r/IGCSE

Resources
Topical Notes for Cambridge IGCSE

Computer Science
(0478)

Authored by
ashy and pizza

1st edition, for examination until 2026

© r/IGCSE Resources 2024

Contents

Data Representation 2

Data Transmission 17

Hardware 24

Software 35

The Internet and its Uses 40

Automated and Emerging Technologies 51

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Data Representation
Binary Number System
● It is a number system based on the number 2
● There are only two values used in this system to represent all values; 0 and 1
● The typical headings for a binary number with eight digits are:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Uses of binary data:

● To process data in logic gates
● To store data in registers
● To process data on the computer

Hexadecimal Number System

● It is a number system based on the number 16
● There are only sixteen values used in this system to represent all values.
- Denary digits 0 to 9
- Letters A to F

A B C D E F

10 11 12 13 14 15

● The typical headings for a hexadecimal number with five digits are:

65536 4096 256 16 1

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Uses of hexadecimal data:
● Error Codes
★ An error message generated by the computer
★ The hexadecimal values refer to the memory location of the error

● HTML (HyperText Markup Language) colour codes

★ It is used when writing or developing web pages
★ It is often used to represent text colours on the computer screen
★ All colours can be made up of combinations of the three primary colours (red,
green and blue)
★ The different intensity of each colour is determined by its hexadecimal value
(meaning that different hexadecimal values represent different colours)

● MAC (Media Access Control) address

★ It is a number which uniquely identifies a device on a network
★ Refers to the NIC (Network Interface Card) which is part of the device
★ It is rarely changed
★ It can be of 48/64 bits
★ It is shown as 6 groups of two hexa digits

NN - NN - NN - DD - DD - DD
★ There are two types of MAC addresses:
★ Universally Administered MAC address:
● Most common type
● Set by the manufacturer at the factory
● Rare for a user to change this MAC address

★ Locally Administered MAC address:

● Easy to change

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 ● Internet Protocol (IP) address
★ It gives a unique address to each device connected to a network identifying its
location
★ Assigned by the Internet Service Protocol
★ There are two versions of IP addresses:
● IPv4:
★ 32 bits
★ Denary or hexadecimal
★ Uses a decimal point

139.103.20.92
● IPv6:
★ 128 bits
★ Broken down into 16 chunks
★ Hexadecimal

2202:f000:e:1f24:190e:323a:9377:d87b
★ The main advantages of IPv6 compared to IPv4 are:
● Removes the risk of IP address collisions
● Has built-in authentication checks
● Allows for more efficient packet routes

★ There are two types of IP addresses:

● Static:
★ Remains the same each time a device logs onto the
internet
★ Remote servers which are hosting a website
★ An online database
★ A File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server

● Dynamic:
★ Change each time a device logs onto the internet
★ Assigned by the ISP by using Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP)

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 Dynamic Static

Greater Privacy Allows devices to be fully traceable

Less reliable addressing type Allow for faster upload and download
speeds

VoIP connection fails due to IP address More expensive to maintain as the

change device has to be running constantly for
information

Why do programmers use hexadecimal to represent binary data?

● Easier to debug
● Easier to understand
● It takes up less screen space
● Less likely to make a mistake

Denary Number System

● It is a number system based on the number 10
● 0 - 10 are used as values
● The typical headings for a binary number with five digits are:

10000 1000 100 10 1

Converting Binary to Denary:

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Converting Denary to Binary:
Method 1:

Method 2:

● Divide the number by 2, write the result of the division, including the remainder and
keep on dividing until the result is 0.
● Lastly, write down all the numbers in reverse.

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Converting Binary to Hexadecimal:

Converting Hexadecimal to Binary:

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary:

● First, have each hex digit by its heading value

● Then add all the totals together to get the denary number

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Converting Denary to Hexadecimal:
● Divide the number by 16, write the result of the division, including the remainder and
keep on dividing until the result is 0.
● Lastly, write down all the numbers in reverse.

Addition of binary numbers

● A table showing the addition of two binary digits
Binary addition Carry Sum

0+0 0 0

0+1 0 1

1+0 0 1

1+1 1 0

● A table showing the addition of three binary digits

Binary addition Carry Sum

0+0+0 0 0

0+0+1 0 1

0+1+0 0 1

1+0+0 1 0

0+1+1 0 1

1+0+1 1 0

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 1+1+0 1 0

1+1+1 1 1

● Example of binary addition:

Overflow
● The result of carrying out a calculation that produces a value that is too large for the
computer’s allocated word size
● Example of overflow (on an 8-bit addition)

● The formation of a 9-bit value indicates that the sum has exceeded this value

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Logical Shifts
● Moving the bits to the left or right in a register
● Any bits shifted out of a register are replaced with zeros

● An example of a binary number shifting to the left:

★ Each left shift is equivalent to multiplying the binary number by 2

● An example of a binary number shifting to the right:

★ Each right shift is equivalent to dividing the binary number by 2

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Two’s Complement
● A method of representing negative numbers in binary
● Any bits shifted out of a register are replaced with zeros
● Example of Two’s Complement with -24

★ First, write the positive

value of the given number in
binary form (-24 → 24)

★ Flip the number

★ Add the number by 1

★ Add up all the 1 values

Converting a negative Two’s Complement number to positive:

● First, write the binary number of the negative number
● Flip the number and add it by 1
● Add up all the 1 values

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American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
● It was set up in 1963 for use in communication and computer systems
● The extended version was released in 1986
● Only Western languages are supported

Standard ASCII Extended ASCII

Character set consists of 7-bit codes Character set consists of 8-bit codes

0-127 values 0-255 values

Only supports English Supports Latin languages

Includes graphical characters

Unicode
● It was set up in 1991
● It represents all languages
● Only Western languages are supported
● Its character set consists of 16-bit codes and approximately 65000 characters

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Sound
● Sound waves vary continuously,
hence it’s analogue
● To store the waves in a computer,
they’re sampled via an Analogue
to Digital Convertor (ADC)
● Sound waves are sampled at
regular time intervals.

How is sampling used to record a

sound clip?
● The amplitude of the sound wave
is first determined at a set time interval
● This gives an approximate
representation of the sound wave
● Each sample of the sound wave is
then encoded as a series of binary digits

Benefits Drawbacks
(of a larger sampling resolution) (of a larger sampling resolution)

Larger dynamic range Produces larger file size

Better sound quality Takes longer to download music

files

Less sound distortion Requires greater processing power

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Images
What are the features of
high-resolution images:
★ Consists of many pixels to
represent images; there’s a lot of detail
★ The file size increases
★ The time taken to download an
image file also increases

Measurement of data storage

● Bit:
- It is the smallest unit of data that a computer can process and store
● Byte:
- It consists of 8 bits
● Nibble:
- It consists of 4 bits

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 ● ICE memory size system
Name of memory size Number of bytes Equivalent denary value
(bytes)

1 kibibyte (1 KiB) 1 024

1 mebibyte (1 MiB) 1 048 576

1 gibibyte (1 GiB) 1 073 741 824

1 tebibyte (1 TiB) 1 099 511 627 776

1 pebibyte (1 PiB) 1 125 899 906 842 624

1 exbibyte (1 EiB) 1 152 921 504 606 846 976

Data compression
● It is necessary to compress data:
★ To save storage on devices (like HDD/SSD)
★ It will take less time to transfer the file from one device to another
★ It will take less time to stream a music or video file
★ Reduces the time taken to upload or download files
★ Not as much bandwidth is needed to transfer the file over the internet
★ Reduced file size also reduce costs

● There are two methods of data compression

★ Lossy:
● A compression method that reduces the size of a file by permanently
removing data
● Common lossy file compression algorithms are
● MPEG-3:
- Used for playing music
- Reduces 90% of the audio file size
- Quality isn’t as sharp as the ones found in CDs/DVDs

● MPEG-4:
- Used for playing videos
- Still retains an acceptable quality of sound and videos

● JPEG:

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 - Used for bitmap image files
- It separates pixel colour from brightness

★ Lossless:
● A compression method that reduces the size of a file by temporarily
altering the data
● Common lossy file compression algorithms are
● Run-Length Encoding:
- An algorithm that groups repeating patterns and indexes
them.
- Used to compress text and image files
Reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data

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Data Transmission
A typical packet is split up into:
● Header Packet
★ It consists of:
- The IP address of the
sender and the receiver
- The sequence number
of the packet
- The size of the packet
● Payload
★ It consists of:
- The actual data in the packets (around 64KiB)
● Trailer
★ It consists of:
- A packet identification method
- An error-checking method (CRC)

Cyclic Redundancy Check:

● The sender adds up all the 1-bits in the payload and stores this as a hex value in the
trailer before it is sent
● Once the packet arrives, the receiver recalculated the number of 1-bits in the
payload
● The computer then checks this value against the one sent in the trailer
● If both values match, there’s no error, otherwise the packet needs to be re-sent

Packet Switching:
● Each packet will follow its path
● Routers will determine the path of each packet
● Routing selection depends on the number of packets waiting to be processed at
each node
● The shortest possible path available is always chosen
● Packets can reach the destination in a different order to that they were sent

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Different methods of data transmission:
● Serial:
★ a transmission method where data is sent one bit at a time down a single wire.
Advantages Disadvantages

Less chance of data being skewed Slower rate of data transmission

Less chance of error in the data Additional data may need to be sent to
indicate to the receiving device when the
data transmission has started and
stopped.
(Start and stop bit)

Cheaper to manufacture; only one wire is

needed for serial data transmission

● Parallel:
★ a transmission method where data is sent multiple bits at a time down
multiple wires
Advantages Disadvantages

Faster rate of data transmission Higher chance of data being skewed

Common method of data transmission Higher chance of error in the data

among devices

More costly; multiple wires are used

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 ● Simplex:
★ a transmission method where data is transmitted in a single direction only

● Half-Duplex:
★ a transmission method where data is transmitted in both directions, but only
one direction at a time

● Full-Duplex:
★ a transmission method where data is transmitted in both directions
simultaneously

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

● It is an industry standard that is used to transmit data
● A USB interface includes a:
★ Port:
- a socket that is a part of a device or computer that enables you to
insert a USB cable.
★ Cable:
- a type of transmission media that uses the USB method to transmit
data.
★ Connection:
- a collective name for using a USB cable plugged into a USB port to
transfer data from one device to another.
★ Device:
- the name of a device that plugs into a USB port on a computer.
● It uses a special type of serial data transmission connection that is used that is
designed to transmit data at high speeds.

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Advantages Disadvantages

High rate of transmission The length of a USB cable is limited (up to

5 metres)

It is a simple interface; the cable to Rate of transmission isn’t as high as

device can only fit into the USB one way compared to other types of connection
like Ethernet

A USB port is included in many devices as

it’s an industry standard

When inserted into a USB cable, it is

automatically detected by the device

No need for another power source as it

can be used to power a device

Methods of error detection:

● Errors can occur during data transmission due to interference, leading to:
★ data loss
★ data gain
★ data change
● There are several methods of detecting errors:
★ Parity check:
- a type of error detection method that adds an additional bit to each
byte to create an odd or even sum.
- Before transmission:
- the parity check is set to be either odd or even parity.

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 - If an odd parity check is used
- then a 1 is added as a parity bit. This is because all the ls in the
byte now add up to an odd number
- If an even parity check is used
- then a 0 is added as a parity bit. This is because all the ls in the
byte now add up to an even number
- After transmission:
- the receiving device will check each byte of data for errors.
- if an odd parity check has been used and the device finds a byte
that has an even number of 1s, then it knows that an error has occurred
with this byte of data.
- the same can be said if an even parity check has been used and
the device finds a byte that has an odd number of 1s.
★ Checksum:
- A type of error detection method that performs a calculation on the
data to create a checksum value.
- A checksum is calculated and added to the data before transmission.
- After receiving the data, the receiving device calculates its own
checksum.
- If the two checksums match, the data is error-free; if they don't, an error
is detected.
★ Echocheck:
- A type of error detection method that sends a copy of the transmitted
data back to the sender to be compared with the original data sent.
- The sending device compares the data it sent to the data it has
received back from the receiving device to see if they match.
- If they do, then no error has occurred.
- If they don't match, then the sending device knows the data was
received with error

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):

● A type of error detection method that uses acknowledgement and timeout to see if
data has arrived correctly after transmission.
● In a positive acknowledgement method:
★ The sending device transmits the first data packet.
★ The receiving device receives the data and checks it for errors.
★ Once the receiving device knows it has received the data error free, it sends a
positive acknowledgement back to the sending device.

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 ★ When the sending device receives this positive acknowledgement, it knows
the receiving device has received the data packet error free and it sends the
next data packet.
★ If the sending device does not receive a positive acknowledgement within a
set timeframe, a timeout occurs.
★ When a timeout occurs, the sending device will resend the data packet. It will
keep doing this when a timeout occurs, until it receives a positive
acknowledgement
★ Sometimes a limit (such as 20 times) is set and when this limit is reached it
will stop resending the data.
● In a negative acknowledgement method:
★ The sending device transmits the first data packet.
★ The receiving device receives the data packet and checks it for errors .
★ If the receiving device detects no errors, no further action is taken .
★ If the receiving device does detect errors, it will send a negative
acknowledgement back to the sender.
★ If the sender receives a negative acknowledgement, it knows this means the
data was received incorrectly, so it can resend the data packet.
★ A timeout is set by the sending device when it sends the data. This is just so
that the sending device knows that if it doesn't receive a negative
acknowledgement back within that set time period, it doesn't need to be still
waiting for it and can send the next data packet.

Check digit:
● A type of error detection method that is used for data entry.
● A calculation is performed on the data entered to create a value.
● Check digit values are compared to see if the data entered is correct.
● This is how a check digit operates:
★ A check digit is pre-calculated and stored with the data (e.g., barcode or ISBN).
★ When the data is entered or scanned, the check digit is recalculated.
★ If the recalculated check digit matches the stored one, the data is correct.
★ If the recalculated check digit does not match the stored one, the data is
incorrect.

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Encryption:
● A method of securing data for storage or transmission that scrambles it and makes it
meaningless.
● There are two methods of encryption:
★ Symmetric encryption
★ Asymmetric encryption

Symmetric Encryption:
● A type of encryption that uses the
same key to encrypt and decrypt data.
● The process is:
★ Plain text is encrypted into
cipher text using an encryption key.
★ The cipher text and the
encryption key are sent separately to the
receiving device.
★ The same key is then used to decrypt the ciphertext back into its plain text
form.

Asymmetric Encryption:
● A type of encryption that uses two different keys (public and private keys) to encrypt
and decrypt data.
● The process is:
★ Plain text is encrypted into cipher text using a public key. (This is also a type of
encryption algorithm.)
★ The cipher text is transmitted to the receiving device.
★ The cipher text cannot be decrypted using the public key, it is decrypted using
a private key.

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Hardware
The CPU: Central Processing Unit

CPUs are used for processing and executing instructions and data that are input into the
computer so that the result can be output.

A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip that usually performs less
functions as compared to a regular CPU.
Components of a CPU

A CPU consists of:

● Units:
○ Examples of units:
■ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU deals with all arithmetic operations
such as addition, subtraction, etc. It also handles logical operations that
need to be performed such as “AND”, “OR”, “NOT”, etc.
■ Control Unit (CU): The CU has the job of managing and synchronising
data and instructions transfer in the CPU. It does this by sending control
signals to other components. Additionally, it also decodes instructions
sent to it.

● Registers:
○ Registers are high-speed memory components in the CPU that temporarily
store important information.
○ Examples of registers:
■ Program Counter (PC): Stores the memory address of the next
instruction that will be processed
■ Memory Address Register (MAR): Stores the memory address of the
instruction/data that is about to be fetched from the RAM
■ Memory Data Register (MDR): Stores data or instructions that have just
been fetched from the RAM
■ Current Instruction Register (CIR): Stores the instruction that is currently
being processed or decoded by the CPU
■ Accumulator (ACC): Stores any interim values or final values created
during arithmetic or logical operations done by the ALU

● Buses:

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 ○ Buses are communication systems within the computer that transfer data and
instructions between components
○ Examples of buses:
■ Address bus: Carries the memory address of data/instructions in
■ Data bus: Carries actual data/instructions
■ Control bus: Carries control signals to and from the CU

The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle

Fetch:
● This stage is for fetching the actual data or instructions from the computer’s memory
to the CPU.
● Steps:
1. The Program Counter stores the address of the next instruction to be
processed. This is copied to the Memory Address Register via the address bus.
2. The Memory Address Register copies this address to the RAM via the address
bus.
3. The RAM uses the address sent to it to locate the data or instruction that must
be processed.
4. The RAM copies the data/instruction to the Memory Data Register via the data
bus.

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 5. The Memory Data Register copies the data/instruction to the Current
Instruction Register, via the data bus, where it will be processed.
6. The Program Counter is incremented so that the address of the next
instruction is contained in it.

Decode:
● This stage is used to decode the data/instruction, which is carried out by the Control
Unit using an instruction set
● An instruction set is a set of instructions written in low-level machine code that tells
the computer how to carry out specific functions. They are the only instructions
understood by the CPU.

Execute:
● This stage is used to carry out any final arithmetic or logical operations and then
finish executing the instruction.
● The Arithmetic and Logical Unit is responsible for carrying out any such operations. It
used the Accumulator to store any interim values created during execution.
● After all calculations are finished, the command is executed.

The entire process repeats for each piece of data or instruction that needs to be carried
out by the CPU.

Increasing the CPU’s Performance

Cache:

Cache is internal, temporary storage space inside the CPU itself. It stores data and
instructions which are used regularly by the CPU.

The CPU does not need to fetch regularly used data or instructions from the RAM, instead, it
simply uses the cache. This takes less time and increases the CPU’s performance.

The more cache a computer has, the more data/instructions it can store nearby, which
means less time is spent retrieving information. So, a larger cache size can mean better CPU
performance.

However, an extremely large cache would take more time to look through while fetching
information, causing significant delays which would render the cache useless. So, there
must be a limit for the cache size.

Clock:
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The System Clock is located inside the CPU. Its job is to control the processing speed and
time taken to execute instructions, as well as control the time intervals between each task
and synchronise the entire FDE cycle. In short, it controls the number of FDE cycles
completed each second.

Clock speed is measured in Hertz (instructions / second). The average clock speed found in
most computers is 2 Gigahertz, which is 2 billion instructions executed per second.

Higher clock speed means that more instructions are processed each second, increasing
the computer’s performance.

However, increasing the clock speed too much can cause the computer to overheat.

Cores:

Cores are the components in the computer that run the FDE cycle. Each core can run one
cycle, i.e process one instruction, at a time.

A higher number of cores in a computer means that more instructions can be processed at
once. This allows a computer to multitask, which increases the computer’s performance.

Embedded Systems

An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware that is built into a device,
which runs on firmware and performs a dedicated function.

They differ from general purpose computers as they only perform a specific task, instead of
being multipurpose.

Embedded systems are used in:

● domestic appliances
● Cars
● security systems
● lighting systems
● vending machines

Advantages Disadvantages

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 ● They are small ● They are difficult to update
● They are cheap ● They are susceptible to hacking
● They can be remote-controlled ● Specialists are needed for repairs
● No operating system is needed ● There are environmental concerns
● They use very less power regarding their disposal
● They may have a confusing interface

Input Devices

Input devices allow data to be entered into the system.

Examples of input devices:

● Barcode scanner
● Digital camera
● Keyboard
● Microphone
● Optical mouse
● QR code scanner
● Touch screen
○ Resistive
○ Capacitive
○ Infra-red
● Two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) scanners

Output Devices

Output devices are used to tell user information.

Examples of output devices:

● Actuator
● Digital light processing (DLP) projector
● Inkjet printer
● Laser printer
● Light emitting diode (LED) screen
● Liquid crystal display (LCD) screen
● Liquid crystal display (LCD) projector
● Speaker
● 3D printer

Sensors

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Sensors are input devices that capture analogue data from their immediate environment at
set time intervals.

Sensor Data Recorded Uses

Acoustic Sound levels of an environment Security systems - to

detect intruders

Acceleromet Any forces of acceleration acting Earthquake warnings

er on the environment

Flow The amount of liquid/gas/steam Pipes or plumbing

flowing/moving through an
environment

Gas The amount and concentration of Carbon monoxide

a gas detectors in houses

Humidity The humidity levels in an Greenhouses - to ensure

environment the internal humidity is not
too much or too less

Infra-red Any infra-red rays present Security systems

Level The level or volume a liquid/gas Amount of fuel in vehicles

substance is at

Light The light levels of an environment Automatic lighting

Magnetic Any magnetic fields present in the Detecting cars in parking

field environment lots or bridges

Moisture The moisture present in the Detecting moisture levels

environment/any substances in soil (agriculture-related)

pH The pH level of a substance Water bodies to check

level of pollution, or
detecting soil pH levels to
ensure plant health

Pressure The pressure which is being Security systems to detect

exerted on the sensor intruders

Proximity How close an object is to the Used in robots or

sensor automatic doors

Temperature The temperature of the Automatic cooling systems

environment

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Data Storage

Primary Storage:
● Primary storage contains data that is directly accessible by the CPU.
● Random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM) are examples of
primary storage.

Secondary Storage:
● Secondary storage contains data that is not directly accessible by the CPU and is
not currently required by the CPU.
● It is non-volatile, which means that the data contained in it is not lost if power is
switched off – i.e, it stores data permanently until deleted by the user.
● It stores data that can be transferred to other computers if required.
● Pen drives and CDs are examples of secondary storage devices.

Primary Storage: RAM and ROM

RAM:
● It stores data temporarily, making it a volatile method of data storage. It stores the
data and instructions that are currently being used by the CPU. For example, program
files for an application that is currently open on the user’s computer.

ROM:
● It stores data permanently, making it a non-volatile method of data storage. It stores
the programs that are required for the computer to boot initially. For example, BIOS
(Basic input/output system)

RAM ROM

● Temporary storage (volatile) ● Permanent storage (non-volatile)

● Stores the data currently in use by ● Stores programs that initially boot
the CPU the computer

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 ● Its contents are constantly changing, ● Its contents are fixed and are not
based on what the CPU requires typically changed
● It is easy to increase the RAM’s size ● It’s difficult to increase or decrease
the size of the ROM

Secondary Storage: Magnetic, Optical and Solid-State

Secondary storage needs to be fetched into the primary memory first, to be accessed by
the CPU. It can be of two types: internal, such as solid-state drives or hard-disk drives, or
external, such as CDs or DVDs.

Magnetic Storage:
● Magnetic storage uses magnetised and demagnetised dots to store data.
● A circle disk, known as a platter, spins very fast, with a read-write head over it. The
read/write head magnetises and demagnetises dots on the platter as required.
● The platter is divided into tracks and sectors.
● The current state of a dot (i.e. whether magnetised or not) decides its stored value.
For example, all magnetised dots store the value “1”, and all demagnetised dots store
the value “0”.
● An example of magnetic storage is the hard disk drive.

Optical Storage:
● Optical storage uses circular discs and lasers to store data.
● The disc is rotated or spun with a read/write head over it, which uses a laser beam.
● The laser beam makes indentations on the surface of the disc by burning data onto
it. An indentation is known as a pit while the space between indentations are known
as lands
● The pits and lands represent binary values, for example, a pit represents a “1” while a
land represents a “0”.
● The data is written in a spiral or circular pattern around the disc.
● Examples of optical storage are CDs, DVDs, and Blu-Rays.

Solid-State Storage
● Solid-state storage is also known as flash storage. It uses transistors and cells to
store data, onto which the data is ‘flashed’. These transistors and cells are arranged
on a semiconductor chip.
● Transistors are laid out to form a grid. They are used to form a control gate, which is
above a floating gate, at each intersection in the grid.
● The transistors control the flow of electrons in the semiconductor chip. They flow
through the control gate to the floating gate, where they are stored.

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 ● After storing the electrons, the binary value of the transistor changes – i.e, from “1” to
“0”.
● Typically, a NAND or NOR structure is used for solid-state storage,
● Examples of solid state devices are pen-drives and solid-state drives (SSDs)

Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is a sectioned-off segment of the hard disk drive, which acts as an
extension to the primary memory (RAM). It is required for when the RAM is full but more
data transfer needs to take place.

This is how it operates whenever required:

1. Data in the RAM is split into pages
2. The pages which are not currently being used by the CPU or which are not
immediately required are sent to the virtual memory. This clears up space in the
RAM.
3. Any new data that the RAM now requires is imported from the secondary storage.
4. Once the data in the RAM is no longer needed, it is sent back to secondary storage.
The pages the RAM initially sent to the virtual memory are fetched back.

Virtual memory is important as the RAM is at risk of overloading from excess data and
crashing. The virtual memory helps ensure that this does not happen.

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Cloud Storage

Cloud storage is data stored by a third-party remote server instead of in local storage. It is
accessible via the internet.

Cloud Storage Local Storage

● Accessible everywhere, but only if ● Only accessible as long as you have

you have an internet connection your storage with you, but doesn’t
● There is no hardware cost, and you require the internet
do not have to manage your own ● You have to pay for your own
hardware. hardware, as well as keep it secure
● Back-up of your data is easily ● Changing the storage size may be
available. difficult.
● It is easy to increase and decrease ● There is no need to rely on a
the amount of storage space you third-party – you are fully in control
have of your own data, which means there
● Trusting a third party with personal are less privacy issues
data may be unsafe, as they could
use it for malicious reasons.

Network Interface Card

The Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that is required by the
computer to access any networks by connecting to routers. It also contains the MAC
address.

Media Access Control Address

A Media Access Control (MAC) address uniquely identifies each computer on a network,
which is provided by the manufacturer when the computer is created. It is located on the
NIC.

Structure:
● It is written in hexadecimal
● NN – NN – NN – DD – DD – DD; the first six digits comprise the manufacturer’s code,
while the last six digits comprise the device’s serial number.
● It is 48 bits in total; 24 bits for the manufacturer’s code, and 24 bits for the device’s
serial number.
● It is usually separated by a dash.

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Internet Protocol Address

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is assigned by the internet service provider and it uniquely
identifies each computer on a network.

There are two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.

● Static: The IP address never changes unless specifically requested. All devices with a
static IP address are always traceable. A static IP address may be comparatively less
safe.
● Dynamic: The IP addresses change when a computer connects to a network. It may
change every time the computer connects to a network, or once every few times a
computer reconnects. As it is always changing, it is more difficult to trace, thus
ensuring better privacy.

Structure:

There are two types of IP addresses – IPv4 and IPv6. They both have the characteristics of a
typical IP address, however, their structures differ.

IPv4 IPv6

● Usually written in denary digits ● Usually written in hexadecimal

(base-10) ● Each number is separated using a
● Each number is separated using dots colon
● There are 4 groups of digits ● There are 8 groups of digits
● It is 32 bits – each group is 8 bits ● It is 128 bits – each group is 16 bits
● Each number is between 0-255 ● The values are between 0000 - FFFF
● There are fewer available unique ● There are more available unique
addresses for IPv4 addresses for IPv6
● Example: 24.2.89.232 ● Example:
1234:0A34:1F20:0000:FFFF:998B:900
C:5ABC

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Software
Types Of Software

Software: A series of instructions written in a programming language that performs a

function or a task.

System Software:
● It provides the services that the computer requires, including operating system and
utility software (such as anti-virus)
● For example: manages hardware and software, provides a user interface, etc

Application Software:
● It provides the services that the user requires, and runs on the OS.
● For example: word processors, databases, spreadsheet applications, and web
browsers.

All application software runs on the operating system. The operating system runs on the
firmware, also known as the bootloader. The bootloader runs on the hardware.

The Operating System

The operating system plays many diverse roles in a computer system. It does the following
tasks:
● Managing files:
○ Allows the creation and deletion of folders and directories to store files
○ Allows users to create, copy, open, close, move, delete, rename, save and sort
files.
● Handles interrupts:
○ Decides the appropriate time to run interrupts in order of requirement
● Provides a user interface:
○ Allows data to be entered by and displayed to the user

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 ○ User interfaces can be: Graphical User Interface (GUI), which uses icons,
pointers, etc or Command Line interface, which requires data to be entered as
commands in a programming language.
● Managing peripherals and drivers:
○ Manages and detects any peripherals, i.e. any connected input or output
devices. It additionally instals appropriate drivers when a device is connected.
○ Driver: Software that is required for communication between two devices
externally connected, which translates code from one device to another.
● Managing memory:
○ Manages data transfer to and from the memory (RAM)
○ Makes sure all currently running processes have enough memory space to
continue running properly
○ Keeps track of each memory location and records its status (i.e is it occupied,
in use, etc)
○ Ensures that two processes don’t try and access the same memory location at
once
○ Manages transfer of pages between the virtual memory and the RAM
● Managing multitasking:
○ Decides the order in which processes are meant to run, and how long each
instruction should spend getting processed
○ Organises a priority queue, to schedule instructions to be processed in order
of importance
● Providing a platform for running applications
● Providing system security:
○ Oversees software updates and ensure all software are always up to date
○ Runs anti-virus checks and sets up the firewall
○ Manages data backup and system restoration in case of data loss
○ Manage each user accounts access
● Managing user accounts:
○ Helps each user have a separate username, password
○ Restricts access for each user as required
○ Keeps each users data separate

Interrupts

Including: – how an interrupt is generated – how it is handled using an interrupt service

routine – what happens as a result of the interrupts

Interrupt: A signal that is sent to the CPU asking for its attention. These signals allow the
CPU to multitask.

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An interrupt is generated when something demands the CPU’s urgent attention. Hardware
and software can both send interrupts. The CPU checks for these interrupts at the end of
each FDE cycle.

Examples of hardware interrupts Examples of software interrupts

● Pressing a key on the keyboard ● Division by zero

● Moving the mouse ● Two processes trying to access the
● Hardware failure/errors same memory location
● Input required

Interrupts can be of different priority levels. For example, an interrupt sent due to hardware
failure would be of greater importance than an interrupt sent when the user requires input.
The interrupts are organised into a priority queue based on their level of importance. A
CPU’s interrupt handler organises the interrupts.

To handle interrupts, the CPU calls an interrupt service routine. An interrupt service
routine’s job is to retrieve the interrupt and perform the actions required for it to be solved.

When the CPU receives an interrupt, it follows the following steps:

1. The current FDE cycle is finished and the CPU checks the interrupt queue.
2. If an interrupt with higher priority than the next process is found:
a. The next process is stored
b. The interrupt’s source is found
c. An appropriate interrupt service routine is called, which handles the interrupt.
3. After the interrupt is handled, the CPU once again checks for high-priority interrupts.
If any are found, they are serviced.
4. The next process is retrieved and another FDE cycle takes place.

This process takes place continuously.

Programming Languages

There are two types of programming languages: high-level language and low-level language.

High-Level languages use English-style words, which are easier to understand for humans.
They need to be converted into low-level language to be understood by computers. Python,
Java, and C# are examples of high-level languages.

Low-level languages have two types: assembly language and machine code.

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 ● Assembly language uses mnemonics in place of words. For example, a high-level
language may store a variable using “var num1 ← 100” may be written as “STR 100” in
assembly language. It can directly access a computer’s hardware using commands,
such as store variables in specific memory locations. It must also be translated into
machine code before it can be understood by a computer, however, conversion is
less time consuming.
● Machine code uses 0s and 1s to represent data in the form of binary numbers. It
does not need any conversion.

High-level language Low-level language

● They are machine independent, ● They are machine dependent, which

which means that the code can run means that the code is for a specific
on any computer regardless of its computer only and may not run on
model. other computers.
● The code is much easier to read and ● Both assembly language and
debug since it is written in English machine code are difficult to read as
words well as debug.
● The code cannot directly manipulate ● The code can manipulate computer
a computer’s hardware in any way. hardware if required.
● The code must always be translated ● Only assembly language requires
to low-level language first, which can translation, which is less time taking.
be time consuming. Machine code does not require any
translation.

Translators

Translators are required to convert high-level language or assembly language into machine
code, which is the only language which can be understood by the computer. There are
three types of translators: an assembler, an interpreter, and a compiler.

Assemblers translate assembly language into machine code. It translates the entire code at
once and produces a file. If it finds any errors, it will create an error report and display it
once the entire code is read, without producing a file.

Interpreters and compilers translate high level languages into machine code. Their methods of
reading the code and finding errors are different.

An interpreter reads the code line-by-line. If it finds an error, it will stop immediately and display
it to the user. It will not continue to read the code until the error has been corrected. Otherwise,
it runs the code. They are better to use while in the process of writing code, as it lets you correct
errors as they are made.
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A compiler reads the entire code at once. If it finds any errors, it will compile an error report
of all the errors and display it to the user. Otherwise, it will run the code and create an
executable file. They are better for when the code is complete, as it creates an executable
file that can be run easily anywhere.

interpreter Compiler

● Translates and executes the code ● Translates the whole code at once
line-by-line before executing it, producing an
● Stops execution when an error is executable file
found ● Provides an error report for the whole
● Are better to use while in the code if errors are detected
process of writing code, as it lets you ● Better for when the code is
correct errors as they are made complete, as it creates an executable
● Needs to be re-translated each time file.
it needs to be fun ● Doesn’t need to be re-translated
● The source code is always required each time it needs to be fun, as an
for it to be run exe file is produced
● The interpreter software is always ● The source code is no longer
needed for code to run required after the executable file is
produced
● The compiler software is no longer
needed after the exe file is produced

Integrated Development Environment

An Integrated Development Environment is an interface where users can write, edit and run
programs easily. An IDE always contains:
● An editor: where code can be written and edited.
● A runtime environment: where the code’s outputs are shown, and user input is
allowed.

An IDE typically also contains other useful features, such as:

● A compiler or interpreter
● Error diagnostics
● Auto-completion of code
● Auto-correction of code
● Prettyprint, which colour-codes keywords

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The Internet And Its Uses
The Internet and the World Wide Web

The internet is a network of computers joined together through infrastructure such as wires
and cables. It is a type of network that spans the entire world, connecting computers and
enabling them to use the world wide web.

The world wide web is the collection of websites and web pages accessed using the
internet’s infrastructure. It is primarily software-based, as opposed to hardware
infrastructure.

Uniform Resource Locator

Websites and webpages on the world wide web must be accessible easily. Uniform
resource locators exist for this purpose. A URL is a text-based address to uniquely identify
a web page. It contains three sections: the protocol, the domain name and the web
page/file name.

Web Browsers

A web browser is used mainly for the purpose of rendering hypertext markup language
(HTML) and displaying web pages to the user. It typically has other functions as well, such
as:

● Storing bookmarks and favourites

● Recording user history
● Allowing the user to open multiple tabs
● Storing cookies

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 ● Providing navigation tools such as a button to reload, go back to the previous/next
page
● Providing an address bar

Retrieval of Web Pages

Web pages are stored in web servers. For a web browser to access their HTML, retrieve it
from the server and render it, it first requires the web server’s IP address. This address is
stored in a domain name server, to which a request must be sent first.

The steps to retrieving web pages are:

1. The user types the URL of the website into their web browser’s address bar.
2. The web browser sends the URL to a domain name server. The DNS stores IP
addresses of each web server.
3. The DNS searches in its database for the IP address corresponding to the URL sent
by the user. If the IP address is not found in one DNS, it is sent to another DNS until it
is found. If the URL’s corresponding IP address is not found at all, an error message is
displayed to the user.
4. When the DNS finds the corresponding IP address, it sends it back to the web
browser.

After this, the HyperText Transfer Protocol - HTTP- is executed by the browser to retrieve
web pages from their web server and then render them. The protocol consists of the
following steps:

1. The web browser sends a request to the web server asking for the web pages by
using its IP address to locate it.
2. The web server sends back all HTML, CSS and active script (such as JavaScript).
3. The browser renders the code it receives.

HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure - HTTPS

During the transmission of data to and from the web server, there is a risk of it being hacked
and stolen. Personal information such as passwords may be intercepted and used for
malicious purposes. The standard HTTP protocol does not protect data being transmitted.
So, HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure – HTTPS – is used instead, as it uses digital
certificates to ensure security.

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A digital certificate is a certificate that is awarded to a certain web server as proof of their
authenticity. It shows that the website encrypts all its transmitted data. It is awarded by the
certificate authority, which is an organisation which checks the authenticity of a website.

Typically, a website ensures encryption using the Secure Socket Layer(SSL) protocol.

The HTTPS protocol secures its data using the following steps:

1. Before the web browser asks for the web pages, it sends a request to the web server
asking for its digital certificate.
2. If the web server has one, it sends it to the web browser.
3. The browser confirms if the certificate is authentic. If it is, web page transmission
takes place in an encrypted manner. Otherwise, a message displaying that the
website is unsafe is displayed to the user.
Users can check if a website is secure by:
● Ensuring the URL contains “HTTPS” and not “HTTP”
● Checking if there is a padlock symbol near the URL

Cookies

When a user visits a website, they may enter specific information that needs to be entered
again at later dates. For example, passwords and usernames. However, it is an
inconvenience to the user if this information must be entered again each time. The web
server uses cookies to store such information.

A cookie is a small text file that stores information about the user. There are two types of
cookies: session and permanent.

They are created by:

1. The web server sending an empty cookie file to the browser
2. The user’s details are then stored in the encrypted file, which is then stored in the
secondary storage or primary storage.

They are retrieved by the web server by:

1. Whenever the website is opened or revisited, the web serving sending a request for
the cookie file
2. The browser sends the cookie file so that details are automatically entered.

Session cookies are temporarily stored in the primary memory. They are only used as long
as the browser is still open. As soon as the browser window is closed, the cookie is deleted.

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Persistent cookies are permanently stored in secondary storage. They are stored until they
are deleted by the user, or until they reach a specific expiration date. They’re retrieved each
time the browser window is opened.

Cookies can be used for:

● Saving personal details such as passwords and usernames
● Tracking user preferences
● Holding items in an online shopping cart
● Storing login details

Cookies can have certain privacy issues, as they store sensitive information. They are:
● Cookies may store data without the user’s knowledge or permission
● Hackers can intercept the data and build a false user profile, leading to identity theft
● Sensitive information in the cookie files may be intercepted during transmission by a
3rd party
● Other websites may gain unauthorised access to certain cookies
● The computer may be hacked and the cookie file’s information may be visible to a
3rd party.

Digital Currencies

Digital currency is a form of payment that is completely electronic and does not require any
tangible currency, such as coins or notes.

Most digital currencies and tangible currencies both use a centralised system.

A centralised system uses a central authority that oversees all transactions made by users,
such as a bank. It can be susceptible to security breaches, and there are confidentiality
risks in using such a system. This is often why crypto currencies are used.

Crypto currencies are a subtype of digital currencies which use a decentralised system
known as the blockchain. There is no central authority involved, thus making it safer and
more confidential.

Blockchains:

A blockchain is a digital ledger or database of all transactions made on its network, which is
publicly available for all devices on the network.
Each transaction made on a blockchain is stored in a block, which contains:
● A unique identifier for the transaction
● The sender, receiver, and amount of money sent during the transaction
© r/IGCSE Resources 2024 43
 ● The previous block’s unique identifier.

All blocks in a blockchain are interconnected via their unique identifiers. Each block
contains the previous block’s identifier. Once added, a block is completely unchangeable by
anyone on the network, and can only be viewed.

Cyber Attacks

There are multiple ways malicious third parties can hack into our data and use it for their
own purposes. The most common ones are listed below.

Brute-force attacks:

● The perpetrator tries multiple combinations of passwords repeatedly in order to

guess it and hack into the user’s account. The passwords can be guessed manually
or by using software.
● Preventions:
○ Using biometrics such as facial recognition or fingerprints to unlock devices
○ Using two-factor authentication
○ Using passwords which are difficult to guess, such as ones containing symbols
and numbers.

Data Interception

● Data interception is done by using a packet sniffer software which the perpetrator
has previously installed on transmission hardware. For example, it can be installed on
a router.

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 ● The packet sniffer looks through all data packets being transmitted through that
router or piece of hardware. If it finds any useful information, such as passwords, it
copies and sends it to the perpetrator.
● Preventions:
○ Encrypting the data so it becomes meaningless to anyone who sees it.

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS):

● DDoS is an attack towards web servers typically done as revenge or to demand

ransom.
● The following steps take place:
1. The perpetrator sends out malware publicly so that as many computers as
possible download it by accident. Once downloaded, it turns the computers
into bots. The collection of all computers is known as a botnet. Inactive
computers are called zombies.
2. To carry out a DDoS attack, the perpetrator makes the malware in the bots
repeatedly send requests to a certain web server.
3. The web server crashes due to overload of requests at once, denying service
to legitimate users.
● Preventions:
○ Using a proxy server.
○ Using anti-malware software.

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Hacking

● Hacking is the act of gaining unauthorised access to other’s data. This can be done
through vulnerabilities in networks, such as open ports or software bugs.
● Preventions:
○ Two factor authentication, biometrics, and strong passwords.
○ Regularly updating software to ensure it has no vulnerabilities
○ Using anti-malware softwares and regularly checking for malware
○ Using a firewall.

Malware

Name Description Preventions

Virus It gets installed onto the Anti-malware software

secondary memory, where it Firewalls
proceeds to replicate itself Mindfulness while clicking
until there is no more storage unknown links
left, causing the PC to crash. It Have data backup
also may corrupt data.

Worm Once installed, it finds network Anti-malware software

vulnerabilities and uses them Firewalls
to reduce bandwidth. Mindfulness while clicking
unknown links

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Spyware Once installed, it can record Anti-malware software
physical actions taken by the Firewalls
user, such as keyboard inputs. Using an on-screen keyboard
It sends this data to a third as its clicks cannot be detected
party, which can cause Using auto-filled passwords
sensitive typed information to instead of typing them out
be leaked. each time

Adware Spams ads and unwanted Anti-malware software

pop-ups on websites, Firewalls
applications or externally. Mindfulness while clicking
unknown links

Ransomwar Encrypts the user’s data so Anti-malware software

e that it is inaccessible, and Firewalls
demands money in exchange Have data backup
for the data to be
unencrypted.

Trojan Malware that is disguised as a Anti-malware software

Horse genuine application that may Firewalls
trick uses into downloading it. Mindfulness while clicking
unknown links

Pharming:

● A method used by perpetrators to gain access to sensitive information such as

passwords.
● The steps taken are as follows:
1. The user will be tricked into clicking a link which will start an automatic
malware download in their secondary storage.
2. The next time the user enters a certain URL, such as the link to a bank’s site,
the malware will redirect them to a fake website instead. The fake website will
imitate the real one in order to trick the user into believing that it is real.
3. The user will enter personal information into the website, which will be sent to
the perpetrator.
● Preventions:
○ Refrain from clicking unknown links or download suspicious software
○ Ensure the website is genuine by checking its URL
○ Use anti-malware

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Phishing:

● Phishing is a method similar to pharming used for obtaining sensitive information

from users for perpetrators to use.
● The perpetrator will send an email to the user, which will entice them into clicking a
fake website’s link and entering personal information there. For example, an email
could inform the user that their bank details need to be updated, and then prompt
them to click on the fake website’s link.
● Preventions:
○ Refrain from clicking unknown links or download suspicious software
○ Ensure the website is genuine by checking its URL

Social Engineering:

● Social engineering is the act of manipulating or deceiving people to obtain their

personal information. For example, scam calls.
● Preventions:
○ Don’t trust unknown people asking for sensitive information
○ Use access levels

Preventing Cyber Attacks

Firewalls:

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 ● Typically used for a personal computer to prevent suspicious programs or data to
enter or leave the computer.
● It checks incoming and outgoing signals
● It filters data packets to prevent traffic and blocks any packets if required
● It can whitelist or blacklist sites or data allowed to enter based on criteria set by the
user
● It can be hardware or software

Proxy Servers:
● Typically used for protection of larger serves, to divert attacks on them.
● It checks, logs and has the ability to block incoming and outgoing signals.
● It can whitelist or blacklist certain IP addresses and signals
● It processes client-side requests primarily.
● It allows faster access to websites using cache.
● It can hide a server’s internal network.

Access Levels:
● Typically used in companies
● It provides each user/employee with different permissions to data
● It limits access to data that can be viewed, and limits access to data that can be
changed or deleted.
● It is usually linked to usernames or user IDs.

Anti-Malware:
● It is a software that scans the computer it is installed on for malware
● It keeps a record of known malware
● It removes/quarantines any suspicious software or malware
● It checks data before it is downloaded, and stops the download or warns the user if it
detects malware.

Passwords:
● Strong passwords, which are changed often, are good defences against data
breaches.

Biometrics:
● The required data for biometrics, such as fingerprints, is unique for everyone. So, it is
very difficult to replicate.

Two-step Verification:
● In two step verification, extra data is sent to the user’s device, which has been
pre-set by the user. It is difficult to obtain.
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 ● The data must be entered into one system, which is difficult to do from remote
locations.

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Automated and Emerging
Technologies
Automated system:
● A device that is operated without human interaction

Features of an automated system:

● Sensors:
- A type of input device that is used to capture data from its immediate
environment
● Microprocessors:
- An integrated circuit that is able to perform that is able to perform many of
the functions of a CPU
● Actuators:
- A mechanical part that causes another device or part to move.
Industry:
Advantages Disadvantages

Faster than humans to take action Expensive to set up

Safer Enhanced maintenance (expensive)

Low running cost Computerised system; subject to

cyberattacks

Agriculture:
Advantages Disadvantages

Reduced labour costs Expensive to set up

Safer Enhanced maintenance (expensive)

Better control of the irrigation process

and of precious resources like water

Transport:
Advantages Disadvantages

Allows the same number of cars to use Requires additional maintenance to

fewer parking spaces ensure it correctly functions

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Avoids traffic disruption in cities

Cars can fit into smaller spaces

Weather (stations):
Advantages Disadvantages

Reduced labour costs Expensive to set up

Safer Enhanced maintenance (expensive)

Better control of the irrigation process

and of precious resources like water

Lighting:
Advantages Disadvantages

Possible to control light sources Expensive to set up

automatically

A reduced energy consumption Enhanced maintenance (expensive)

Longer bulb life

Science:
Advantages Disadvantages

Consistent and faster results Expensive to set up

Safer Security risks

Fewer highly trained staff needed for Less flexible than using human
each experiment technicians

Robotics:
● A branch of computer science that looks at the creation and use of robots.
● Robots have a range of features:
★ A mechanical structure or framework. This is the body of the robot.
★ Electrical components such as:
- Sensors to record its environment, for example, the position of the
component it is building.

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 - Microprocessors, to take the reading from the sensor and decide the
action to perform.
- Actuators, to make the robot move.
★ They are programmable
★ They are used in factory equipment, domestic robots and drones

Robots in medicine
Advantages Disadvantages

Saves time for doctors and nurses. Network failures can interrupt remote
procedures, necessitating backup
systems

Enables remote surgeries, reducing Programming errors and security risks

patient wait times. can cause harm.

Allows resource sharing among hospitals.

Robots in agriculture
Advantages Disadvantages

Saves time High initial costs and ongoing

maintenance

Increases efficiency with 24/7 operation Potential job replacement for human
workers

Ensures precision through

satellite-guided automation

Robots in transport
Advantages Disadvantages

Creates new jobs in system management High initial costs

Enhances efficiency and security Security risks from potential tampering

Reduces risks in hazardous environments Job displacement for some workers

Robots in industry
Advantages Disadvantages

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Continuous operation 24/7 High initial costs

Reduce human error and enhance Potential job replacement for human
accuracy workers

Efficiency as automation speeds up Requires new skill sets for fewer workers
production processes to manage and maintain robots.

● Robots can also handle specific tasks like:

★ Packing items into boxes
★ Testing products (e.g., checking temperatures)
★ Performing precise tasks (e.g., building circuits)

Robots in entertainment
● There are different types of robots used for entertainment purposes:
★ Interactive toys
★ Teaching kids on building robots and program them to perform specific tasks
★ Help people learn about robotics and coding

Robots used for domestic purposes

● There are different types of robots used for domestic purposes:
★ Vacuum cleaners and lawnmowers:
- This saves people time
- Still requires monitoring
- Cannot go up and down steps

Artificial Intelligence:
● A branch of computer science that looks at creating machines that can stimulate
human behaviour
● There is a broad range of AI:
★ Image Recognition: Identifies objects or people in images.
★ Speech Recognition: Recognizes and stores spoken words.
★ Natural Language Processing: Understands and responds to unstructured
commands.
★ Computer Games: Moves elements or characters based on the environment.
★ Diagnosis Systems: Assists in medical diagnosis.
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Features of AI:
● Data collection: Programs gather data from users or sensors.
● A set of programmed rules: Rules are used for decision-making (e.g., turning when an
object is detected).
● The ability to reason: Logic-based reasoning develops facts from rules (e.g., deducing
that Fred eats meat because he is a dog).
● The ability to learn and adapt: Machine learning allows systems to improve by training
on data (e.g., distinguishing between images of dogs and horses).

There are two areas of AI

● Machine Learning:
- A computer program that can adapt its stored rules or processes.
- It can be supervised or unsupervised
- Supervised: the user tells the machine what the data means
- Unsupervised: the data is input, then the data learns from the program and
identifies which items of the data resemble one another
● Expert system:
- A system that attempts to
replicate the knowledge of
an expert.
- It is made up of:
- A Knowledge base
- A Rules base
- An inference engine
- User interface

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