Chapter 2:

Data Manipulation

Computer Science: An Overview

Tenth Edition

by
J. Glenn Brookshear

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 Computer Architecture

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 Computer Architecture

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or

processor
– Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
– Registers
• General purpose
• Special purpose
• Bus
• Motherboard

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 Figure 2.1 CPU and main memory
connected via a bus

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 Videos

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b2pd3Y6
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 Stored Program Concept

A program can be encoded as bit patterns

and stored in main memory. From there,
the CPU can then extract the instructions
and execute them.

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 Terminology

• Machine instruction: An instruction (or

command) encoded as a bit pattern
recognizable by the CPU
• Machine language: The set of all
instructions recognized by a machine

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 Machine Instruction Types

• Data Transfer: copy data from one location

to another
• Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns
to compute a new bit patterns
• Control: direct the execution of the
program

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 Figure 2.2 Adding values stored in
memory

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 Figure 2.3 Dividing values stored in
memory

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 Parts of a Machine Instruction

• Op-code: Specifies which operation to

execute
• Operand: Gives more detailed information
about the operation
– Interpretation of operand varies depending on
op-code

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 Figure 2.5 The composition of an
instruction for the machine in
Appendix C

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 Figure 2.6 Decoding the instruction
35A7

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 Program Execution

• Controlled by two special-purpose registers

– Program counter: address of next instruction
– Instruction register: current instruction
• Machine Cycle
– Fetch
– Decode
– Execute

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 Figure 2.8 The machine cycle

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 Figure 2.9 Decoding the instruction
B258

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 Figure 2.10 The program from Figure 2.7
stored in main memory ready for execution

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 Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step
of the machine cycle

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 Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step
of the machine cycle (cont’d)

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 Arithmetic/Logic Operations

• Logic: AND, OR, XOR

– Masking
• Rotate and Shift: circular shift, logical shift,
arithmetic shift
• Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
– Precise action depends on how the values are
encoded (two’s complement versus
floating-point).

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 And, Or, Xor

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 Masking
Consider, for example, what
happens if the byte 00001111 is the
first operand of an AND operation.
This use of the AND operation is an
example of the process called
masking.
Here one operand, called a mask,
determines which part of the other
operand will affect the result.

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 Masking

Whereas the mask 11011111

can be used with the AND
operation to force a 0 in the
third bit from the high-order
end of a byte, the mask
00100000 can be used with
the OR operation to force a 1
in that position.

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 XOR

A major use of the XOR operation is in forming the

complement of a bit string.
XORing any byte with a mask of all 1s produces the
complement of the byte.
For example, note the relationship between the second
operand and the result in the following example:x

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 Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit pattern
65 (hexadecimal) one bit to the right

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 Communicating with Other Devices
• Controller: An intermediary apparatus that
handles communication between the computer
and a device
– Specialized controllers for each type of device
– General purpose controllers (USB and
FireWire)
• Port: The point at which a device connects to a
computer
• Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with
peripheral devices as though they were memory
cells

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 Figure 2.13 Controllers attached to a
machine’s bus

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 Figure 2.14 A conceptual representation
of memory-mapped I/O

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 Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)

• Direct memory access (DMA): Main

memory access by a controller over the
bus
• Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient
bus speed impedes performance
• Handshaking: The process of
coordinating the transfer of data between
components

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 Data Communication Rates

• Measurement units
– Bps: Bits per second
– Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
– Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
– Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
• Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

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