Biodiversity of Micro-organisms

Micro-organisms

Viruses
Viruses It is difficult for biologists to classify viruses as living or non-living, or even to place
them into any of the five kingdoms. Viruses do not directly use energy, cannot actively
maintain their structure, and cannot eat, respire, reproduce or excrete. Viruses are said to
be obligate intracellular parasites as they are unable to reproduce themselves and have to
multiply inside a host’s cell using its genetic material. However, viruses do have the same
nucleic acids as living organisms, hence the argument about their classification.

Basic structure of viruses

Viruses come in different shapes and sizes. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 show a bacteriophage and
the tobacco mosaic virus. Note how they differ in appearance. Even though different viruses
look different, they all have the same basic structure.

A virus has an inner core of either DNA or RNA (but not both). Some viruses with RNA, such
as HIV, which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), are called retroviruses.
The nucleic acid is surrounded by an outer protein coat or capsule, which protects the viral
genetic material. The capsules may have many different shapes. Some viruses have capsules
that are surrounded by a covering that contains some of the host cell’s membrane. Viruses
have no cytoplasm and have no membrane-bound organelles.
Viruses have the following characteristics:
• Viruses are acellular as they are not complete cells.
• Viruses are extremely small (20–300 nm) and can only be seen using an electron
microscope.
• Viruses have many different shapes.
Viruses do not perform any of the metabolic reactions of living organisms. They do not
produce their own energy through cellular respiration and therefore they need not
exchange gases.
• Viruses cannot reproduce unless they invade a host cell.
• Viruses are parasitic on plants, animals, protists and bacteria.
• Viruses have the ability to assemble themselves.
• Most viruses are pathogens as they cause disease in their hosts.

Bacteria Scientists once believed that diseases and all of life appeared from nothing. This
was called spontaneous generation. In 1859, the French scientist Louis Pasteur showed that
boiled soup in sealed flasks did not become rotten – even if left for months – unless it was
contaminated by air from the outside world. Pasteur showed that invisible organisms were
causing the soup to become rotten. Pasteur now had support for the theory that tiny
organisms, which were called ‘germs’, caused disease and spoiled food. Today we know that
these invisible organisms were bacteria. Many types of bacteria have been discovered since
then, some useful and some dangerous. Bacteria have been found deep beneath the Earth
and high in the atmosphere – in fact, they are everywhere.
Basic structure of bacteria Bacteria are unicellular organisms that are classified as
prokaryotes. This means they do not contain membrane-bound organelles such as a
nucleus, chloroplasts or mitochondria. Their DNA floats freely in the cytoplasm (nucleoid).
The cell wall is lined with a cell membrane and often covered by a slime capsule to prevent
it from drying out. In many pathogenic bacteria the slime capsule also serves as a barrier
against phagocytes (white blood cells). Ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm. Some
bacteria have long whip-like appendages called flagella that are used for locomotion.
Bacteria may have one, a few or many flagella in different positions on the cell. Bacteria may
also have hollow, hair-like structures called pili that are used to attach to other cells.
Figure 1.3 shows the structure of a typical bacterium.
Bacteria have the following characteristics:
• Bacteria belong to the kingdom Monera. Bacteria are unicellular cells that are prokaryotic.
These are simple cells with no true nucleus and which have no membranebound organelles.
• Bacteria are in every known habitat on Earth.
• Bacteria can be classified according to their shape:
• coccus – spherical
• bacillus – rod shaped
• spirillus – spiral shaped.
• Bacteria may also be classified according to the way in which they obtain their energy:
• Photosynthetic bacteria get their energy from the sun.
• Chemosynthetic bacteria get their energy from inorganic chemicals. For example, they
convert nitrites to nitrates, and sulphur to sulphates to obtain energy.
• Heterotrophic bacteria get their energy by feeding on organic matter. Enzymes are
secreted and nutrients are absorbed into the cell.
• Bacteria mainly reproduce asexually through binary fission in favourable conditions.
Fig. 1.4 The different shapes of bacteria
Protista
The kingdom Protista contains nearly 200 000 species, and so is a highly diverse and
complex kingdom. Protists consist of three main groups: animal-like protists (i.e. protozoa),
plant-like protists (e.g. algae) and fungus-like protists (e.g. slime mould).

Basic structure of Protista

Protists are all eukaryotes as they have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Protists are micro-organisms that are simple in structure. Most are unicellular, although
some are multicellular. They range from tiny microscopic organisms to huge tree-like
structures.

Protists have the following characteristics:

• Protists are eukaryotic as they have a proper nucleus.
• Protists are classified according to how they obtain nutrition and how they move.
• Animal-like protists are called protozoa, which means ‘first animal’. They are mostly
heterotrophic or parasitic. Animal-like protists are classified according to how they move.
They move by using pseudopodia, cilia or flagella.
• Plant-like protists are autotrophic as they contain chlorophyll and can produce their own
food through the process of photosynthesis. Plant-like protists can be unicellular (e.g.
Euglena) or multicellular (e.g. kelp), form colonies (e.g. Volvox).
• Fungus-like protists are decomposers, which makes them heterotrophs. They digest their
food by releasing digestive enzymes into the organic matter and absorbing the nutrients.
Protists reproduce asexually through binary fission in favourable conditions.
• In unfavourable conditions sexual reproduction can occur. A resistant zygospore is formed.
Unicellular algae make up the bulk of phytoplankton in the ocean. Many of the seaweeds
are multicellular, but lack specialised tissues.

Fungi
This group of organisms includes moulds, yeasts, mildew, rusts and mushrooms.
Structurally, fungi are divided into two main groups: unicellular and multicellular. Yeasts are
typical unicellular fungi. Common bread mould (Rhizopus) and mushrooms are common
multicellular fungi. Basic structure of a filamentous fungus Fungi have a unique cell wall
structure made up of chitin, which is the same substance that forms the exoskeletons of
insects. Multicellular fungi are made up of branched intertwining ‘threads’ called hyphae. All
the hyphae together are referred to as the mycelium of the fungus. The body of most fungi
is made up of hyphae.

In most fungi, the hyphae have cross-walls called septa. Some fungi, such as common bread
mould, do not have cross-walled hyphae. Each hypha contains one or more unique one of a
kind chitin makes up the cell wall of fungi hyphae (sing.: hypha) part of multicellular fungi
mycelium all the hyphae of a fungus together contractile vacuole

Fig. 1.7 Example of fungi: a) mushrooms b) yeast cells

nuclei. In some fungi, the hyphae fuse together to form a fleshy fruiting body. For example,
a mushroom is a fruiting body – the rest of the mycelium of the fungus grows underground.

Fungi have the following characteristics:

• Fungi belong to the kingdom Fungi, which includes micro-organisms such as yeasts,
moulds and mushrooms.
• Fungi are all eukaryotic.
• Fungi lack chlorophyll, so are heterotrophic saprophytes. Fungi feed on whatever they
grow on by secreting enzymes to break down the complex nutrients into simple nutrients
such as glucose. These simple nutrients are absorbed through the wall into the fungal body.
• Most fungi are filamentous. Filamentous fungi are frequently multinucleate.
• Fungi differ from plants in that the cell walls of fungi contain chitin, whereas the cell walls
of plants contain cellulose.
• Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Reproduction is accomplished by the release
of sexual or asexual spores. Under favourable conditions millions of asexual spores are
produced and dispersed over a large area.

Fig. 1.8a) Mould on bread b) Rhizopus or bread mould as seen under a microscope and c) a
portion of the mycelium of Rhizopus

Micro-organisms and their role in maintaining a healthy environment Micro-organisms play

an important part in maintaining the balance in the environment and the web of life. They
are found everywhere – even in the most extreme ecosystems. There is a continuous
exchange of materials and energy between living organisms and their environment. For
instance, oxygen, water and nitrogen are constantly being absorbed and used by living
organisms. These substances are then recycled and re-used through the natural processes of
respiration, excretion and decay. In this way, the materials used to sustain life are used
again and again to rebuild and maintain balance in the environment.

Viruses
Viruses control many ecological processes, such as nutrient cycling, bacterial and algal
biodiversity and algal bloom control. Scientists have recently discovered that there are many
viruses found in the ocean. When sea organisms die from a viral infection, their bodies
provide nutrients to bacteria in deeper parts of the ocean. Viruses are pathogens and cause
many diseases in plants, animals and humans. Disease helps control the numbers of
dominant host species.
Bacteria
There are many different types of bacteria that are very useful to us. Photosynthetic
bacteria are producers that use energy from the sun to turn carbon dioxide and water into
sugars. In some bacteria oxygen gas is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct.
Chemosynthetic bacteria also act as producers. They use energy from chemical reactions
instead of sunlight, together with a source of carbon and water, to create sugars and various
by-products.
Bacteria are involved in decomposition. They break down dead organic matter and return
nutrients to the ecosystem. They create humus in soil, which improves the quality and
water-holding capacity of the soil. Bacteria keep the surface of the Earth clear of dead
bodies and waste matter through decomposition.
Bacteria play an important role in recycling nitrogen. Nitrogen forms an essential part of
protein and nucleic acids. About 80% of nitrogen is found in the atmosphere. Atmospheric
nitrogen is converted into nitrates through lightning and by nitrogenfixing bacteria in the
soil. Plants remove the nitrates from the soil and animals obtain the nitrogen by eating the
plants. Animals excrete faeces and urine, which are converted into nitrates by other
bacteria. Fungi and saprophytic bacteria decompose the proteins of dead plant and animal
matter and these minerals are returned to the soil to be converted into nitrates again.

Protists
Algae are important in aquatic environments because they produce food for the rest of the
ecosystem. Many algae are also used as a source of food for people – particularly in eastern
cultures. Algae produce more oxygen than terrestrial plants; therefore they play a crucial
role in maintaining the oxygen levels in the atmosphere.
Diatoms play an important role in aquatic environments by providing a source of food and
oxygen for heterotrophs due to the presence of photosynthetic pigments. Their remains
produce powder-like deposits that accumulate on the ocean floor. These form large
accumulations of sediment known as diatomaceous earth, which is used as a filtering agent.
Dinoflagellates (algae protists) live symbiotically with sea anemones. These partnerships
form the trophic and structural foundation of coral reef ecosystems. Larger algae such as
kelp provide shelter and habitat for fish and aquatic invertebrates. Many water moulds are
saprophytic and live in fresh water. They play an important role as decomposers of dead
algae and animals.
Some parasitic protists are pathogens such as Trypanosoma gambiens, which causes African
sleeping sickness, and Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum, which cause malaria
in tropical regions across the world. Many of these pathogens have a big ecological impact
when they cause the death of animals.

Fungi
Certain fungi have great ecological value. In nature, saprophytic fungi decompose dead
organic matter and make nutrients available for new plant life.
Some single-celled fungi can convert organic matter. They use organic compounds to obtain
energy and create various by-products. For example, yeast cells turn sugar into carbon
dioxide and alcohol during fermentation. Mushrooms are a food source for many animals.
Other fungi are used in environmental biotechnology in the clean-up of chemical pollutants
such as oil or detergents.
Some fungi form symbiotic relationships with other plants. Mycorrhiza fungi live on the
roots of some plants and act as root hairs for the plants, allowing them to get nutrients from
the soil. A special group of fungi live in a mutualistic relationship with unicellular algae to
form lichens. Lichens are an interesting group of organisms. They are found in many
different habitats, from moist rainforests to dry and exposed mountain tops. Where they
grow on rocks, they start the process of soil formation.

Other fungi are pathogenic, meaning they may cause diseases in plants, animals and
humans. Certain fungi, such as Candida albicans, can be beneficial when present in small
amounts in body tissues. However, they can overgrow in certain circumstances (e.g. low
immunity in people living with AIDS) and become harmful (opportunistic fungi).

Symbiotic relationships involving bacteria

Bacteria form valuable relationships with humans, animals and plants. Close relationships
between different species are called symbiotic relationships. You will learn more about
symbiotic relationships in Topic 9 (Population ecology). Mutualism is a symbiotic
relationship in which both species involved in the relationship benefit. Examples of
mutualism are the relationships between legume plants and nitrogen fixing bacteria, and
humans and the bacteria found in the human intestine.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in plants

In Grade 10 you learnt about the nitrogen cycle and that nitrogen is needed by all organisms
as it forms an important part of proteins. Gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be
used by most organisms. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are an essential part of all ecosystems to
ensure that nitrogen is available to support life on Earth. Plants such as peas, beans, clover
and many thorn trees have developed a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-
fixing bacteria. These bacteria are found in nodules on their roots. The bacteria inside the
root nodules change this free nitrogen into ammonia and amino acids, which plants can
absorb and use for growth and the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids. In return, the
bacteria are protected and obtain carbohydrates from the plants.

Escherichia coli in the human intestine

Escherichia coli bacteria live inside the large intestine of humans. This environment protects the
bacteria, provides them with a good supply of food and allows the bacteria to grow and reproduce
safely in large numbers. In return, the bacteria provide the human body with extra vitamins (biotin
and vitamin K), which assist in the absorption of nutrients.

Bacteria are also found in the rumens of cows and sheep. They secrete an enzyme called cellulase,
which breaks down or digests the cellulose in the plants that the animals eat. The cellulose is broken
down into simpler sugars, which the cells can use for energy. Beneficial bacteria such as intestinal
flora are often referred to as probiotics.

Effect and management of diseases caused by micro-organisms

Diseases caused by viruses
Viruses cause a variety of infectious diseases in plants, animals and humans. The tobacco
mosaic virus attacks tobacco plants, causing mosaic patterns in the leaf. Viral diseases such
as rabies, distemper and foot-and-mouth disease affect animals. Examples of viral diseases
that affect humans are flu, the common cold, HIV/AIDS, chickenpox, measles, polio and
smallpox. The smallpox virus killed 300–500 million people in the 20th century alone. Today,
smallpox is one of the few diseases that has been almost completely eliminated.
Vaccinations are used to protect people from many viral diseases, including smallpox.
Viruses are spread by vectors, the air and water.

Effect of rabies
Rabies is caused by an RNA virus, and can be controlled by the regular vaccination of
household pets or elimination of animal carriers, as well as vaccination of humans. The word
‘rabies’ comes from the Latin word for madness because the rabies virus infects the nervous
system of mammals, causing them to become mentally disturbed and aggressive. Infected
animals may bite others, passing on the virus in their saliva and spreading the disease. There
is no effective treatment for rabies. Humans are at risk from the virus because their pets or
farm animals may become infected with the disease and bite them. Rabies infections from
dog bites are the most common. About 55 000 people die from rabies each year. Most of
these cases occur in the developing world. In South Africa about 20 people die each year.
The rabies virus is a bullet-shaped virus which, like HIV, has a core of RNA at its centre.
When a person is bitten by an infected animal, the rabies virus enters the body and travels
up the nerves to the brain. After between 20 to 60 days the infected person may complain
of headaches, a fever and a sore throat. Later they become partially paralysed, confused,
agitated, terrified, and start imagining that they are seeing things. They may suffer from
convulsions, produce huge amounts of saliva and eventually fall into a coma and die. One of
the symptoms of rabies is that a patient who has become partially paralysed finds it difficult
to swallow and drink water, with the result that they panic when given water to drink. This
is called hydrophobia (hydro = water and phobia = fear of).

Managing and treating rabies

A vaccine against rabies was developed in 1885 by Louis Pasteur and Emile Roux. Anybody
working with animals, for example a veterinarian, should be vaccinated against rabies. If a
person is bitten by an animal with rabies there is a chance they can be cured.

They need to see a doctor immediately, to have the wound cleaned with soapy water and
disinfectant. The person will then be vaccinated several times. Once a person starts to show
the symptoms of rabies it is too late to save them.
Rabies can be prevented or at least avoided. It is government law that all domestic dogs and
cats must be vaccinated against rabies every year. It is even possible to vaccinate wild
animals against rabies using vaccine in a bait. Always be on the lookout and avoid animals
behaving strangely, for example a dog or a cat that seems drunk and is foaming at the
mouth or a wild animal that seems too tame.

Effect of HIV/AIDS
Today, HIV/AIDS is one of the most feared viral diseases. We first became aware of the
disease in 1981, when doctors in the United States identified the first cases of AIDS in San
Francisco and New York. A number of people started dying from diseases that are not
normally fatal in a person with a healthy immune system. A little later, drug addicts who
shared needles showed the same symptoms. In 1982, the disease was given the name
acquired immune deficiency syndrome or AIDS. HIV weakens the immune system and the
person living with AIDS has no protection against infection. AIDS is an incurable disease.
Between 1983 and 1985, it became clear that AIDS was caused by a virus called the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Scientists learnt that the virus was found in blood and other
fluids of the human body. In Grade 10 you learnt that white blood cells defend the body
from invading micro-organisms such as viruses and bacteria. Scientists understood that the
HIV attacked the white blood cells (lymphocytes), especially the T-lymphocytes in the body.
These white blood cells activate an important part of the immune system. Without T-
lymphocytes, the immune system stops working. A blood test for the virus was licensed
early in 1985. People who tested positive for antibodies against the virus are said to be HIV
positive (HIV+). They could be HIV+ for up to 10 years before finally contracting AIDS. Why
does it take so long for symptoms to show?

The HIV is a slow virus and has a long incubation period that can run into years. The
incubation period is the time between exposure to HIV and the appearance of the first
symptoms. During the incubation period the virus invades and destroys T-lymphocytes. At
first the body is able to make enough T-lymphocytes to keep up with the loss of T-
lymphocytes due to the HIV invasion. Over time, as the virus continues to copy itself, there
are fewer and fewer T-lymphocytes to fight infections.
The T-lymphocyte count (the number of T-lymphocytes in the blood) of the infected person
is so low that the person’s immune system does not work effectively. This is when the
person becomes infected with many opportunistic infections such as thrush or yeast
infections, tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia, meningitis and certain cancers. It is then said
that the person has AIDS. If untreated, the person would eventually die because of the
opportunistic infections that destroy the body

HIV is transmitted from one person to another through the body fluids from an infected
person.
• HIV is spread through unprotected sex with an infected partner. This can happen when
body fluids such as semen, vaginal fluids or blood from an infected person get into the body
of someone who is not infected. Everyone who has unprotected sex with an infected person
is at risk of contracting HIV. People who already have another sexually transmitted disease
are even more at risk.
• Sharing needles used to inject drugs or other substances (including needles used for
injecting steroids, tattooing, piercing and body art) can transmit HIV. If the person on whom
the needle was used is infected with HIV, the blood on the needle can infect anyone else
who uses the same needle.
• Children can be infected with HIV if an infected pregnant woman passes the virus to her
unborn child. Treating the mother and child at around the time the baby is delivered can
reduce the baby’s risk of infection. Delivery through Caesarean section can reduce the
baby’s risk of infection.
• In the past, blood transfusion was also a method of spreading the virus. However, blood
for donation is screened very carefully these days so blood transfusion is no longer
considered a risk.
More than 30 years after the discovery of HIV/AIDS, scientists are still searching for a cure.
By 2009, almost 65 million people were living with HIV and more than 28,9 million people
had died from HIV/AIDS worldwide.
Managing and treating HIV/AIDS We can take steps to stop the spread of the virus, for
example by avoiding unprotected sex and having only one sexual partner. Testing is
necessary because people who are infected with HIV may not know that they have the virus
and can infect other people. There have been many campaigns encouraging people to know
their HIV status as a way of preventing the spread of the disease.
Antiretroviral drugs have also been developed. Antiretroviral drugs are medicines used to
treat diseases caused by retroviruses, primarily HIV. The South African public health service
provides HIV-positive people with a combination of three antiretroviral drugs. These are
zidovudine, lamivudine and nevirapine. Each type of antiretroviral drug works at a different
step of the HIV life cycle. For example, the antiretroviral drugs stop the enzyme reverse
transcriptase, which turns the HIV RNA into HIV DNA. The HIV DNA combines with the DNA
of the T-lymphocytes to make new viruses. Antiretroviral treatment must be taken strictly as
prescribed and under medical supervision for the rest of the person’s life.
Antiretroviral drugs do not cure HIV, but there are many benefits of taking them. The
immune system is restored and protected, the reproduction of the virus is controlled and
the health of people living with HIV/AIDS improves, allowing them to live longer.
Influenza
Influenza is caused by a number of RNA viruses which infect warm-blooded animals. It
infects the nose, throat and lungs of mammals and the respiratory tract and gut of birds.
Swine flu and avian flu are forms of flu that normally infect pigs and birds (especially water
fowl) but may be passed on to humans, where they can cause a severe disease.
Effect of influenza
Influenza is a potentially fatal viral disease. It is different to the common cold. The common
cold is caused by a group of viruses called rhinoviruses and coronaviruses. Influenza is
caused by influenza viruses, type A, B or C. Type A is the most virulent. Only type A can
infect both humans and animals. Different strains of the influenza A virus are named by a
combination of letters and numbers for example H1N1. The H (haemagglutinin) and the N
(neuraminidase) stand for the main types of proteins found in the protein coat of the virus.
The RNA mutates regularly, giving rise to new strains of the virus. Therefore the immune
system has to constantly adapt to fight the new strain. This constant mutation often allows
the virus to escape the immune system of the host. The host is therefore at risk of
developing influenza virus infections throughout life.

The H1N1 virus commonly known as Spanish flu had devastating effects towards the end of
World War I (1918); more than 20 million people died. Because of the movement of troops
the flu virus spread rapidly throughout the world until it became a pandemic. Many young
people who would not normally have been affected by the flu died. The same strain of virus
reappeared several times in later years. In 2009 the H1N1 virus commonly known as swine
flu appeared. Many people did not have antibodies that could recognise the virus.
This is why it spread so quickly and killed 18 000 people worldwide.
When diseases spread quickly like this epidemics can occur. Worldwide flu kills between 250
000 and 500 000 people per year. Influenza is on the top ten lists of killer diseases in many
countries.
Fig. 1.13 Special thermal imaging cameras that detect people with high temperatures are
used at airports to detect people with swine flu.
The flu virus is transmitted through the air in tiny droplets of saliva when flu sufferers
cough, sneeze and talk. Flu may also be spread when a person (or some other host) touches
a surface that has the flu virus on it and then touches their mouth or nose. Once a person
has been infected by the flu virus it enters the epithelial cells of the nose, throat and lungs
(or gut in the case of birds) where it multiplies, causing various symptoms. In humans the
symptoms include fevers (high temperatures) and chills, headaches, coughing, a sore throat,
a runny and blocked nose, aching muscles, fatigues, vomiting or diarrhoea. In vulnerable
groups such as children, pregnant women and the elderly, it can cause death. Side effects of
infection with the influenza virus may include bacterial infections, ear and sinus infections
and pneumonia. People tend to get flu more readily in winter because they stay indoors
with the windows closed.
Flu is also linked to heart disease as it can infect the heart muscles and weaken the heart.
Treatment of flu includes plenty of rest and lots of fluids. Vaccines are available but these
cannot keep pace with a virus that is constantly mutating.
Managing and treating influenza
In South Africa May/June and September/October are the flu months and it is
recommended that all people, especially those in the vulnerable groups, be vaccinated. The
vaccines contain inactivated forms of the flu virus and teach the body to recognise and
destroy the certain viral strains.
Besides vaccination the disease can be treated or at least managed in various ways:
• Use antiviral drugs that are available to treat flu.
• Cover the nose and mouth with a tissue when coughing; dispose of tissues hygienically.
• Wash hands often with soap and water and avoid touching the eyes, nose and mouth.
• Avoid sick people.
• Encourage sick people to stay in a separate area.
• Keep surfaces clean, washing them with soap and disinfectant.
Antibiotics are not effective when treating viruses, because they have no proper cellular
structure. Antibiotics only work on bacteria. Doctors prescribe antibiotics to reduce the
chance of any secondary bacterial infections. These infections occur when the immune
system is weak. The best way to prevent getting flu is to eat properly so as to keep your
immune system strong. Traditional healers use many plants to ease the symptoms of flu.
These include Cape honeysuckle, wild camphor, wild dagga, wild olive and lemon bush.

Diseases caused by bacteria

Bacteria cause diseases in plants and animals. Some human diseases caused by bacteria are
tuberculosis (TB), leprosy, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, food poisoning, syphilis, tooth decay
and anthrax.

Effects of bacterial blight

Blight is a disease caused by several species of bacteria and some fungi too. Plants become
infected when wet or moist conditions carry on for too long. The first symptoms of infection
are small, green watery spots on leaves and other plant tissues. As the bacteria multiply the
plant tissue dies, turning the spots brown and forming irregular blotches. Sometimes these
blotches are surrounded by yellow rings. Eventually the leaves or other parts of the plant
turn brown, causing the plant to wilt and die. On grapes the stems become infected,
forming reddish-brown streaks. In Afrikaans blight in grapes is called vlamsiekte, because
the streaks look like flames. Other types of plant that may be infected are barley, rice and
beans. Blight can cause serious losses of these economically important crops.

Managing and treating bacterial blight

• Avoid keeping plants in wet or moist conditions, which promote bacterial growth. Overhead or
sprinkler irrigation can contribute to the spread of blight.

• Plant plants apart to allow air to circulate between them and for them to dry properly after rain or
irrigation.

• Destroy or deep plough infected plants and their seeds.

• Rotate crops (alternating one crop type with another) to help control the spread of bacterial blight
between different parts of the same field and from season to season.

• Planting two crops in between one another, commonly known as intercropping, also helps to
control the spread of bacterial blight.

• Use strains of crop plants that are genetically resistant to blight.

Effects of cholera
Cholera is a disease caused by comma-shaped bacteria called Vibrio cholera. The cholera
bacteria are spread from person to person in water and food contaminated with faeces. The
bacteria can survive in streams, rivers, lakes and estuaries for days. Cholera bacteria secrete
toxins in the human digestive system which cause severe watery diarrhoea, stomach
cramps, vomiting and nausea. These symptoms result in severe dehydration, a dry skin and
mouth, thirst, sunken eyes, and tiredness. Left untreated, cholera may result in a severe
drop in body temperature and blood pressure, and eventually death. Cholera is found in
overcrowded areas where there is lack of a treated water supply and adequate sanitation.
For example, people might be obtaining their drinking water from rivers and using the
nearby bushes for toilets. Cholera is common during floods and earthquakes where water
and sanitation works have been destroyed. Cholera may also be found in densely populated
rural areas and informal settlements.
Cholera was first recorded in India in 1563, and then spread around the world in 1817. In
1961 a cholera outbreak in Indonesia became a pandemic when it spread around the world,
killing 120 000 people. Cholera outbreaks in 2001 and 2008 in South Africa affected almost
120 000 people, with 289 dying from the disease. On 12 January 2010, Haiti was struck by a
powerful earthquake, causing a disruption of water and sanitation facilities that resulted in
a cholera outbreak. As many as 252 640 were infected and 4 672 people died from the
disease.

Managing and treating cholera

Cholera can be treated with antibiotics. When drugs are not available it is treated with the
replacement of large amounts of fluids and electrolytes as soon as possible. If treatment is
effective the person will get better within a few days. When a person is too dehydrated and
too weak to drink fluids they can be put on an intravenous drip to rehydrate. A homemade
sugar and salt solution can be made to prevent the person from dehydrating further.
However, it is essential that the person be taken to hospital as quickly as possible for
treatment. Figure 1.14 shows how to make up a rehydration solution.
There are many simple things you can do to avoid the disease even if you have no proper
toilet facilities or treated drinking water supply:
• Wash your hands with soap and water after going to the toilet.
• Wash your hands before preparing food or eating a meal.
• Wash and cook food thoroughly to kill any bacteria present.
• Clean containers used to store drinking water thoroughly and regularly.
• Disinfect drinking water by filtering and boiling for three minutes or treating with ¼
teaspoon of household bleach (0,5% and unscented) per ten litres for half an hour.
• Bury faeces and place toilet facilities far away from drinking water.

Effect of tuberculosis
TB is a serious infectious disease that occurs frequently in South Africa. It is caused by the
bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This disease kills almost three million people each
year. The bacteria can attack any part of the body, but usually attack the lungs. TB affects
humans and some animals. It spreads from one person to another through the air. People
who are infected become sick and infectious. When they cough or sneeze, the TB bacteria
pass into the air in tiny droplets of saliva. A person who breathes in these bacteria will catch
the disease. A person with active TB disease will, on average, infect between 10 and 15
people each year. People who are infected with TB do not always experience the symptoms
of the disease immediately; they do not feel sick and cannot spread TB. TB can lie dormant
within the body for many years. A person with dormant TB will get TB symptoms only if their
immune system becomes weak. A person who has been infected with TB and is not yet sick
is said to have latent TB infection (LTBI). People with LTBI could take medicine so that they
will never develop the TB disease

Symptoms of TB depend on where in the body the TB bacteria are growing. TB in the lungs
causes a bad cough that lasts longer than two weeks, pains in the chest and coughing up
blood or sputum (phlegm from deep inside the lungs). People with active TB are always tired
and suffer from headaches. They may lose a lot of weight and get chills and fevers. Unless
they are treated for TB, they may infect other people and even die.
A TB infection is diagnosed using a simple skin test. A needle is used to introduce fluid called
tuberculin under the skin. After a few days, the amount of reaction to this fluid is assessed.
If there is a large amount of swelling, the person probably has a TB infection. A TB infection
is identified using X-rays or sputum samples.

According to the World Health Organization:

• One person is newly infected with TB every second.
• One third of the world’s population is currently infected with TB bacteria.
• Approximately 5–10% of the people who are infected with TB (but who do not have HIV)
will show symptoms of TB during their lifetime.

TB and HIV
HIV weakens the immune system. An HIV-positive person is many times more likely to get
TB than someone who does not have HIV/AIDS. If a person with dormant TB gets HIV/AIDS,
their immune system is weakened. The TB bacteria then become active and the person may
die of TB. All HIV-infected people should be given a TB test to find out if they have LTBI. If
they have LTBI they should start treatment to prevent them from developing TB. TB can be
prevented or cured in people with HIV infection. TB in South Africa In 2008, South Africa had
almost 400 000 people living with TB and 26 000 deaths as a result of the disease. This
incidence is much higher than the average incidence of the rest of the world.
Figure 1.15 shows the number of cases of TB reported each year in South Africa
Fig. 1.15 Graph showing number of TB cases in South Africa between 1990 and 2009.
between 1990 and 2009

Managing and treating TB

About 50 years ago, four very powerful drugs were developed to cure TB. Doctors estimated
that we would eradicate TB by 2010. Since 1985, however, there has been an increase in the
number of cases of TB. This is partly because of the rise in the number of HIV/AIDS cases
and partly because TB bacteria have become resistant to the TB drugs. Some strains of
bacteria are even resistant to more than one of the drugs.
Bacteria are becoming resistant to TB drugs because TB bacteria die very slowly. It takes at
least six months for the medicine to kill all the TB bacteria. Some sick people take the drugs
for only a few weeks and then they start to feel better. If they stop taking the drugs at this
point, the more resistant bacteria are left alive in their bodies. These drug-resistant bacteria
may spread to other people and infect them with TB.
If the newly infected person does not take the medicine for the full period, the bacteria
become even more resistant to the TB drugs. Eventually, the drugs may have no effect at all
on the bacteria.
In South Africa, TB agencies are using directly observed therapy (DOT) treatment. A trained
health care worker provides the prescribed TB drugs and watches the patient swallow every
dose. To prevent TB bacteria from developing drug resistance, people with TB have to take
the drugs for six to eight months. For the first two months, they have to take the drugs with
a nurse or doctor watching them to make sure that they are doing it properly. If any of these
people have a form of TB that is already resistant to the drugs, it will take almost two years
to treat them. Luckily, though, we only have to treat people with TB for three weeks before
they stop spreading TB to other people. This DOT campaign has led to improved efforts to
prevent and control TB.
You have learnt that South Africa faces one of the highest incidences of TB in the world. We
also have to deal with multidrug-resistant (MDR) TB. This is a strain of TB that has acquired
resistance to various TB drugs. It usually develops because of poor management and
ineffective treatment of ordinary TB. MDR TB is more difficult to treat than ordinary TB.
Another strain of MDR TB, called XDR TB, has also appeared in South Africa. In November
2007, the Department of Health reported 481 cases of XDR TB, of which 216 patients had
died. At least 30 new cases were being reported each month. This strain of TB is even more
infectious and more difficult and expensive to treat than MDR. It poses a serious global
health threat and could have a serious impact on the world HIV/AIDS problem.

Effect of anthrax
Anthrax is a serious disease of wild and domestic animals such as antelope, goats, sheep and
cattle. It is caused by rod-shaped bacteria Bacillus anthracis which may spread to humans
and cause death. This type of bacteria spreads easily because it forms thick-walled spores
that may last up to fifty years in the soil. When spores are inhaled or swallowed or come
into contact with a tear in the skin, they become active bacteria and multiply rapidly. The
first signs of an anthrax skin infection in a human are small sores that develop into blisters
and then become pus-filled ulcers with black centres.
Anthrax of the skin is seldom fatal. An anthrax infection of the digestive system results in
nausea and loss of appetite, which develop into bloody diarrhoea, fever, stomach pains and
possibly death. The most dangerous type of anthrax is respiratory system anthrax.
Symptoms are a sore throat, mild fevers and muscle pains (as in a cold or flu) which then
lead to coughs, painful chest, shortness of breath, tiredness and possibly death. Animals
pick up anthrax from the soil where the spores lie dormant. People most often contract
anthrax from handling infected animal products such as hides and wool, or eating
undercooked contaminated meat.
Anthrax has also been used as a weapon. In 2010 terrorists in the United States posted
anthrax spores in envelopes to various workers in government, including some US senators.
Twenty-two people opening the envelopes contracted the disease and five of those people
died.

Managing and treating anthrax

Anthrax was the first disease proved to be caused by a bacterium. The German scientist
Robert Koch in 1875 proved that bacteria from a farm animal that had died from anthrax
would cause the disease in mice. Six years later Louis Pasteur demonstrated a vaccine
against anthrax in sheep, goats and cattle. Many years later a vaccine was developed for
humans.
Farm animals such as sheep and cattle should be vaccinated against anthrax. People
working in high-risk situations, for example those working with animal hides and wool, or
soldiers who might be exposed to anthrax as a weapon of biological warfare, should also be
vaccinated. Once a person has been exposed to anthrax they should be given antibiotics. All
infected clothes, animal hides, wool and animal carcasses should be destroyed by burning.

Diseases caused by protists

Many protozoa cause diseases, such as sleeping sickness, amoebic dysentery and malaria,
in people and animals. Dinoflagellates produce toxins that are some of the most deadly
poisons known to humans. They produce a red tint to seawater known as a red tide.
Mussels and oysters feed on dinoflagellates. These toxins accumulate in their digestive
tracts. If humans eat these infected shellfish, they become poisoned and suffer from
paralytic shellfish poisoning and often die.
Effect of malaria Malaria kills millions of people throughout the world every year – mostly in
Africa. The disease is common in the tropical and subtropical parts of Africa, Central and
South America, and Asia. Malaria is an increasing problem around the world. In part this is
caused by changing global temperatures and drug resistance.
Malaria is a disease caused by four different protist species called plasmodia. A plasmodium
is a single-celled protist that occurs in parasitic forms only. Plasmodia cause disease by
destroying the red blood cells of the host (the infected person). The plasmodium parasite
completes its life cycle in two different organisms: humans and female Anopheles
mosquitoes. The plasmodium parasite reproduces both sexually and asexually by producing
spores.
Female Anopheles mosquitoes acquire plasmodia parasites when feeding on the blood of an
infected host. The infected female mosquitoes are called vectors, because they carry and
transmit the plasmodia to the other people that they feed on.
Symptoms of the disease
After a person has been bitten by an infected mosquito, it takes up to two weeks for flu-like
symptoms to show. The patient experiences chills, high fever, shivering and sweating,
headaches and vomiting. The shivering is caused when the parasites burst out of the red
blood cells. The fevers and sweats come and go depending on the stage of the life cycle of
the parasite. In severe cases convulsions occur, which eventually lead to a coma and finally
death. The liver and spleen become infected and swollen, which leads to jaundice as a result
of liver damage. Once the red blood cells become infected, they rupture and the patient
develops anaemia. The infected red blood cells can cause blockages in the blood vessels of
major organs such as the kidneys, the liver and the brain, and this often leads to the death
of the patient.

Treatment of malaria using traditional and modern medicines

People use both traditional and modern medicines to treat diseases. Modern treatment
involves the use of anti-malarial drugs such as quinine, chloroquine and mepacrine. These
drugs interrupt the parasite’s life cycle. However, they sometimes fail to eliminate the
disease completely because some resistant parasites can remain hidden in the liver. In
severe cases of the disease, a blood transfusion may be necessary.
The herb sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua) is a traditional malaria remedy that has been
used in China for many years. Today, scientists are researching the use of Artemisia annua
as a source for artemisinin drugs to be used in Africa. Artemisinin interrupts the life cycle of
the malaria parasite by stopping its multiplication in the liver and blood cells. Sweet
wormwood grows mainly in the mountains of South East Asia. Artemisinin is too complex to
be synthesised chemically. The cost of extracting artemisinin from sweet wormwood plants
is very high, especially for poor countries such as those in Africa and South America.

Prevention and control

Understanding how malaria is transmitted has helped the South African Department of
Health develop appropriate control and management strategies. Malaria prevention
includes measures taken against mosquito vectors and against the malaria parasite
Plasmodium. These include vector control programmes managed by health authorities,
personal protection measures to avoid mosquito bites and the use of preventative
medicines.
Prevention at a personal level includes using insect repellents and insecticides and sleeping
under mosquito nets that have been soaked in an insecticide. Environmental control can be
done by draining stagnant water in which mosquitoes breed and spraying insecticides in
homes to kill adult mosquitoes. Another method is to introduce certain kinds of fish into
ponds where mosquitoes breed (these fish eat mosquito eggs, larvae and pupae).
In areas where malaria is a problem, various other methods are used to prevent the disease
from spreading. Insecticides have been used to spray areas where mosquitoes live and
breed. One insecticide that is used is the chemical called DDT. This is a poisonous chemical
that has been banned in most countries because of its negative impact on the environment.
However, it is still being used in malarial areas in southern Africa as there is currently no
effective alternative.
Through effective malaria control measures, the transmission of malaria has been limited to
the north-eastern part of South Africa, mainly in the low-altitude areas of Limpopo,
Mpumalanga and northern KwaZulu-Natal. Malaria is seasonal in South Africa, with the
highest risk being during the wet summer months (September to May). Visitors to these
areas should consult a doctor or clinic about taking malaria tablets.

Diseases caused by fungi

There are more than 100 000 fungal species. Only a small percentage is responsible for
causing diseases in humans and animals. However, many fungi are plant pathogens,
attacking and killing plants such as wheat and maize. Athlete’s foot, thrush and ringworm
are common fungal diseases in humans.

Effect of rusts
Rusts are plant diseases caused mainly by microscopic parasitic fungi that belong to the
genus Puccinia. Rusts infect many different types of plants and can have devastating effects
on important economic crops such as wheat, barley, oats and rye. Spores of the rust fungi
may infect the leaves, stems, flowers and seeds of a host. The spores form germ tubes that
grow into the plant cells to take out water and nutrients. As the fungus grows it forms
reddish-brown marks that eventually become full of rust-coloured spores. These spores are
dispersed by the wind to infect new plants. Puccinia species tend to be very specific to their
hosts.
Some rust species infect more than one plant species to complete their life cycle, while
others will only have one plant species as a host. Rusts can seriously damage plants, causing
huge financial losses if they are economically important crops such as wheat. Managing and
treating rusts Like bacterial blight, rusts spread when plants are exposed to moist or wet
conditions for long periods of time.
Rusts can be treated with fungicides, but they can also be prevented or managed by:
• not exposing crops to moist, humid conditions for long periods (e.g. as may be caused by
sprinkler irrigation)
• planting plants far enough apart to allow for air circulation and drying of the plants after
they have been wet
• rotating crops to stop the spread of the disease
• using rust-resistant varieties of crops.

Effect of thrush
Thrush is the common name for candidiasis, which is caused by a yeast fungus called
Candida albicans. Candida yeasts are common in humans but are usually controlled by the
body’s immune system. When a person has a weakened immune system candida infections
can occur. Infections are common in people who are undernourished, stressed or suffer
from AIDS or have cancer.

Fig. 1.22 Photograph of an infection caused by Candida albicans

Candida thrives in warm, moist places. Infections usually occur in the vagina, on male
genitals and in the mouth. Oral thrush infections are common among young children,
especially when being breast or bottle fed. Vaginal thrush infections are common in women
who are pregnant or using oral contraceptives. Symptoms are a burning, itching irritation
with a thick, whitish discharge. Males do not get infected as often as females. Those
infected may have low immunity, be taking a course of antibiotics or have had sexual
intercourse with an infected partner.

Symptoms of thrush infections

• The mouth becomes red and swollen, with white or bluish-white patches.
• Nappy rash has many causes, but nappy rash caused by candida is a red pimply rash with
sharp outlines.
• Candida causes painful burning and itching in the vagina and a white discharge.
• The tip of the penis may become red and swollen from a candida infection, usually from
having sexual intercourse with an infected person.

Causes of thrush
Thrush may appear for no apparent reason. Some causes of thrush include the following:
• When the immune system is weak, for example when one has HIV/AIDS or the body is run
down.
• When the skin is kept moist for too long, e.g. when a baby wears a wet nappy for too long.
• When people wear tight clothes and underwear that do not allow air to circulate, moist
conditions develop that are ideal for the development of thrush.
• Antibiotics may kill useful bacteria that normally keep the candida fungus under control
within the body.
• Sexual intercourse which may irritate the skin.
• High blood sugar levels such as in diabetics.
• Use of perfumes or soaps that change the pH of the skin.
Managing and treating thrush
Visit the doctor to confirm your diagnosis. Your doctor will prescribe medicine to treat the
thrush. A thrush infection can be treated using topical creams or oral medication. Rinsing
the vagina using a douche is also recommended. An old traditional remedy for thrush is to
make a douche out of sour fig (Carpobrotus edulis) leaves and vinegar. If you are sexually
active, your partner should be treated as well, to avoid reinfecting you. Have your blood
sugar levels checked if you keep getting fungal infections or skin ulcers. Avoid harsh
perfumed soap, especially in sensitive body areas.
Diet can also play a role in preventing candida infections. Yeasts thrive on sugars, so avoid
eating foods containing refined white sugar and processed carbohydrates such as bread. Eat
lots of fresh vegetables and fruit and eat yoghurts with probiotic cultures to help reduce the
infection.

Effect of ringworm
The same fungus that causes athlete’s foot also causes ringworm, which causes red itchy
patches on the face (Tinea barbae or faciei), scalp (Tinea capitus), and hands (Tinea manus).
Tinea is the Latin name meaning growing worm. People used to think that they were caused
by worms, hence the name ringworm. Ringworm is infectious and can be passed along on
combs, brushes and clothing. Ringworm can also infect dogs and cats, which may then
transmit the infection to humans.
Managing and treating ringworm
Ringworm can be treated by antifungal creams or powders. Infections of the toenails and
scalp are tougher to treat and may require taking anti-fungal medicine by mouth (consult
your doctor about this). Avoid sharing brushes, combs, hair accessories, towels or clothing
with infected people. You should avoid touching pets that have signs of ringworm (typically
bald spots).

Effect of athlete’s foot

Many people, at one time or another, have suffered from an itchy red rash between their
toes. This is called athlete’s foot or tinea pedis (tinea means fungus and pedis means feet).
Athlete’s foot is caused by tiny filamentous fungi that invade our skin if they are given a
moist, warm place to live – for example, between the toes. The same fungus also causes
ringworm. If the fungal infection is not treated, the skin between the toes may crack and
bleed, and start to smell. The fungal infection may also spread to the soles of the feet and
the palms of the hands. Sometimes, athlete’s foot is accompanied by a fungal infection
under the toenails, which makes them thicken and go green or yellow.

Managing and treating athlete’s foot

The fungus that causes athlete’s foot needs warm, moist conditions to thrive. Here are some
tips to avoid athlete’s foot:
• Wear shoes that allow your skin to breathe, for example leather shoes.
• Try not to wear running shoes too much, as they tend to make the feet sweat.
• Wear thick woollen or cotton socks that will absorb sweat from the feet.
• Try to change your socks twice a day.
• Wash your feet every day and dry them with a clean towel.
• Powder your feet and socks with an anti-fungal powder to absorb moisture and kill fungi.
• Wear slops in public places such as school gyms, swimming pool change rooms and
showers (instead of going barefoot).
If you think you have athlete’s foot, visit your doctor to confirm the diagnosis. You can buy
anti-fungal creams or powder from your pharmacist. Make sure that you use the powder or
cream every day for at least a week or two. Follow the pharmacist’s instructions carefully.
Visit your doctor if the treatment does not work. Remember to follow the tips suggested
above to keep your feet as dry as possible during treatment.

Immune response of plants and animals

Living organisms have evolved many defence mechanisms against diseases. Immunity is the
ability of an organism to resist disease. The process is brought about by complex reactions
within the bodies of living organisms. Plants and animals are continually under threat of
infection by viruses, bacteria and fungi. The micro-organisms that could cause disease are
called pathogens. It is the task of the immune system to keep these microbes out of the
body or, if they do enter the body, to find them and destroy them. Through a series of steps
called the immune response, the immune system attacks organisms and substances that
invade body systems and cause disease.

Immunity in plants
Plants do not have an immune system, but use passive mechanisms of protection. For
example, mechanical barriers against infection, such as waxy cuticles, bark, lignin and
suberin in cell walls keep out pathogens and hold moisture. Plants also secrete irritating
juices that prevent insects and animals from eating their tissues. In these ways plants can
improve their chances of survival, but are not able to attack and fight an infection by a
pathogen.
Any wounds in vascular plants can be plugged with parenchyma cells forming callus tissue.
Chemicals such as resin and gums act as antiseptics and prevent the entry of micro-
organisms, as well as providing a natural resistance to fungal infections.
Organisms can, however, invade plants through splits in the bark and insect mouthparts can
pierce cuticles. When plants detect an invading pathogen, they release high levels of salicylic
acid in the affected tissue. This induces programmed cell death in the affected tissues,
which restricts the spread of the pathogen and also activates responses elsewhere in the
plant. The result is that the plant can resist further attacks on other tissues.
Immunity in animals
Animals, unlike plants, have an internal immune system to defend themselves against
micro-organisms. This is known as a natural immunity. In Grade 10 you learnt that the
immune system consists of the skin, lymph system, spleen and bone marrow. The immune
system manufactures white blood cells (leucocytes) that destroy pathogens. There are two
types of leucocytes: lymphocytes (B and T) and phagocytes. When pathogens invade the
body, their proteins are foreign to the body. These foreign proteins are called antigens. B-
lymphocytes detect the antigens and produce their own proteins to destroy the invaders.
These proteins are called antibodies.
The antibodies attach themselves to the antigens, causing them to clump together. T-
lymphocytes destroy them and the phagocytes engulf them through a process called
phagocytosis. This is called active immunity, as the body has made antibodies through direct
contact with a pathogen. These antibodies continue to exist in the body after it has
recovered from a disease. If the body is exposed to the pathogen at a later date, these
antibodies are already available, allowing the immune system to react more quickly to the
invading pathogen and destroy it before it can multiply.

Vaccinations
Vaccination is an effective means of stimulating active immunity. A vaccine is a substance
that is injected into the body or given orally to prevent a specific disease. The immune
system protects the body by fighting disease-causing organisms such as viruses and
bacteria. We can speed up the body’s immune response to a specific disease-causing
organism by giving it a vaccination for this disease.
A vaccine is made from a weakened form of a disease-causing organism. For example, the
tetanus vaccine contains the inactive form of the bacteria that causes tetanus. When you
are vaccinated against tetanus, your immune system responds to the inactive tetanus
bacteria by making antibodies that will destroy any tetanus bacteria. If you happen to be
exposed to tetanus bacteria later, the antibodies already exist. The lymphocytes recognise
the bacteria quickly, so they multiply and destroy the bacteria before they have a chance to
make you sick.
The use of vaccines has completely eradicated (destroyed) the disease smallpox and almost
completely eradicated polio.
All South African children should be vaccinated against the following diseases:
• hepatitis (viral)
• diphtheria, tetanus and whooping cough (bacterial)
• Haemophilus influenza (viral)
• polio (viral)
• measles, mumps and rubella (viral)
• chickenpox (viral).
These vaccinations are given at separate intervals such as six weeks, three months, 12
months and 18 months of age. Each time the vaccination is given it has a higher dose so that
the body can build up a good supply of antibodies.

Use of drugs to control micro-organisms

Humans have struggled against death, diseases and infections caused by bacteria for
thousands of years. Not long after World War I, during which thousands of soldiers died
from infected wounds, medicines were invented that could cure many bacterial diseases
and infections. These antibiotics were discovered quite by accident.
In 1928 Alexander Fleming, a Scottish doctor and researcher, returned to his laboratory
after a family holiday. In one corner was a stack of dishes containing bacteria that he had
grown before he went away. He noticed that one of the dishes was contaminated with
mould and that the bacteria around the mould had been destroyed. Fleming cultured the
fungus and found that it belonged to the genus Penicillium and that it was able to destroy
many types of bacteria. It took 17 years to learn how to mass-produce the penicillin. Today
there are more than 100 types of antibiotics developed using the tools of biotechnology.
Antibiotics work in several different ways to destroy bacteria. They stop the bacteria from
forming cell walls or making proteins and nucleic acids while developing. Some antibiotics
alter the permeability of the cell membrane, causing the bacteria to lose vital substances.
Other antibiotics interfere with the enzyme action during metabolic processes. These
antibiotics are called antimetabolites.
Antibiotics are used against bacteria, fungi and parasites. If antibiotics are overused or used
incorrectly the bacteria may become resistant. You learnt how the tuberculosis bacteria
have become resistant to antibiotics, making it very difficult to control the disease. Over
time, the DNA in bacteria mutates, which helps them to withstand the attack of antibiotics.
When bacteria become resistant to antibiotics they are able to block the access point of the
antibiotic or alter the target site of the antibiotic. Some bacteria can inactivate the antibiotic
or even actively transport the antibiotic out of the cell. Figure 1.28 shows how bacteria can
become resistant to antibiotics.
One way of ensuring that bacteria do not become resistant to antibiotics is to complete the
course. This minimises the risk of a few resistant bacteria surviving the medicine. Superbugs
are bacteria that are resistant to all known antibiotics.

Micro-organisms to produce medicine

Many micro-organisms are useful. They have been used in biotechnology to develop drugs,
vaccines and better ways to diagnose and treat diseases. Bacteria and viruses are often used
in biotechnology.

Production of insulin through genetic engineering

Insulin is a hormone that is secreted by the pancreas to control the sugar levels in your
blood after eating. Without insulin, glucose levels in the blood would become very high and
could lead to death. Type 1 diabetes is a disease where the pancreas does not secrete
sufficient insulin. Diabetes patients inject insulin into their blood to make sure that their
blood sugar levels do not become too high. Producing this insulin has always been a
problem. In the past, insulin was taken from the pancreases of pigs or cows when they were
slaughtered. This had several problems as the insulin was chemically different from human
insulin, causing allergic reactions in some diabetics. It was expensive to produce and there
was always a limited supply. Today, bacterial DNA plasmids are used in bioengineering to
produce insulin. This is done by isolating the human insulin gene from a human
chromosome and then inserting it into the bacterial plasmid.
Bacteria divide very quickly, so large numbers of insulin-producing bacteria can be
cultivated. This insulin is easily extracted. Insulin is therefore now much cheaper to produce,
more readily available and chemically identical to human insulin. Figure 1.30 shows how the
process of insulin production occurs. Read each step carefully so you can learn how insulin is
produced.

The technique of recombining genes in micro-organisms also has now been used to produce
hormones such as human growth hormone, which controls the absorption of calcium into
bones. Recombinant gene technology has been used to produce safer vaccines such as the
hepatitis B vaccine. Interferon is a protein used in the treatment of AIDS.
Interferon helps cells to break down viruses and stop them from dividing. The bacterium
Escherichia coli has been used to produce interferon. Interferon was originally extracted
from white blood cells but thousands of litres of blood were needed to produce a small
amount of interferon, making it extremely expensive. Today genetically engineered
interferon is available, making it more affordable.
Penicillin: The first miracle drug
Earlier you learnt that penicillin is an antibiotic that is produced using the fungus
Penicillium. Antibiotics are chemicals that can kill or stop the growth of diseasecausing
bacteria. The ability of penicillin to cure people of many once-fatal bacterial infections has
saved so many lives that it has been called a ‘miracle drug’. Penicillin kills bacteria by
preventing the bacteria from forming new cell walls. The bacteria die because they cannot
complete the process of cell division that produces new bacteria.

Micro-organisms and traditional biotechnology

All over the world people drink fermented beverages during many types of celebrations.
Beer brewing and wine making are among the oldest biotechnologies in the world. In South
Africa, various alcoholic drinks are produced using yeast. For example, the Western Cape is
well known for its wine production. Traditional African beers are mostly made from
sorghum and maize. In some communities, marula fruit and honey are also used to make
traditional alcoholic beverages.

The traditional beer-making process

Either sorghum or maize is used as the main source of sugars to make alcohol. The first
stage is the preparation of the sorghum seeds. The seeds are left covered with water in a
clay pot for a day. They absorb water and swell. The soaked sorghum seeds are drained and
placed in a tightly sealed clay pot to germinate into sprouts. The sprouts are allowed to dry
in the sun. The drying process stops germination. The dried sprouts are crushed and ground
with traditional grinding stones to produce malted, coarse sorghum meal.

In the next stage, the maize and malted sorghum meal are soaked in warm water for about
a day. On the second day, the fermented soaked mixture is cooked in big pots to form soft
porridge. This process is called mashing. The soft porridge is cooled in large clay pots.
In the next stage, traditional straining equipment – such as woven grass bags and sieves
made from metal and wood – is used to strain the beer. The matured beer is stored in clay
pots in a cool place, ready for drinking. Traditional beer has a thick consistency with a
refreshing acidic flavour.

Traditional sources of yeast for brewing

Indigenous tribes in South Africa used various plant roots as a source of yeast to start
fermentation in beer production. The roots of plants such as Khadia acutipetala (common
name khadi) and Mestoklema tuberosum (common name donkievygie) contain yeasts and
moulds that were commonly used in South Africa for fermenting traditional beers. Today,
commercial yeasts are used to start fermentation, standardise flavour and improve the
quality of beer. Local supermarkets keep a variety of commercial brewing and baking yeasts.

Wine making
Wine is fermented fruit juice. The most common fruit used is grapes, but it can be made
from many other fruits. In Japan and China, rice is used to make wine. Grape berries are
crushed to form a juice called must. The must is left to ferment and after a couple of weeks
it turns into wine. The colour of the wine depends on the type of grape used and the time
the skins are left in the must. The longer the skins are left in, the redder the wine becomes.

Making cheese
Cheese has been made for thousands of years. It was a way of extending the shelf life of
milk in the days before fridges were invented. The different flavours of cheeses depend on
the type of milk and which micro-organisms are used. Milk contains a sugar called lactose, a
protein called casein, water, fat and minerals. A bacterium called Lactobacillus ferments the
lactose sugar, changing it into lactic acid. Lactic acid causes the casein to curdle and
separate from the liquid whey. The solid curds are washed, salted and moulded into
cheeses.
Soft cheeses contain more water than hard cheeses. Some cheeses have a fungal growth on
them, which gives them a strong flavour. An example of this type of cheese is blue vein
cheese, where the fungus Penicillium roqueforti grows through the cheese. Other fungi,
such as Penicillium camemberti, grow on the surface of the cheese, maturing into a more
runny cheese. Examples of this type of cheese are Camembert and Brie.
Yoghurt is made in a very similar way. The lactic acid produced during the fermentation
process is what causes yoghurt to have a sour taste. When you see the phrase ‘live cultures’
on yoghurt tubs it refers to the presence of bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus. These
bacteria are good for your digestive system.
The next stage is the fermentation process. A small amount of the milled and dried sorghum
seeds – which carry the natural yeast – are introduced into the cool, soft porridge. The
mixture is mixed with large amounts of water and poured into big clay fermentation pots.
 The surface of these pots contain yeast cells left from the beer that was previously stored in
the pots. These yeast cells, together with those from the sorghum seeds, are used to ‘kick
start’ the process of fermentation. The yeast converts the sugars in the sorghum and the
maize into alcohol.
Fermentation is temperature dependent, so the mixture ferments much faster in summer
than in winter. The quality of the froth that is produced during fermentation acts as a guide
for the beer makers to determine if the beer is ready for straining.