Linear Control system

Introductory concepts

System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.

Control System – An interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired response.

Process – The device, plant, or system

under control. The input and output
relationship represents the cause-and-
effect relationship of the process.
• Plant:It is a process/body/machine of which a
entire particular quantity or condition is to be
controlled.
• Controller: It is a component required to generate
the appropriate control signal applied to a plant.
• Servomechanism:It is a power amplifying
feedback control system in which the control
variable is mechanical position ,or time derivative
of position such as velocity or acceleration
.Occasionally it refers to mechanical syatem in
which steady state error is zero for constant input
signal.
• Regulator:It is a system in which there is
steady state value for constant input signal.
• Linear time invariant system:systems whose
parameters are varying with time.not
dependent on whether input/output are
varying with time.
• Non Linear time invariant system:systems
whose parameters are not varying with
time. Dependent on whether input/output
are varying with time.
• Open loop system:A system in which the output is
dependent on I/p but I/p is independent of change
in o/p of the system.
• Closed loop system:A system in which the I/p,
controlling action is dependent of change in o/p
of the system.
• Continuous and Discrete time control system:All
system variables are function of continuous time
variable ‘t’.
• Discrete time control system: One or more system
variable are known at only at discrete time
intervals.
Control System

• Control is the process of causing a system variable to

conform to some desired value.
• Manual control Automatic control (involving machines
only).
• A control system is an interconnection of components
forming a system configuration that will provide a desired
system response. Input Control Output
Signal Signal
System

Energy
Source
Open-Loop Control Systems
utilize a controller or control
actuator to obtain the desired
response.

Closed-Loop Control
Systems utilizes feedback to
compare the actual output to
the desired output response.

Multivariable Control System

Control System Classification
Missile Launcher System

Open-Loop Control System

Control System Classification
Missile Launcher System

Closed-Loop Feedback Control System

 Effect of feedback on overall
gain.
• The overall gain of a open loop system is
G(s) and feedback when introduced the
feedback is C(s)/R(s)=G(s)/1+-G(s)H(s).So
gain is affected by the denominator.For
positive feedback the sign in denominator
is(-) and for negative feedback the sign in
denominator is(+).
 Effect of feedback on overall
sensitivity.
• sensitivity is reduced by factor of
1/1+G(s)H(s) due to feedback for change in
forward parameter.
• Closed loop system is more sensitive to
variation in feedback parameters than
variation in forward path transfer functions.
 Effect of feedback on overall
stability.
• feedback can improve o overall stability or
may harmful purely depends on application
and proper design of feedback.
 Effect of feedback on overall
noise.
• Feedback can decrease the effect of noise.
 Manual Vs Automatic Control
• Control is a process of causing a system variable such as
temperature or position to conform to some desired value or
trajectory, called reference value or trajectory.
• For example, driving a car implies controlling the vehicle to
follow the desired path to arrive safely at a planned destination.
i. If you are driving the car yourself, you are performing manual control of
the car.

ii. If you use design a machine, or use a computer to do it, then you have
built an automatic control system.
 Control System Classification

Desired
Controller Output
Output Process
Response Variables

Measurement

Multi Input Multi Output (MIMO) System

Purpose of Control Systems

i. Power Amplification (Gain)

– Positioning of a large radar antenna by low-power rotation
of a knob
ii. Remote Control
– Robotic arm used to pick up radioactive materials
iii. Convenience of Input Form
– Changing room temperature by thermostat position
iv. Compensation for Disturbances
– Controlling antenna position in the presence of large wind
disturbance torque
 Application of control system
• Familiar control systems have the basic closed-loop configuration. For
example, a refrigerator has a temperature setting for desired
temperature, a thermostat to measure the actual temperature and the
error, and a compressor motor for power amplification. Other
examples in the home are the oven, furnace, and water heater. In
industry, there are controls for speed, process temperature and
pressure, position, thickness, composition, and quality, among many
others. Feedback control concepts have also been applied to mass
transportation, electric power systems, automatic warehousing and
inventory control, automatic control of agricultural systems,
biomedical experimentation and biological control systems, and social,
economic, and political systems. See also Biomedical engineering;
Electric power systems; Mathematical biology; Systems analysis;
Systems engineering.
General Control System
Disturbance

Controlled Manipulated
Set-point Error Signal Variable
or
Reference Actual
input + + Output
+
+ Controller Actuator + Proces
-
s

Feedback Signal Sensor

Control System Components

i. System, plant or process

– To be controlled
ii. Actuators
– Converts the control signal to a power signal
iii. Sensors
– Provides measurement of the system output
iv. Reference input
– Represents the desired output
Control System Design Process
1. Establish control goals

2. Identify the variables to control

3. Write the specifications for the variables

4. Establish the system configuration and identify the actuator

If the performance does not 5. Obtain a model of the process, the actuator and the sensor
meet specifications, then
iterate the configuration
and actuator
6. Describe a controller and select key parameters to be adjusted

7. Optimize the parameters and analyze the performance

If the performance meet the specifications, then finalize design

Examples of Modern Control Systems

(a) Automobile
steering control
system.
(b) The driver uses
the difference
between the actual
and the desired
direction of travel
to generate a
controlled adjustment
of the steering wheel.
(c) Typical direction-
of-travel response.
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
The Future of Control Systems
The Future of Control Systems
Design Example
Design Example
Design Example
Design Example
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems

The issue of ensuring the stability of a closed-loop feedback system is central to

control system design. Knowing that an unstable closed-loop system is generally
of no practical value, we seek methods to help us analyze and design stable
systems. A stable system should exhibit a bounded output if the corresponding
input is bounded. This is known as bounded-input, bounded-output stability and
is one of the main topics of this chapter.

The stability of a feedback system is directly related to the location of the roots
of the characteristic equation of the system transfer function. The Routh–
Hurwitz method is introduced as a useful tool for assessing system stability. The
technique allows us to compute the number of roots of the characteristic
equation in the right half-plane without actually computing the values of the
roots. Thus we can determine stability without the added computational burden
of determining characteristic root locations. This gives us a design method for
determining values of certain system parameters that will lead to closed-loop
stability. For stable systems we will introduce the notion of relative stability,
which allows us to characterize the degree of stability.
The Concept of Stability

A stable system is a dynamic system with a bounded response

to a bounded input.

Absolute stability is a stable/not stable characterization for a

closed-loop feedback system. Given that a system is stable
we can further characterize the degree of stability, or the
relative stability.
 The Concept of Stability
The concept of stability can be
illustrated by a cone placed on
a plane horizontal surface.

A necessary and
sufficient condition for a
feedback system to be
stable is that all the
poles of the system
transfer function have
negative real parts.

A system is considered marginally stable if only certain bounded

inputs will result in a bounded output.
 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

It was discovered that all coefficients of the characteristic

polynomial must have the same sign and non-zero if all
the roots are in the left-hand plane.

These requirements are necessary but not sufficient. If the

above requirements are not met, it is known that the
system is unstable. But, if the requirements are met, we
still must investigate the system further to determine the
stability of the system.

The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a necessary and sufficient

criterion for the stability of linear systems.
 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Characteristic equation, q(s)

an s n  an 1s n 1  an  2 s n  2    a1s  a0  0
Routh array
sn an an  2 an  4
s n 1 an 1 an 3 an 5
n2
s bn 1 bn 3 bn 5
s n 3 cn 1 cn  3 cn  5
   
   
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion    
0
s h
states that the number of roots n 1

of q(s) with positive real partsa a   a a   1 an an  2

b  n 1
n 1 n2 n n 3

is equal to the number of a n 1 an 1 an 1 an 3

changes in sign of the firstb   1 a a

n 3
n2 n4

a a a n 1 n 1 n 3
column of the Routh array.  1 a a n 1 n 3
cn 1 
bn 1 bn 1 bn 3
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case One: No element in the first column is zero.
Example 6.1 Second-order system

The Characteristic polynomial of a second-order sys tem is:

2
q(s ) a 2 s  a 1 s  a 0

The Routh array is w ritten as: 2

s a2 a0
1
s a1 0
0
w here: s b1 0
a1 a0  ( 0)  a2
b1 a0
a1

Theref ore the requirement f or a stable second-order system is

simply that all coef f icients be positive or all the coef ficients be
negative.
 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Two: Zeros in the first column while some elements of
the row containing a zero in the first column are nonzero.

If only one element in the array is z ero, it may be replaced w ith a small positiv e
number  that is allow ed to approach zero after completing the array.

5 4 3 2
q( s ) s  2s  2s  4s  11s  10

The Routh array is then:

s5 1 2 11
s4 2 4 10
s3 b1 6 0
s2 c1 10 0
w here:
2 2  1 4 4  2 6 12 6 c1
s 101 d1 0 0
b1 0  c1 d1 6
2   c1 0
s
There are tw o sign changes in the first column due to the large negative number
10 0 0
calculated f or c1. Thus, the system is unstable because tw o roots lie in the
right half of the plane.
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Three: Zeros in the first column, and the other elements
of the row containing the zero are also zero.
This case occurs w hen the polynomial q(s) has zeros located sy metrically about the
origin of the s-plane, such as (s+)(s -) or (s+j)(s -j). This c ase is solved using
the auxiliary poly nomial, U(s), w hich is located in the row above the row containing
the zero entry in the Routh array.

3 2
q( s ) s  2 s  4s  K

Routh array: s3 1 4
s2 2 K
8 K
s1 2 0
s0 K 0
For a stable system w e require that 0s 8

For the marginally stable case, K=8, the s^1 row of the Routh array contains all zeros. The
auxiliary plynomial comes f rom the s^2 row .
U( s )
2
2s  Ks
0 2
2 s  8 2 
2s 4 2( s  j 2) ( s  j 2)

It c an be proven that U(s) is a f actor of the characteris tic polynomial:

q( s ) s2
U( s ) 2 Thus, w hen K=8, the factors of the characteristic polynomial are:

q( s ) ( s  2) ( s  j 2) ( s  j 2)
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Four: Repeated roots of the characteristic equation on
the jw-axis.

With simple roots on the jw-axis, the system will

have a marginally stable behavior. This is not
the case if the roots are repeated. Repeated roots
on the jw-axis will cause the system to be
unstable. Unfortunately, the routh-array will fail
to reveal this instability.
Example

Using block diagram reduction we find that:

The Routh array is then: s4 1 11 Ka
s3 6 ( K  6)
s2 b3 Ka
s1 c3
s0 Ka
60  K b 3( K  6)  6 Ka
where: b 3 and c3
6 b3

For the system to be stable bothb 3 and c3 must be positive.

Using these equations a relationship can be determined for K and a
The Relative Stability of Feedback Control Systems

It is often necessary to know the

relative damping of each root to
the characteristic equation.
Relative system stability can be
measured by observing the
relative real part of each root. In
this diagram r2 is relatively more
stable than the pair of roots
labeled r1.

One method of determining the relative stability of

each root is to use an axis shift in the s-domain and
then use the Routh array as shown in Example 6.6 of
the text.
Design Example:
The characteristic equation of this system is:
1  Gc G( s ) 0

or
K( s  a)
1 0
s ( s  1) ( s  2) ( s  5)

Thus,
s ( s  1) ( s  2) ( s  5)  K( s  a) 0

or
4 3 2
s  8s  17s  ( K  10)s  Ka 0
To determine a stable region for the system, we establish the Routh array as
s4 1 17 Ka
s3 8 ( K  10) 0
s2 b3 Ka
s1 c3
s0 Ka
where
126  K b 3( K  10)  8Ka
b3 and c3
8 b3
Design Example:

s4 1 17 Ka
s3 8 ( K  10) 0
s2 b3 Ka
s1 c3
s0 Ka

where
126  K b 3( K  10)  8Ka
b3 and c3
8 b3

Therefore,
K  126

K a  0

( K  10) ( 126  K)  64Ka  0

System Stability Using MATLAB
Root Locus Techniques
 Objectives
 Definition of a root locus
 How to sketch a root locus
 How to refine your sketch of a root locus
 How to use the root locus to find the poles of a closed-
loop system
 How to use the root locus to describe qualitatively the
changes in transient response and stability of a system
as a system parameter is varied
 How to use the root locus to design a parameter value to
meet a transient response specification for systems of
order 2 and higher

52
 Introduction

• What is root locus?

– Root locus is a graphical representation of the closed-loop

poles as a system parameter is varied
– It can be used to describe qualitatively the performance of a
system as various parameters are changed
– It gives graphic representation of a system’s transient
response and also stability
– We can see the range of stability, instability, and the
conditions that cause a system to break into oscillation

53
 The Control System Problem
 The poles of the open loop transfer
function are easily found by
inspection and they do not change
with changes in system gain. But
the poles of the closed loop
transfer function are more difficult
to find and they change with
changes in system gain

 Consider the closed loop system in

the next figure
a) Closed loop system
b) Equivalent transfer function

Note: KG(s)H(s) = Open Loop

Transfer Function, or loop gain

54
If • Observations:
– The zero of T(s) consist of the
G(s) = NG(s) / DG(s) zeros of G(s) and The poles of
H(s)
And – The poles of T(s) are not
immediately known without
factoring the denominator and
H(s) = NH(s) / DH(s) they are a function of K
– Since the system’s performance
Then  depends on the knowledge of the
poles’ location, we will not be
able to know the system
T(s) = KG(s) / 1 + K(s)H(s) performance readily
– Root locus can be used to give us
Therefore  a picture of the poles of T(s) as
the system gain, K, Varies
T(s) = KNG(s)DH(s) / DG(s)DH(s) + KNG(s)NH(s)

55
Vector representation of complex number
 Vector has a magnitude
and a direction
 Complex number (σ +
jω) can be described in
Cartesian coordinates
or in polar form. It can
also be represented by
a vector
 If a complex number is
substituted into a
complex function, F(s),
another complex
number will result

56
Example:

If

s = (σ + jω) is substituted into F(s)

= (s + a)

Then

F(s) = (σ + a) + jω

Therefore

(s + a) is a complex number and

can be represented by a vector
drawn from the zero of the function
to point S
57
Draw the vector representation of
(s + 7)|s5 + j2
Recall Or
m n

(s +z1)(s +z2)… F(s)= = ∏ (s + zi) / ∏ (s + pj)

F(s)
(s + p1)(s + p2)… I =1 j =1

Where

∏ = Product

Or

F(s) = M∟θ (in polar

form)
58
 Summary
M = ∏ zero lengths / ∏ pole lengths
m

 | (s  z ) |
i
M n
i

 | (s  p ) |
j
j

m
Θ = Σ zero angles – Σ pole angles
n
   ( s  zi )   ( s  p j )
i j

59
 (s + 1)
Given F(s) = , Find F(s) at the point s
s(s + 2)
= -3 + j4
Graphically:
For (s +1):
(s + 1)|s-3 + j4
= (-3 + j4) + 1
= -2 + j4
= 4.47 ∟116.56o

Similarly:
s|s-3 + j4 = 5 ∟126.9o
(s + 2)|s-3 + j4 = -1 + j4
= 4.12 ∟ 104.03o

Therefore
M∟θ = F(s)| s-3 + j4
= 4.47 / 5(4.12)
∟116.56o – 126.9o +104.03o
= 0.217 ∟ -114.3o

60
 Defining the Root Locus
Consider the system represented by
block diagram next:

The C.L.T.F.

= K / s2 +10s + K

Where K = K1K2

If we plot the poles of the C.L.T.F.

for value K = 0  50, we will
obtain the following plots

61
62
63
 Observations:
 Root locus is the representation of the path of the closed loop poles as the gain is varied
 Root locus show the changes in the transient response as the gain K, varies
For 0 < K < 25
- poles are real and distinct (jω = 0)
- Overdamped response
For K = 25
- Poles are real and multiples
- Critical response
For 25 < K < 50 (or K > 25)
- Poles are complex conjugate
- Underdamped response
- Since Ts is inversely ∞ to the real part of the pole and the real part remains the same for K > 25
- Therefore, the settling time, Ts, remains the same regardless of the value of gain (Note that T s = 4 /
σd)
For K > 25
- as the gain increases, the damping ratio, ζ = cos θ decreases and thus the %OS decreases too
- Note: %OS = e-[ζπ/√(1-ζ2)]*100
- As the gain increases, the damped freq. of oscillation, ωd, which is the imaginary part of the
complex pole also increase
- Since peak time, Tp = π / ωd , thus an increase in ωd will result in an increase in Tp
- Finally, since the root locus never crosses over into the RHP, the system is always stable,
regardless of the value of gain

64
Properties of the Root Locus
• Knowing the properties of Root Locus will enable us to sketch the root locus without
having to factor the denominator of the closed loop transfer function
• Consider the general representation of the C.L.T.F:

T(s) = KG(s) / 1 + KG(s)H(s)

A pole exists when the characteristic polynomial in the denominator becomes zero

Hence, KG(s)H(s) = -1 = 1∟(2k + 1)1800, k =0,+1,+2,…

Or |KG(s)H(s)| = 1 and ∟KG(s)H(s) = (2k + 1)1800

Similarly,
1 1  pole length
K  
| G ( s) H ( s) | M  zero length
Hence, Given the poles & zeros of the open loop Transfer function, KG(s)H(s), a point in the
s-plane is on the root locus for a particular value of gain, K, if the angles of the zeros
minus the angles of the poles, all drawn to the selected point on the S-plane, add up to (2k
+ 1)1800

65
Given a unity feedback system that has a the following forward transfer
K ( s  2)function:
G ( s)  2
( S  4s  13)

a. Calculate the angle of G(s) at the point (-3

+ j0) by finding the algebraic sum of angle
of the vectors drawn from the zeros &
poles of G(s) to the given point

b. Determine if the point specified in (a) is on

the root locus

c. If the point is on the Root Locus, find the

gain K using the lengths of the vectors 66
 K ( s  2) K ( s  2)
G( s)  2 
( S  4s  13) ( s  2  j 3)(s  2  j 3)
jω
Σ angles = 1800 + θ1 + θ2 = 1800 -108.430 +
108.430 = 1800
S-Plane
Or
j3

θ1 ∟G(s)|s=-3j0
= Σθzeros – Σθpoles
K
 Polelength  ( 12  32 )( 12  32 )
 10 σ = 1800 – (-108.430 + 108.430)
 Zerolength 1
= 1800
-3 -2 -1

θ2 Since the angle is 1800, the point is on Root

Locus
-j3

67
 Sketching the Root Locus
• Based on the properties of root locus, some rules are established to enable us
to sketch the Root Locus:

Symmetry

Number Real
of Axis
Branches segment
RULES

Starting
Behavior
&
at
Ending
infinity
Point
68
 No. of branches
The no. of branches
of the R.L equals
the number of
closed-loop poles.
(Since a branch is
the path that one
poles traverses.)
1s
t

2nd
69
 Symmetry
The root locus is
symmetrical about
the real-axis.
(Since complex
poles always exist
in complex
Symmetrical
conjugateabout
form.)
real
axis

70
 Real-axis segment
On the real-axis, for
K>0, the root locus
exists to the left of
an odd number of
real-axis, finite
open-loop poles
and/or finite open-
loop zeros. (Due to
the angle property
of R-L.) To the left
of an odd
number 71
 Starting & Ending Points
The root locus begins
at the finite &
infinite poles of
G(s)H(s) & ends
at the finite &
infinite zeros of
G(s)H(s).Endin
g

Starti
ng 72
 Concept of Infinite pole & zero
 Infinite pole: If the function approaches ∞ as s
approaches ∞, then the function has an infinite pole.
 Infinite zero: If the function approaches zero as s
approaches ∞, then, the function has an infinite zero
 Example: KG(s)H(s) = K / s(s + 1)(s + 2)
 This function has 3 finite poles at 0, -1, -2 & 3
infinite zeros.
 Every function of s has an equal no. of poles &
zeros if we included the infinite poles & zeros as
well as the finite poles & zeros.

73
 Behavior at infinity
 The root locus approaches straight lines as
asymptotes as the locus approaches infinity.
 The equation of the asymptotes is given by the real-
axis intercept, σa & angle θa :
a  
finite poles   finite zeros
# finite poles# finite zeros
(2k  1)
a 
# finite poles# finite zeros

 Where k = 0, +1, +2, + 3, and the angle is given in

radians w.r.t. the positive extension of the real-axis.
74
 Example: Sketch the root locus for the
system shown
a  
finite poles   finite zeros
# finite poles # finite zeros
(1  2  4)  (3) 4
a  
4 1 3

(2k  1)
a 
# finite poles# finite zeros

 for k  0
3
  for k  1
5
 for k  2
3
 Notice that there are 4 finite
poles & 1 finite zero.
 Thus there will be 3 infinite
zeros.
 Calculate the asymptotes of the
infinite zeros:
 Intercept on real-axis.
75
Root locus and asymptotes for the system
of previous example

Π
/3 Real
axis
intercept

5Π /3

76
 Real-Axis
Breakaway
&
Break-in Points

Refining
the
Sketch
Angle of
departure
Finding & arrival
the jω from
axis complex
crossings poles & zeros

77
 Real-Axis Breakaway & Break-in Points

 Breakaway point is the

point where the locus
leaves the real-axis.
(-σ1 in the figure)

 Break-in point is the

point where the locus
returns to the real-axis.
(σ2 in the figure)

78
Finding the Breakaway & Break-in points
via differentiation
 We know that for a point to be on a Root-locus,
K = -1 / G(s)H(s)
 Thus, on the real-axis (jω = 0),
K = -1 / G(σ)H(σ)
 Note also that
◦ at the breakaway point, K is maximum (for the R-L on the real-
axis),
◦ and at the break-in point, K is minimum.
 Breakaway & Break-in point can be found by
differentiating K G(σ)H(σ) = -1 & set it to zero.
79
 Find the breakaway & break-in points for
the root locus shown
From the Root Locus
K ( s  3)(s  5)
KG ( s ) H ( s ) 
( s  1)(s  2)
K ( s 2  8s  15)

( s 2  3s  2)
take real
On G ( )
Note : the root
We will get thelocus & ifonwethe
same result 0 axis,
d
KG ( s ) H ( s )  1  KG ( ) H ( )
K ( 2  8  15)
 1
( 2  3  2)
k (11 2  26  61)
 0
d (  8  15)
2 2

   1.45, 3.82
80
 Finding Breakaway & Break-in Points by
transition method
• This method eliminates the step of
differentiation.
• Derivation in Appendix J.2. on CD-
Rom.
• This method states that:
– Breakaway & break-in points Re peat the previousexample with this method
satisfy the following K ( s  3)(s  5)
KG ( s ) H ( s ) 
relationship: ( s  1)(s  2)
1 1 1 1
  
m n   3   5  1   2
1 1
1   z  1   p 11 2  26  61  0
   1.45, 3.82
i i

Where Zi & Pi are the negative

of the zero & pole values,
respectively, of G(s)H(s).

81
 Finding the jω axis crossings
• Jω axis crossing is a point on the R-L that separates the stable operation of
the system from the unstable operation.
• The value of ω at the axis crossing yields the frequency of oscillation.
• The gain at the jω axis crossing yields the max. positive gain for system
stability.

Jω-axis crossing can be found by using Routh-Hurwitz criterion as follows:

• Forcing a row of zeros in the Routh Table will yield the gain.
• Going back one row to the even polynomial equation & solving for the roots
yields the frequency at the imaginary axis crossing.

(Recall that a row of zeros in the Routh Table indicates the existence of poles
on the jω axis.)

82
 For the system shown, find the frequency & gain, K, for which
the root locus crosses the imaginary axis. For what range of K is
the system stable?

G ( s)
C.L.T .F of T ( s )  , H (s)  1
1  G (s) H (s)
where
K ( s  3)
T (s)  4
s  7 s 3  14s 2  (8  K ) s  3K
83
Construction of Routh table

84
Continuation of Previous Problem Solving
For +ve K, only s1 row can be all zeros.

Let -K2 -65K+720 / 90-K = 0 to find value of K on jω-axis.

-K2 -65K+720 = 0
K = 9.65

To find the frequency on the jω axis crossing, form the even polynomial by using the
s2 row & with K= 9.65,

(90 -K)s2 + 21K = 0

80.35s2 + 202.7 = 0
s2 = -202.7 / 80.35
s = +j1.59

The root-locus crosses the jω axis at + j1.59 at a gain of 9.65

The system is stable for 0 < K < 9.65

85
Angle of departure & arrival from complex
poles & zeros
 Recall that a condition for a
point on the s-plane to be on the
root locus is that the angles of
the zeros minus the angles of
the poles, all drawn to the
selected point on the s-plane,
add up to
(2k + 1) 180°.

Example
∟KG(s)H (s) = (2k + 1 ) 180°

Consider the next Figure:

86
 Angle of departure & arrival
• Assume ε is a point on the root locus
close to a complex pole.

• Sum of all angles drawn from all other

poles & zeros to the pole that is near to ε
is:

-θ1, + θ2 + θ3 – θ4 – θ5 + θ6 =(2k+I)180°

The angle of departure is:

θ1 = θ2 + θ3 – θ4 – θ5,+ θ6 - (2k+1)180°

Similarly, for complex zero:

-θ1 + θ2 + θ3 – θ4 – θ5 + θ6 = (2k+I)180°

The angle of arrival is:

θ2 = θ1 - θ3 + θ4 + θ5,- θ6 + (2k+1)180°

87
 Example:
Given the unity feedback system, find the angle of departure from
the complex poles & sketch the root locus

K ( s  2)
KG ( s) H ( s)  , H ( s)  1
( s  3)(S  2s  2)
2

where
K ( s  2)
KG ( s) H ( s) 
( s  3)(s  1  j1)(s  1  j1)
Root locus for the system
showing angle of departure
88
 Continuation of Previous Problem Solving

 1   2   3   4  (2k  1)1800  1800 (k  0)

1 1
 1  900  tan 1    tan 1    1800
1 2

1  900  450  26.50  1800

 251.60  108.40

The angle of departureof the complex pole is  108.40

( symmetry about the real axis)

89
 An Example
• Sketching the root locus &
Finding the critical points
– Find the exact point and gain
where the locus crosses the
0.45 damping ratio line
– Find the exact point and gain
where the locus crosses the
jw-axis
– Find the breakaway point on
the real axis
– Find the range K within which
the system is stable

90
 Transient Response Design via Gain
Adjustment
• Use Second order approximation which
satisfy the following conditions:
– Higher order poles are much farther into
the left half of the s-plane than the
dominant second order pair of poles.
The response that results from a higher
order pole does not appreciably change
the transient response expected from the
dominant second order poles
– Closed loop zeros near the closed loop
second order pole pair are nearly
cancelled by the close proximity of
higher order closed loop poles
– Closed loop zeros not cancelled by the
close proximity of higher order closed
loop poles are far removed from the
closed loop second order pole pair

91
 Pole Sensitivity
 Since Root Locus is a plot of the Closed Loop Poles
as a system parameter is varied  any change in the
parameter will change the system performance too!
 Root Locus exhibits nonlinear relationship between
gain and pole
◦ Along some sections of the RL – very small changes in gain yield very
large changes in pole location and hence performance  High
Sensitivity to changes in gain
◦ Along other sections of the RL – very large changes in gain yield very
small changes in pole location  Low Sensitivity to changes in gain
 Preferences  Low Sensitivity to changes in gain

92
 References
• www.slideshare.net
• www.nptel.ac.in