Modalities & Constitutive Equations

of Elastic and Viscoelastic Materials

 Stress
Stress Traction Stress Tensor

 ij  =
T = dF/dS

T =[σ]. n : Cauchy’s Law ➢Stress on the i plane along j direction

Ti =σij . nj
➢Collection of all traction components
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/mat_mechanics/stress.cfm
• Stress traction vector at any point is the force acting in an arbitrary
direction on the surface per unit area
• The stress state at any point can be represented by an infinitesimal
cube with 3 stress components on each of 6 sides (1 direct, 2
shear)
• Since each point in the body is under static equilibrium, only 9
stress components from three planes are needed to describe the
stress state at a point
• When the material cube is shrunk to an infinitesimal point, 3
components of each of the traction vector on the cube face
become 9 components of a second order stress tensor ⇒ Cauchy
stress tensor
• There exists a stress tensor which maps the normal to a surface to
the traction vector acting on that surface: Cauchy’s Law
• No. of array indices required to describe such stresses ⇒rank
• Given the stress tensor (in Mpa),
50 10 30 

 = 10 95 20 
30 20 15 
Calculate the traction vector on the surface with unit
normal vector n = (0.400, 0.600, 0.693)
Answer
T= 46.79i + 74.88j + 34.40k Mpa
If the area is 100mm2, calculate the force.
 Index Notation
• Quantities represented by a letter with subscripts/ superscripts
attached: indices or suffixes
Ai ( i = 1,2,3) ??
A=A1e1+A2e2+A3e3 ⇒A=(A1,A2,A3)
• Powerful notation, used to concisely represent complex equations
em . en = δmn (m,n=1,2,3)⇒ 9 equations simultaneously
• y1 = a11x1 + a12x2, y2 = a21x1 + a22x2
⇒ yk = ak1x1 + ak2x2
⇒ yk=akixi (i, k=1,2)
• In tensor notation, there are 2 types of indices
✓ Free e.g. aibj
✓ Repeated e.g. aii, aijbj
• Summation convention:
– Whenever there arises an expression where there is an index which
occurs twice on the same side of any equation, or term within an
equation, it is understood to represent a summation on these
repeated indices
• One must never allow a summation index to appear more than
twice in any given expression
– sometimes necessary to replace one dummy summation symbol by some
other dummy symbol in order to avoid having three or more indices
occurring on the same side of the equation
❖ For yi = aij xj ( i, j = 1, 2, 3) and xi = bij zj ( i,j = 1,2,3) solve for the y
variables in terms of the z variables.
➢ Write out expressions for y1 &y2 in terms of z1 &z2.
 Kronecker delta
1, i = j
 ij = 
0, i  j
(i, j = 1, 2,3)

 ii = 11 +  22 +  33 = 3

When an index of the Kronecker delta is involved in the summation

convention, the effect is that of replacing one index with a different
index, e.g.
um mn = un aij ik = akj
❖ Simplify and perform the indicated summations over
the range 1,2,3.

a) δii

b) δij δij

c) δij δjn

d) aijδin

e) δij δjn δni

 Patterns of deformation
• These are cases of uniform strain
(or, linearly changing strain
vertically but uniform axially in
bending) across the specimen.
• Consider case (a) where L = final
length and L0 = initial length.

Fung YC, Biomechanics ref. p29

L - L0 L - L0 L  L L2 - L20 L2 - L20
e= e¢ = t =  = ln = ln  e= E=
L0 L Lo L0 2L2 2L20
Engineering True Almansi Green
Strain Strain Strain Strain

If L = 1.01 and L0 = 1.00, e » e t » e ¢ » e » E » 0.01

1 3 3
If L = 2 and L0 = 1,  = 1  t  0.7   = e= E=
2 8 2
 Strain
• P(a1,a2,a3)⇒original
• Q(x1,x2,x3) ⇒ deformed
• PQ (u) : displacement vector
ui= xi-ai
• P’:a1+da1,a2+da2,a3+da3
• Q’:x1+dx1,x2+dx2,x3+dx3
• PP’=ds0, QQ’=ds
ds02 = da12 + da22 + da32 =  ij dai da j
ds 2 = dx12 + dx22 + dx32 =  ij dxi dx j

• Transformation mapping
– xi=f(ai)
– one-to-one : ai=f(xi)
 xi ai
dxi = da j , dai = dx j
a j x j
 x x   a a 
ds − ds =  
2 2
−  ij  dai da j ,   ij −   dxi dx j
0  a  a   x x 
 i j   i j 
ds 2 − ds02 = 2 Eij dai da j = 2eij dxi dx j
1 x x 
Eij =   −  ij  → Green’s Strain Tensor≈ Lagrangian
2  ai a j 

1 a a 
eij =   ij −   → Almansi’s Strain Tensor ≈Eulerian

2 xi x j 
• Eij = Eji & eij=eji ⇒ symmetric strain tensors
• ds2-ds02 = 0 ⇒ Eij = eij = 0 ⇒ rigid body
o Necessary and sufficient condition that a deformation of a body be a rigid body
motion is that all components of the strain tensor Eij or eij be zero
• Neglecting higher order terms of the partial derivatives of ui,
eij ⇒ εij : Cauchy’s infinitesimal strain tensor
1   ui  u j 
 ij =  + 
2   x j  xi 
u v w 1  u v 
 xx = ,  yy = ,  xx = ,  xy =  +  =  yx
x y z 2 y  x 
1  u  w  1 v w 
 xz =  +  =  zx ,  yz =  +  =  zy
2z x  2z  y 
 Problem
❑ When modeling strains, the following strain tensor was
introduced by Almansi and Hamel for strains such as those seen
in soft tissue.
1 a a 
eij =   ij −  
2 xi x j 
(ui = xi − ai )

Show that this equation can result in the Cauchy’s infinitesimal

strain tensor.
1  u j ui 
 ij =  + 

2  xi x j 
 Constitutive Equations
• Specify/describe the physical properties of materials
• Connect applied stresses or forces to strains or deformations
• Infinite variety of materials→ many equations
• Determined by experiments
• 3 simple, idealized stress-strain relationships cover many
materials around us:
➢ Nonviscous fluid
➢ Newtonian viscous fluid
➢ Hookean elastic solid
 Newtonian Viscous Fluid
 ij = − p ij + DijklVkl
•σij = stress tensor
•Vkl = strain rate tensor
•p = static pressure
•Dijkl = tensor of viscous coefficients of the fluid (rank 4, 81 elements)

•pδij represents the state of stress possible in a fluid at rest (Vkl=0)

•Vkk = 0 for incompressible viscous fluid

Isotropic Tensor :
➢If a tensor has the same array of
components when the frame of reference
Dijkl =  ij kl +  ( ik  jl +  il  jk )
is rotated
➢In a 3-D Euclidean space, there are 2   ij = − p ij + Vkk  ij + 2 Vij
independent isotropic tensors of rank 4:

δijδkl and δikδjl + δilδjk

 Newtonian …
Isotropic Newtonian fluid
 kk = 3 p + (3 + 2 )Vkk
• If the mean normal stress 1/3σkk is independent of the rate of
dilation Vkk, 2
 ij = − p ij + 2 Vij − Vkk  ij
3

⇒Stokes Fluid: μ=coefficient of viscosity

Incompressible fluid
Vkk = 0   ij = − p ij + 2Vij
Non-viscous fluid,
 = 0   ij = − p ij
 Hookean Elastic Solid
 = C.e
 ij = Cijkl ekl 

Hooke’s law for an isotropic elastic solid:

 ij =  e  ij + 2 eij
Constants: Lame’s constants, μ(second Lame’s const) =G ( shear modulus)

 xx =  (exx + e yy + ezz ) + 2Gexx

 yy =  (exx + e yy + ezz ) + 2Ge yy
 zz =  (exx + e yy + ezz ) + 2Gezz
 xy = 2Gexy ,  yz = 2Ge yz ,  zx = 2Gezx
 Hookean Elastic Solid..
1 + 
eij =  ij −  kk ij exx eyy ezz
E E
or ,
σxx σxx /E -νσxx /E -νσxx/E
1

exx =  xx − ( yy +  zz )
E

 
σyy -νσyy /E σyy /E -νσyy /E
1
e yy =  yy − ( zz +  xx )
E σzz -νσzz /E -νσzz /E σzz /E
1

ezz =  zz − ( xx +  yy )
E

1 +  1  1 +  1  1 +  1 
exy =  xy  =  xy , e yz =  yz  =  yz , ezx =  zx  =  zx 
E  2G  E  2G  E  2G 
 Assignment
• Derive the relation,
1 + 
eij =  ij −  kk  ij
E E
Given:  ij = Cijkl ekl
E E
= , =
(1 + )(1 − 2 ) 2(1 + )
 Viscoelasticity
Stress relaxation
• When a body is suddenly strained and then maintained constant, corresponding stresses
induced in the body decrease with time

Creep
• When a body is suddenly stressed and then maintained constant, the body continues to
deform

Hysteresis
• When a body is subjected to cyclic loading the stress-strain relationship in the loading is
somewhat different from that in the unloading process
 Viscoelastic solids
Mechanical Models
• Composed of linear springs
with spring constant μ and
dashpots with coefficient of
viscosity η.
• Linear spring produces
instantaneously a deformation
proportional to the load,
F= μ.u
• Dashpot produces a velocity
proportional to the load at any
instant, F= η .ů
Maxwell Model
F F
u = +
 
F ( 0)
u ( 0) =

1 1 
Creep Solution: u (t ) =  + t  F (0)
  
SR Solution: F (t ) = u (0)e− (  / )t
Creep Stress relaxation
 Voigt body

F = u + u
u (0) = 0

F (0) −( )t

Creep Solution: c(t ) = (1 − e )

SR Solution: k (t ) =  (t ) + u(t )
creep Stress relaxation
 Kelvin body
a )u = u1 + u1 '
b) F = F0 + F1
c) F0 = 0u
d ) F1 = 1u1 = 1u1 '
 F = ( 0 + 1 ) u − 1u1

F +   F = ER (u +   u )
F (0)    −t / 
  F (0) = ER  u (0) Creep Solution: u(t ) = 1 − (1 − )e 
ER   
ER =  0 Relaxed Elastic modulus
1     −t /  
 =
1
Relaxation time for constant strain SR Solution: F (t ) = u (0) ER 1 − 1 − e 
1  0      
 = 1 +  Relaxation time for constant stress
0  1 
creep stress relaxation