 arise. Vs = \ ^ = ^ c o s \c o t + 4>), (45)
The solution of Eq. 40 obtained in Chapter 15 was
X = x„, cos {o)t + (f>), and the magnetic energy, using Eq. 42, is

where x„, is the amplitude of the motion and 0 is an Ug = sin^(tu/ -I- 0 ).

arbitrary phase constant. Since q corresponds to x, we can Substituting Eq. 44 for co into this last equation yields
write the solution of Eq. 39 as
q = q„ cos {(ot + <l>), (41) ^ sin^fcu/ -I- <f>). (46)

where (o is the still unknown angular frequency of the Figure 11 shows plots of t/£(0 and UgU) for the case of
electromagnetic oscillations. (f) = 0. Note that (1) the maximum values of Ue and Ug
We can test whether Eq. 41 is indeed a solution of Eq. are the same (= QmllC); (2) the sum of Ue and Ug is a
39 by substituting it and its second derivative in that constant (= q^llCy, (3) when Ue has its maximum value.
equation. To find the second derivative, we write Ub is zero and conversely; and (4) Ug and Ue each reach
their maximum value twice during each cycle. This analy­
^ = / = -o )q „ sin (cut + (f>) (42) sis supports the qualitative analysis o f Section 38-5. Com­
and pare this discussion with that given in Section 15-4 for the
energy transfers in a mechanical simple harmonic oscil­
^ cos (a>t + <t>). (43) lator.

Substituting q and d^qjdt^ into Eq. 39 yields

Sample Problem 9 (a) In an oscillating LC circuit, what value
—Lo)^q„ cos (cot + <f>) + ^qm cos (cot -\-(f>) = 0. of charge, expressed in terms of the maximum charge, is presem
on the capacitor when the energy is shared equally between the
Canceling q„ cos (cot + 0 ) and rearranging leads to electric and the magnetic field? (b) At what time t will this condi­
tion occur, assuming the capacitor to be fully charged initially?
0) = (44) Assume that L = 12 mH and C = 1.7

Solution (a) The stored energy Ue and the maximum stored

Thus, if (o is given the value I/'JLC, Eq. 41 is indeed a
energy in the capacitor are, respectively.
solution o f Eq. 39. This expression for co agrees with Eq.
36,-which we arrived at by the correspondence between
Ue = ^SL and U = —
mechanical and electromagnetic oscillations. 1C ■" 2C ‘
 Section 38-7 Damped and Forced Oscillations 833

Substituting = yields

2C 2 2C
or

q= — .
^ V2
{b) Since </>= 0 in Eq. 41 because ^ at / = 0, we have

Q = q ^co s(o t = — ,
which leads to Figure 12 Photograph of an oscilloscope trace showing the
1 1 ^
oscillation of an LC circuit. The oscillation decreases in am­
W/ = CO S“ * — = T
y/2 4 plitude because energy is dissipated in the resistance of the cir­
cuit.
or, using = \/^/LC,
n _ 7T >/Zr _ 7t V ( 1 2 X 10-^H )(1.7X IQ-^F)
4cu 4 4
in which
cu' = - {R/2Ly. (51)
= 1.1 X 10-^ s.
Using the analogies of Eq. 35, we see that Eq. 50 is the
exact equivalent o f Eq. 38 of Chapter 15, the equation for
the displacement as a function of time in damped simple
harmonic motion. Comparing Eq. 51 with Eq. 39 o f Chap­
38-7 DAMPED AND FORCED
ter 15, we see that the resistance R corresponds to the
OSCILLATIONS________________ damping constant b of the damped mechanical oscillator.
Figure 12 shows the current in a damped LC circuit as a
A resistance R is always present in any real LC circuit. function of the time. (Compare Fig. 19 of Chapter 15.)
When we take this resistance into account, we find that The current oscillates sinusoidally with frequency co\ and
the total electromagnetic energy U is not constant but the current amplitude decreases exponentially with time.
decreases with time as it is dissipated as internal energy in The frequency cu' is strictly less than the frequency co
the resistor. As we shall see, the analogy with the damped (= l/V z ^ ) of the undamped oscillations, but for most
block - spring oscillator of Section 15-8 is exact. As before, cases of interest we can put o ' = co with negligible error.
we have
/i2
U=Ub+Ue = {U ^^ (47)
2C
Sample Problem 10 A circuit hasL = 12 mH, C = 1.6 /iF, and
U is no longer constant but rather R = \.5Q .{a) After what time t will the amplitude of the charge
oscillations drop to one-half of its initial value? (b) To how many
^ - - P R (48) periods of oscillation does this correspond?
dt
Solution (a) This will occur when the amplitude factor
the minus sign signifying that the stored energy U de­ in Eq. 50 has the value 1/2, or
creases with time, being converted to internal energy in
^ -R t/ 2 L = ^
the resistor at the rate PR, Differentiating Eq. 47 and
combining the result with Eq. 48, we have Taking the natural logarithm of each side gives
- R t / 2 L = \ n \ = - \ n 2,
dt C dt or, solving for t,
Substituting dq/dt for / and d^q/dt^ for di/dt and dividing
by i, we obtain
T ,p d q I (b) The number of oscillations is the elapsed time divided by
(49) the period, which is related to the angular frequency coby T =
In ! CO. The angular frequency is
which describes the damped LC oscillations. If we put
1 1
/? = 0, Eq. 49 reduces, as it must, to Eq. 39, which de­ 0) = • = 7220 rad/s.
scribes the undamped LC oscillations. >/ZC V(12X 10-5HX1.6X lO-^F)
We state without proof that the general solution of Eq. The period of oscillation is then
49 can be written in the form
In
r = ^ = = 8.70 X 10-^ s.
q= cos {o't + 0 ), (50) (o 7220 rad/s
834 Chapter 38 Inductance

The elapsed time, expressed in terms of the period of oscillation, nating emf. Other quantities “correspond” as before (see
is then Table 1): displacement to charge and velocity to current.
/_ 0 .0111 s The inductance L, which opposes changes in current,
- 13.
T 8.70 X 10-^ s corresponds to the mass (inertia) m, which opposes
The amplitude drops to one-half after about 13 cycles of oscilla­ changes in velocity. The spring constant k and the inverse
tion. By comparison, the damping in this example is less severe capacitance C“*represent the “stiffness” o f their systems,
than that shown in Fig. 12, where the amplitude drops to one- giving, respectively, the response (displacement) o f the
half in about three cycles. spring to the force and the response (charge) of the capaci­
In this sample problem, we have used co rather than co'. From tor to the emf.
Eq. 51, we calculate (o -c o ' = 0.27 rad/s, and so we make a In Chapter 39, we derive the solution for the current in
negligible error in using co. the circuit of Fig. 13a, which we can write in the form
/ = /„ sin ( c u " /- 0 ) . (53)

Forced Oscillations and Resonance The current amplitude in Eq. 53 is a measure of the
response of the circuit of Fig. \3a to the driving emf. It is
Consider a damped LC circuit containing a resistance R.
reasonable to suppose (from experience in pushing
If the damping is small, the circuit oscillates at the fre­
swings, for example) that is large when the driving
quency o) = 1/VZC, which we call the natural frequency
frequency cu" is close to the natural frequency co of the
o f the system. system. In other words, we expect that a plot o f versus
Suppose now that we drive the circuit with a time-vary­
co" exhibits a maximum when
ing em f given by
CO' = ( o = l/f L C , (54)
cos (o"t (52)
which we call the resonance condition.
using an external generator. Here oj", which can be varied
Figure 14 shows three plots of as a function o f the
at will, is the frequency of this external source. We de­
ratio oj" j 03, each plot corresponding to a different value
scribe such oscillations asforced. When the em f described of the resistance R. We see that each of these peaks does
by Eq. 52 is first applied, time-varying transient currents
indeed have a maximum value when the resonance con­
appear in the circuit. Our interest, however, is in the sinu­ dition o f Eq. 54 is satisfied. Note that asRis decreased, the
soidal currents that exist in the circuit after these initial resonance peak becomes sharper, as shown by the three
transients have died away. Whatever the natural fre­ horizontal arrows drawn at the half-maximum level of
quency 0 ) may be, these oscillations of charge, current, or each curve.
potential difference in the circuit must occur at the exter­ Figure 14 suggests the common experience o f tuning a
nal driving frequency (o". radio set. In turning the tuning knob, we are adjusting the
Figure 13 compares the electromagnetic oscillating sys­ natural frequency <uof an internal LC circuit to match the
tem with a corresponding mechanical system. A vibrator
V, which imposes an external alternating force, corre­
sponds to generator V, which imposes an external alter-

F = Fm COS <jj"t j - v a i ^ Q

6
( )

L R
■ v lS Jb — V W fx

8 = 8m COS O)"M V ,

(a)

Figure 13 (a) Electromagnetic oscillations of a circuit are

driven at an angular frequency cu". (b) Mechanical oscilla­ Figure 14 Resonance curves for the forced oscillating circuii
tions of a spring system are driven at an angular frequency of Fig. 13a. The three curves correspond to different values of
cu". Corresponding elements of the two systems are drawn op­ the resistance of the circuit. The horizontal arrows indicate
posite each other. the width or “sharpness” of each resonance.
 Questions 835

driving frequency co" of the signal transmitted by the the resonance peaks become sharper as the damping fac­
antenna o f the broadcasting station; we are looking for tor (the coefficient b) is reduced. Note that the curves of
resonance. In a metropolitan area, where there are many Fig. 14 and of Fig. 20 of Chapter 15 are not exactly alike.
signals whose frequencies are often close together, sharp­ The former is a plot of current amplitude, while the latter
ness of tuning becomes important. is a plot of displacement amplitude. The mechanical vari­
Figure 14 is similar to Fig. 20 of Chapter 15, which able that corresponds to current is not displacement but
shows resonance peaks for the forced oscillations of a velocity. Nevertheless, both sets of curves illustrate the
mechanical oscillator such as that of Fig. 13b. In this case resonance phenomenon.
also, the maximum response occurs when co" = co, and

QUESTIONS
1. Show that the dimensions of the two expressions for L, 10. A steady current is set up in a coil with a very large inductive
N ^ s l i (Eq. 6) and Sj^Kdi/dt) (Eq. 2), are the same. time constant. When the current is interrupted with a
2. If the flux passing through each turn of a coil is the same, the switch, a heavy arc tends to appear at the switch blades.
inductance of the coil may be calculated from L = N ^ g /i Explain why. (Note: Interrupting currents in highly induc­
(Eq. 6). How might one compute L for a coil for which this tive circuits can be destructive and dangerous.)
assumption is not valid? 11. Suppose that you connect an ideal (that is, essentially resis­
3. Give examples of how the flux linked by a coil can change tanceless) coil across an ideal (again, essentially resistance­
due to stretching or compression of the coil. less) battery. You might think that, because there is no resist­
4. You want to wind a coil so that it has resistance but essen­ ance in the circuit, the current would jump at once to a very
tially no inductance. How would you do it? large value. On the other hand, you might think that, be­
cause the inductive time constant (= L/R ) is very large, the
5. A long cylinder is wound from left to right with one layer of
current would rise very slowly, if at all. What actually hap­
wire, giving it n turns per unit length with an inductance of
pens?
L ,, as in Fig. 15a. If the winding is now continued, in the
same sense but returning from right to left, as in Fig. 15b, so 12. In an LR circuit like that of Fig. 5, can the induced emf
as to give a second layer also of n turns per unit length, then ever be larger than the battery emf?
what is the value of the inductance? Explain. 13. In an LR circuit like that of Fig. 5, is the current in the
resistor always the same as the current in the inductor?
14. In the circuit of Fig. 4, the induced emf is a maximum at
the instant the switch is closed on a. How can this be since
there is no current in the inductor at this instant?
15. Does the time required for the current in a particular LR
circuit to build up to a given fraction of its equilibrium value
(a) depend on the value of the applied constant emf?
16. If the current in a source of emf is in the direction of the emf,
the energy of the source decreases; if a current is in a direc­
tion opposite to the emf (as in charging a battery), the energy
of the source increases. Do these statements apply to the
inductor in Figs. 2a and 2b2
17. Can the back emf in an inductor be in the same sense as the
emf of the source, which gives the inductor its magnetic
{b) energy?
18. The switch in Fig. 4, having been closed on a for a “long”
Figure 15 Question 5. time, is thrown to b. What happens to the energy that is
stored in the inductor?
6 . Is the inductance per unit length for a real solenoid near its 19. A coil has a (measured) inductance L and a (measured)
center the same as, less than, or greater than the inductance resistance R. Is its inductive time constant necessarily given
per unit length near its ends? Justify your answer. by Tl = L /R l Bear in mind that we derived that equation
7. Explain why the inductance of a coaxial cable is expected to (see Fig. 4) for a situation in which the inductive and resis­
increase when the radius of the outer conductor is increased, tive elements are physically separated. Discuss.
the radius of the inner conductor remaining fixed. 20. Figure 6a in this chapter and Fig. 14^ in Chapter 33 are plots
8 . You are given a length / of copper wire. How would you of Vn(t) for, respectively, an LR circuit and an RC circuit.
arrange it to obtain the maximum inductance? Why are these two curves so different? Account for each in
9. Explain how a long straight wire can show induction effects. terms of physical processes going on in the appropriate cir­
How would you go about looking for them? cuit.
836 Chapter 38 Inductance

21. Two solenoids, A and B, have the same diameter and length Li
and contain only one layer of copper windings, with adja­
cent turns touching, insulation thickness being negligible.
Cl C2:
Solenoid A contains many turns of fine wire and solenoid B L2
contains fewer turns of heavier wire, (a) Which solenoid has
the larger inductance? {b) Which solenoid has the larger
(a)
inductive time constant? Justify your answers.
22. Can you make an argument based on the manipulation of L\ Li2
bar magnets to suggest that energy may be stored in a mag­
— n m m
netic field?
23. Draw all the formal analogies you can think of between a
parallel-plate capacitor (for electric fields) and a long sole­ C2
noid (for magnetic fields).
24. In each of the following operations energy is expended. ib)
Some of this energy is returnable (can be reconverted) into
electrical energy that can be made to do useful work and Figure 16 Question 35.
some becomes unavailable for useful work or is wasted in
other ways. In which case will there be the least fraction of
returnable electrical energy? (a) Charging a capacitor; 37. In comparing the electromagnetic oscillating system to a
(b) charging a storage battery; (c) sending a current through mechanical oscillating system, to what mechanical proper­
a resistor; (d) setting up a magnetic field; and (e) moving a ties are the following electromagnetic properties analogous:
conductor in a magnetic held. capacitance, resistance, charge, electric field energy, mag­
netic field energy, inductance, and current?
25. The current in a solenoid is reversed. What changes does this
make in the magnetic held B and the energy density Ug at 38. Two springs are joined and connected to an object with
various points along the solenoid axis? mass m, the arrangement being free to oscillate on a horizon­
tal frictionless surface as in Fig. 17. Sketch the electromag­
26. Commercial devices such as motors and generators that are
netic analog of this mechanical oscillating system.
involved in the transformation of energy between electrical
and mechanical forms involve magnetic rather than electro­
static helds. Why should this be so? ki k2
m
27. Why doesn’t the LC circuit of Fig. 9 simply stop oscillating
when the capacitor has been completely discharged?
28. How might you start an LC circuit into oscillation with its
Figure 17 Question 38.
initial condition being represented by Fig. 9c? Devise a
switching scheme to bring this about.
29. The lower curve b in Fig. 10 is proportional to the derivative
39 Explain why it is not possible to have (a) a real LC circuit
of the upper curve a. Explain why.
without resistance, (b) a real inductor without inherent ca­
30. In an oscillating L C circuit, assumed resistanceless, what pacitance, or (c) a real capacitor without inherent indue-
determines (a) the frequency and {b) the amplitude of the tance. Discuss the practical validity of the LC circuit of Fig
oscillations? 9, in which each of the above realities is ignored.
31. In connection with Figs. 9c and 9g, explain how there can be 40. All practical LC circuits must contain some resistance. How­
a current in the inductor even though there is no charge on ever, one can buy a packaged audio oscillator in which the
the capacitor. output maintains a constant amplitude indefinitely and
32. In Fig. 9, what changes are required if the oscillations are to does not decay, as it does in Fig. 12. How can this happen?
proceed counterclockwise around the figure? 41. What would a resonance curve for /? = 0 look like if plotted
33. In Fig. 9, what phase constants 0 in Eq. 41 would permit the in Fig. 14?
eight circuit situations shown to serve in turn as initial con­ 42. Can you see any physical reason for assuming that R is
ditions? “small” in Eqs. 50 and 51? (Hint: Consider what might
34. What constructional difficulties would you encounter if you happen if the damping R were so large that Eq. 50 would not
tried to build an LC circuit of the type shown in Fig. 9 to even go through one cycle of oscillation before q was re­
oscillate (a) at 0.01 Hz or (b) at 10 GHz? duced essentially to zero. Could this happen? If so, what do
35. Two inductors L, and Lj and two capacitors C, and C2 can you imagine Fig. 12 would look like?)
be connected in series according to the arrangement in Fig. 43. What is the difference between free, damped, and forced
16a or 16b. Are the frequencies of the two oscillating circuits oscillating circuits?
equal? Consider the two cases (a) C, = Cj, L, = L j and 44. Tabulate as many mechanical or electrical systems as you
(b) C, # C 2,L , # L 2. can think of that possess a natural frequency, along with the
36. In the mechanical analogy to the oscillating LC circuit, what formula for that frequency if given in the text.
mechanical quantity corresponds to the potential differ­ 45. In an oscillatory radio receiver circuit, is it desirable to have
ence? a low or a high 0-factor? Explain. (See Problem 71.)
 Problems 837

PROBLEMS
Section 38~2 Calculating the Inductance to / = 5 ms, and (c) / = 5 ms to r = 6 ms. (Ignore the behav­
1. The inductance of a close-packed coil of 400 turns is ior at the ends of the intervals.)
8.0 mH. Calculate the magnetic flux through the coil when 9. A long thin solenoid can be bent into a ring to form a toroid.
the current is 5.0 mA. Show that if the solenoid is long and thin enough, the equa­
2. A circular coil has a 10.3-cm radius and consists of 34 tion for the inductance of a toroid (Eq. 12) is equivalent to
closely wound turns of wire. An externally produced mag­ that for a solenoid of the appropriate length (Eq. 9).
netic field of 2.62 mT is perpendicular to the coil, (a) If no 10. Two inductors L, and L j are connected in series and are
current is in the coil, what is the number of flux linkages? separated by a large distance, (a) Show that the equivalent
{b) When the current in the coil is 3.77 A in a certain direc­ inductance is given by
tion, the net flux through the coil is found to vanish. Find Z^eq -^1 4" Z'2*
the inductance of the coil.
3. A solenoid is wound with a single layer of insulated copper (b) Why must their separation be large for this relationship
wire (diameter, 2.52 mm). It is 4.10 cm in diameter and to hold?
2.0 m long. What is the inductance per meter for the sole­ 11. Two inductors L, and L j are connected in parallel and
noid near its center? Assume that adjacent wires touch and separated by a large distance, (a) Show that the equivalent
that insulation thickness is negligible. inductance is given from
4. At a given instant the current and the induced em f in an 1
= -L + ± .
inductor are as indicated in Fig. 18. (a) Is the current in­ L, L,
creasing or decreasing? (b) The emf is 17 V, and the rate of
change of the current is 25 kA/s; what is the value of the (b) Why must their separation be large for this relationship
inductance? to hold?
1 2 . A wide copper strip of width IV is bent into a piece of slender
tubing of radius R with two plane extensions, as shown in
------------- n n n n n p — ►— Fig. 20. A current i flows through the strip, distributed uni­
formly over its width. In this way a “one-turn solenoid” has
Figure 18 Problem 4. been formed, (a) Derive an expression for the magnitude of
the magnetic field B in the tubular part (far away from the
edges). {Hint: Assume that the field outside this one-turn
5. The inductance of a closely wound A-tum coil is such that solenoid is negligibly small.) {b) Find also the inductance of
an em f of 3.0 mV is induced when the current changes at the this one-turn solenoid, neglecting the two plane extensions.
rate 5.0 A/s. A steady current of 8.0 A produces a magnetic
flux of 40 //Wb through each turn, (a) Calculate the induc­
tance of the coil, (b) How many turns does the coil have?
6 . A toroid having a 5.20-cm square cross section and an inside
radius of 15.3 cm has 536 turns of wire and carries a current
of 810 mA. Calculate the magnetic flux through a cross
section.
7. A solenoid 126 cm long is formed from 1870 windings
carrying a current of 4.36 A. The core of the solenoid is filled Figure 20 Problem 12.
with iron, and the effective permeability constant is 968.
Calculate the inductance of the solenoid, assuming that
it can be treated as ideal, with a diameter of 5.45 cm.
13. Two long parallel wires, each of radius a, whose centers are a
8 . The current / through a 4.6-H inductor varies with time t as distance d apart carry equal currents in opposite directions.
shown on the graph of Fig. 19. Calculate the induced emf Show that, neglecting the flux within the wires themselves,
during the time intervals (a) / = 0 to / = 2 ms, (b)t = 2 ms the inductance of a length / of such a pair of wires is given by

z .= ^ ,„ ± :£ .
n a
See Sample Problem 1, Chapter 35. {Hint: Calculate the flux
through a rectangle of which the wires form two opposite
sides.)
14. Two long, parallel copper wires (diameter = 2.60 mm)
carry currents of 11.3 A in opposite directions, {a) If their
centers are 21.8 mm apart, calculate the flux per meter of
wire that exists in the space between the axes of the wires.
{b) What fraction of this flux lies inside the wires, and there­
Figure 19 Problem 8. fore, what is the fractional error made in ignoring this flux in
838 Chapter 38 Inductance

calculating the inductance of two parallel wires? See Prob­

lem 13. (c) Repeat the calculations of (j)fo r parallel
currents.
15. Find the inductance of the coaxial cable of Fig. 8 directly
from Eq. 6 . {Hint: Calculate the flux through a rectangular
surface, perpendicular to B, of length / and width b — a.)

Section 38~3 LR Circuits

Figure 21 Problem 25.
16. The current in an LR circuit builds up to one-third of its
steady-state value in 5.22 s. Calculate the inductive time
constant. after switch S is closed; {b) a long time later; (c) immediately
17. The current in an LR circuit drops from 1.16 A to 10.2 mA after switch S is opened again; {d) a long time later.
in the 1.50 s immediately following removal of the battery 26. In the circuit shown in Fig. 22, <? = 10 V, R, = 5.0 D.
from the circuit. If L is 9.44 H, find the resistance R in the R 2 = 10 D, and L = 5.0 H. For the two separate conditions
circuit. (I) switch S just closed and (II) switch S closed for a long
18. (a) Consider the LR circuit of Fig. 4. In terms of the battery time, calculate {a) the current /, through R ,, (^) the current
emf <^, what is the induced emf when the switch has just /2 through R 2, (c) the current / through the switch, {d) the
been closed on a? (b) What is after two time constants? potential difference across R 2, {e) the potential difference
(c) After how many time constants will be just one-half across L, and ( / ) dii/dt.
of the battery emf <??
19. The number of flux linkages through a certain coil of 745-
mi2 resistance is 26.2 mWb when there is a current of
5.48 A in it. (a) Calculate the inductance of the coil, (b) If a
6.00-V battery is suddenly connected across the coil, how
long will it take for the current to rise from 0 to 2.53 A?
20. (a) Show that Eq. 20 can be written
>R2
i -S /R L
{b) Integrate this equation to obtain Eq. 21. Figure 22 Problem 26.
21 Suppose the em f of the battery in the circuit of Fig. 5 varies
with time t so the current is given by i{t) = 3.0 + 5.0/, where
i is in amperes and / is in seconds. Take R = 4.0 L= 27. Show that the inductive time constant can also be defined
6.0 H, and find an expression for the battery emf as a func­ as the time that would be required for the current in an LR
tion of time. {Hint: Apply the loop rule.) circuit to reach its equilibrium value i f it continued to in-
22. At / = 0 a battery is connected to an inductor and resistor crease at its initial rate.
connected in series. The table below gives the measured 28 In Fig. 23 the component in the upper branch is an ideal
potential difference, in volts, across the inductor as a func­ 3.0-A fuse. It has zero resistance as long as the currem
tion of time, in ms, following the connection of the battery. through it remains less than 3.0 A. If the current reaches
Deduce {a) the emf of the battery and {b) the time constant 3.0 A, it “blows” and thereafter it has infinite resistance.
of the circuit. Switch S is closed at time / = 0. {a) When does the fuse
blow? {b) Sketch a graph of the current / through the induc­
t (ms) t (ms) v ^ iV ) tor as a function of time. Mark the time at which the fuse
18.2 5.0 5.98 blows.
1.0
2.0 13.8 6.0 4.53 Fuse
3.0 10.4 7.0 3.43
4.0 7.90 8.0 2.60

23. A 45-V potential difference is suddenly applied to a coil with — v w --------

L = 50 mH and R = 180 D. At what rate is the current - 15(1
10 V
increasing after 1.2 ms?
24. A wooden toroidal core with a square cross section has an — nnnnnp— *
5.0 H
inner radius of 10 cm and an outer radius of 12 cm. It is
wound with one layer of wire (diameter, 0.96 mm; resist­ Figure 23 Problem 28.
ance per unit length 21 mD/m). Calculate {a) the induc­
tance and {b) the inductive time constant. Ignore the thick­
ness of the insulation. Section 38-4 Energy Storage in a Magnetic Field
25. In Fig. 21, <^ = 100 V, R, = 10 D, R j = 20 D, R j = 30 D, 29. The magnetic energy stored in a certain inductor is 25.3 mJ
and L = 2.0 H. Find the values of /, and {a) immediately when the current is 62.0 mA. {a) Calculate the inductance.
 Problems 839

(b) What current is required for the magnetic energy to be about 60 //T. Assuming this to be relatively constant over
four times as much? radial distances small compared with the radius of the Earth
30. A 92-mH toroidal inductor encloses a volume o f0.022 m^. and neglecting the variations near the magnetic poles, cal­
If the average energy density in the toroid is 71 J/m^, calcu­ culate the energy stored in a shell between the Earth’s sur­
late the current. face and 16 km above the surface.
31. Find the magnetic energy density at the center of a circulat­ 42. Prove that, after switch S in Fig. 4 is thrown from a to b, all
ing electron in the hydrogen atom (see Sample Problem 2, the energy stored in the inductor ultimately appears as in­
Chapter 35). ternal energy in the resistor.
32. A solenoid 85.3 cm long has a cross-sectional area of 43. A long wire carries a current / uniformly distributed over a
17.2 cm^. There are 950 turns of wire carrying a current of cross section of the wire, (a) Show that the magnetic energy
6.57 A. (a) Calculate the magnetic field energy density in­ of a length / stored wubin the wire equals (Why
side the solenoid, (b) Find the total energy stored in the does it not depend on the wire diameter?) (^) Show that the
magnetic field inside the solenoid. (Neglect end effects.) inductance for a length / of the wire associated with the flux
33. What must be the magnitude of a uniform electric field if it inside the wire is
is to have the same energy density as that possessed by a
Section 38~5 Electromagnetic Oscillations: Qualitative
0.50-T magnetic field?
34. The magnetic field in the interstellar space of our galaxy has 44. What is the capacitance of an LC circuit if the maximum
a magnitude of about 1(X) pT. (a) Calculate the correspond­ charge on the capacitor is 1.63 //C and the total energy is
ing energy density, in eV/cm^. (b) How much energy is 142/iJ?
stored in this field in a cube 10 light-years on edge? (For 45. A 1.48-mH inductor in an LC circuit stores a maximum
scale, note that the nearest star, other than the Sun, is 4.3 energy of 11.2 //J. What is the peak current?
light-years distant and the “radius” of our galaxy is about 46. In an oscillating LC circuit L = 1.13 mH and C = 3.88 /iF.
80,000 light-years.) The maximum charge on the capacitor is 2.94 //C. Find the
35. The coil of a superconducting electromagnet used for nu­ maximum current.
clear magnetic resonance investigations has an inductance 47. LC oscillators have been used in circuits connected to
of 152 H and carries a current of 32 A. The coil is immersed loudspeakers to create some of the sounds of “electronic
in liquid helium, which has a latent heat of vaporization of music.” What inductance must be used with a 6.7-/zFcapaci­
85 J/mol. (a) Calculate the energy in the magnetic field of tor to produce a frequency of 10 kHz, near the upper end of
the coil, (b) Find the mass of helium that is boiled off if the the audible range of frequencies?
superconductor is quenched and thereby suddenly develops 48. You are given a 10.0-mH inductor and two capacitors, of
a finite resistance. 5.(X)-/zF and 2.00-//F capacitance. List the resonant fre­
36. Suppose that the inductive time constant for the circuit of quencies that can be generated by connecting these elements
Fig. 5 is 37.5 ms and the current in the circuit is zero at time in various combinations.
/ = 0. At what time does the rate at which energy is dissi­ 49. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 24. With switch S, closed
pated in the resistor equal the rate at which energy is being and the other two switches open, the circuit has a time con­
stored in the inductor? stant Tc*. With switch S 2 closed and the other two switches
37. A coil is connected in series with a 10.4-ld2 resistor. When a open, the circuit has a time constant With switch S 3
55.0-V battery is applied to the two, the current reaches a closed and the other two switches open, the circuit oscillates
value of 1.96 mA after 5.20 ms. (a) Find the inductance of with a period T. Show that T = 2 7rV r^.
the coil, (b) How much energy is stored in the coil at this
same moment?
38. For the circuit of Fig. 5, assume that <^ = 12.2 V, R =
7.34 and L = 5.48 H. The battery is connected at time
t = 0. (a) How much energy is delivered by the battery dur­
ing the first 2.00 s? (b) How much of this energy is stored in
the magnetic field of the inductor? (c) How much has ap­
peared in the resistor?
39. (a) Find an expression for the energy density as a function of Figure 24 Problem 49.
the radial distance r for a toroid of rectangular cross section.
(b) Integrating the energy density over the volume of the
toroid, calculate the total energy stored in the field of the 50. A 485-g body oscillates on a spring that, when extended
toroid, (c) Using Eq. 12, evaluate the energy stored in the 2.10 mm from equilibrium, has a restoring force of 8.13 N.
toroid directly from the inductance and compare with (b). (a) Calculate the angular frequency of oscillation, (b) What
40. A length of copper wire carries a current of 10 A, uniformly is its period of oscillation? (c) What is the capacitance of the
distributed. Calculate (a) the magnetic energy density and analogous LC system if L is chosen to be 5.20 H?
(b) th e ^ c tr ic energy density at the surface of the wire. The
wire diameter is 2.5 mm and its resistance per unit length is Section 38-6 Electromagnetic Oscillations: Quantitative
3.3 Q/km. 51. For a certain LC circuit the total energy is converted from
41. The magnetic field at the Earth's surface has a strength of electrical energy in the capacitor to magnetic energy in the
840 Chapter 38 Inductance

inductor in 1.52 ps. {a) What is the period of oscillation? to the variable capacitor this range may be adjusted. How
{b) What is the frequency of oscillation? (c) How long after large should this capacitor be and what inductance should
the magnetic energy is a maximum will it be a maximum be chosen in order to tune the desired range of frequencies?
again? 60. In an LC circuit L = 24.8 mH and C ^'J fh S pF. At time
52, In an LC circuit with L = 52.2 mH and C = 4.21 //F, the r = 0 the current is 9.16 mA, the charge on the capacitor is
current is initially a maximum. How long will it take before 3.83 pC, and the capacitor is charging, (a) What is the total
the capacitor is fully charged for the first time? energy in the circuit? (b) What is the maximum charge on
53. An oscillating LC circuit is designed to operate at a peak the capacitor? (c) What is the maximum current? (d) If the
current of 31 mA. The inductance of 42 mH is fixed and the charge on the capacitor is given by ^ cos (cot + <f>\
frequency is varied by changing C. (a) If the capacitor has a what is the phase angle </>?(e) Suppose the data are the same,
maximum peak voltage of 50 V, can the circuit safely oper­ except that the capacitor is discharging at r = 0. What then is
ate at a frequency of 1.0 MHz? (b) What is the maximum the phase angle <f>l
safe operating frequency? (c) What is the minimum capaci­ 61. In an oscillating LC circuit L = 3.0 mH and C = 2.7 pF. At
tance? / = 0 the charge on the capacitor is zero and the current is
54. An oscillating LC circuit consisting of a 1.13-nF capacitor 2.0 A. (a) What is the maximum charge that will appear on
and a 3.17-mH coil has a peak potential drop of 2.87 V. the capacitor? (b) In terms of the period T of oscillation,
Find (a) the maximum charge on the capacitor, (b) the peak how much time will elapse after t = 0 until the energy stored
current in the circuit, and (c) the maximum energy stored in in the capacitor will be increasing at its greatest rate?
the magnetic field of the coil. (c) What is this greatest rate at which energy flows into the
55. An LC circuit has an inductance of 3.0 mH and a capaci­ capacitor?
tance of 10/iF. Calculate (a) the angular frequency and 62. The resonant frequency of a series circuit containing induc­
(b) the period of oscillation, (c) At time / = 0 the capacitor is tance L, and capacitance C, is cu©. A second series circuit
charged to 200 pC, and the current is zero. Sketch roughly containing inductance Lj and capacitance C2, has the same
the charge on the capacitor as a function of time. resonant frequency. In terms of cUq, what is the resonant
56 In the circuit shown in Fig. 25 the switch has been in posi­ frequency of a series circuit containing all four of these ele­
tion a for a long time. It is now thrown to b. (a) Calculate the ments? Neglect resistance. {Hint: Use the formulas for equiv­
frequency of the resulting oscillating current, (b) What will alent capacitance and equivalent inductance.)
be the amplitude of the current oscillations? 63. Three identical inductors L and two identical capacitors C
are connected in a two-loop circuit as shown in Fig. 26.
34 V (a) Suppose the currents are as shown in Fig. 26a. What is
the current in the middle inductor? Write down the loop
equations and show that they are satisfied provided that the
current oscillates with angular frequency c u = l/V Z c .
(b) Now suppose the currents are as shown in Fig. 26b. What
is the current in the middle inductor? Write down the loop
equations and show that they are satisfied provided the
current oscillates with angular frequency o) = 1/V3LC
(c) In view of the fact that the circuit can oscillate at two
different frequencies, show that it is not possible to replace
Figure 25 Problem 56. this two-loop circuit by an equivalent single-loop LCcircun.

57. (a) In an oscillating LC circuit, in terms of the maximum

charge on the capacitor, what value of charge is present
when the energy in the electric field is one-half that in the
magnetic field? {b) What fraction of a period must elapse
following the time the capacitor is fully charged for this
■f
condition to arise?
58. An inductor is connected across a capacitor whose capaci­ (a)
tance can be varied by turning a knob. We wish to make the
frequency of the LC oscillations vary linearly with the angle
of rotation of the knob, going from 200 to 400 kHz as the
knob turns through 180®. If L = 1.0 mH, plot C as a func­
tion of angle for the 180® rotation.
59. A variable capacitor with a range from 10 to 365 pF is used ■f
with a coil to form a variable-frequency LC circuit to tune
the input to a radio, {a) What ratio of maximum to mini­
mum frequencies may be tuned with such a capacitor? (b) If {h)
this capacitor is to tune from 0.54 to 1.60 MHz, the ratio
computed in {a) is too large. By adding a capacitor in parallel Figure 26 Problem 63.
 Problems 841

64. In Fig. 27 the 900-/iF capacitor is initially charged to 100 V the maximum charge on the capacitor decay to 99% of its
and the 100-/iF capacitor is uncharged. Describe in detail initial value in 50 cycles?
how one might charge the 100-//F capacitor to 300 V by 68 {a) By direct substitution of Eq. 50 into Eq. 49, show that
manipulating switches Si and S 2. cu' = ylo)^ — { R /lL f. (b) By what fraction does the fre­
quency of oscillation shift when the resistance is increased
from 0 to 100 D in a circuit with L = 4.4H and C =
7.3/iF?
69. A circuit has L = 12.6 mH and C = 1.15 //F. How much
100 mf ^ 10 h ; 900 m F resistance must be inserted in the circuit to reduce the (un­
damped) resonant frequency by 0 .01%?
70 Suppose that in a damped LC circuit the amplitude of the
Figure 27 Problem 64. charge oscillations drops to one-half its initial value after n
cycles. Show that the fractional reduction in the frequency
of resonance, caused by the presence of the resistor, is given
Section 38~7 Damped and Forced Oscillations to a close approximation by
65. In a damped LC circuit, find the time required for the maxi­
OJ — O) 0.0061
mum energy present in the capacitor during one oscillation
(O
to fall to one-half of its initial value. Assume <7= at r = 0.
66. A single-loop circuit consists of a 7.22-D resistor, a 12.3-H which is independent of L, C, or R.
inductor, and a 3.18-/iF capacitor. Initially, the capacitor 71. In a damped LC circuit show that the fraction of the energy
has a charge of 6.31 pC and the current is zero. Calculate the lost per cycle of oscillation, AU/U, is given to a close ap­
charge on the capacitor N complete cycles later for = 5, proximation by InR/ojL. The quantity o)L/R is often called
10, and 100. the Q of the circuit (for “quality”). A “high-0” circuit has
67. How much resistance R should be connected to an inductor low resistance and a low fractional energy loss per cycle
L = 220 mH and capacitor C = 12 //F in series in order that (= 27t/Q).