Group No:

Experiment-03
Study of I-V Characteristics of Diode and Rectifiers

CSE251 - Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab

Part 1: Study of IV Characteristics of Diode

Objective
1. To become familiar with a silicon p-n junction diode and understand its operation

2. To study the current-voltage characteristics i.e. I-V characteristics of silicon p-n junction diodes

Equipment
1. p-n junction diode (1N4007) - ×1

2. Resistances (1kΩ)
3. Function Generator
4. Oscilloscope

5. Breadboard, Wires
6. Digital Multimeter

Background Theory
I-V Characteristics
I-V characteristic defines the relationship between the current flow and the voltage across two terminals
of a device or element. It is a tool for understanding the operation of the circuit. The I-V character-
istics are found by evaluating the response of a device/element under different conditions. The behavior
of a device depends on the applied excitation and can change if the excitation changes. For example, a
device may act as an “open circuit” under certain input conditions and as “voltage source” in another.
A diode acts as an open circuit below a specific threshold voltage and acts differently beyond the it.

Figure 1: (a) A circuit with a voltage source, (b) I-V characteristic of the device

A simple circuit with a voltage source and an electronic device is shown in the figure above. The voltage
source acts as an excitation medium for the device. Varying the voltage source would result in change in the
current flow, Id across the device. By plotting this current with respect to the voltage across the device, Vd ,
the I-V characteristics of this device can be determined.

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I-V characteristics illustrates the behaviour of a device which is enough to know the device. Depending on
the I-V characteristics, the devices can be divided into two categories:
(1) Linear Devices (2) Non-linear Devices

If the current through a device is a linear function of the applied voltage across it, it is a linear device.

Figure 2: I-V characteristics of some linear elements

If the current through a device is a non-linear function of the applied voltage across it, it is a non-linear device.

Figure 3: I-V curves of some non-linear elements

In this experiment, we will study the I-V characteristics of diodes which is an electronic device. We will observe
that, diodes exhibit non-linear I-V characteristics.

Introduction to Diode

Figure 4: Diode Structure, Packaged Diode and Circuit Symbol

Diode is a semiconductor device that allows current flow only in one direction, from p to n or anode to cathode.
The schematic diagram, diode notation and circuit symbol are shown in the figure above. Diodes are usually
marked with a dot or a bar appearing on the cathode side. This mark helps identify the diode terminals.

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I-V Characteristics of an Ideal Diode
Ideally, we want a diode to behave like an electronic valve. It allows any amount of current in one direction, while
blocking all the currents in the opposite direction. This behavior can be characterized using the current and
voltage relation between the diode (or for any electronic device) which is also known as the I-V characteristics
of the device.

Figure 5: I-V Characteristics of an ideal diode

I-V Characteristics of a Real Diode

Real diodes are made of semiconductor materials, which have highly non-linear I-V characteristics. However,
under certain conditions and approximations, the real diode behaves like an ideal diode.

Figure 6: I-V Characteristics of a Real Diode

For a real diode, the current ID when a voltage VD is applied across it is given by:
   
VD
ID = IS exp −1
nVT

Here,

• IS is called the reverse saturation current

• n is called the diode ideality factor, and it has a value between 1 and 2
• VT is called the thermal voltage, which has a value of 25 mV at 27° C

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However, there are 2 special cases:
• When VD >> nVT : in this case, exp(VD /nVT ) will be much higher that 1, and hence we can ignore 1.
The equation becomes, ID ≈ IS exp(VD /nVT )
• When VD < 0: in this case, exp(VD /nVT ) will be negligible compared to 1, and hence we can ignore the
exp(VD /nVT ) term and the equation becomes, ID ≈ −IS

Diode Resistance
As the diode I-V characteristic is not linear, it will have different resistances at different points on the curve. A
dynamic or AC resistance for the diode is defined as,

d nVT
rd = (v) ≈
di ID
The static or DC resistance at any point is defined as, RD = VD /ID

Diode Specification
There are many specifications for each type of diode, the most important two are:
1. Peak inverse Voltage (PIV): maximum voltages the diode can tolerate in reverse direction.
2. Maximum Forward Current (IF ) the maximum current the diode can conduct in forward biased condition
without exceeding the safe limit.

Diodes are widely used in applications such as mixers, detectors, protection circuits. In this experiment you
will investigate its I-V characteristics.

Task-01: Diode I-V Characteristics

+ CH1 − − CH2 +

R = 1kΩ

+VD − ID = IR +VR −

VS 2V(p-p), 100Hz sine wave

Procedure
1. Construct the circuit given above. Use the function generator to generate a 2V(p-p), 100Hz sine wave for
the supply voltage VS .
2. Connect the CH1 and CH2 of the oscilloscope to the circuit as shown in the figure above.
3. Observe the I-V characteristics of the diode in the XY mode of the oscilloscope and capture the image.
To use the XY mode:
(a) Press the Autoset button → Push the Position knobs of both channels (i.e. push to zero).
(b) We need to invert the CH2 in the oscilloscope due to its inverted connection to the circuit.
To do so: Press CH2 button → Press the Invert button which can be found on the bottom of the
display of the oscilloscope to select the option On.

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 (c) Press the Acquire button → Press the XY button which can be found below the display → Press
the Triggered XY button which can be found on the right side of the display.
(d) Change the scaling and position of the plot using the Scale knob and Position knob of both channels
respectively if you need.

You will see a small screen showing the I-V characteristics graph using the XY mode of the oscilloscope. The
XY mode plots the voltage data of CH1 and CH2 in the x-axis and y-axis respectively. So, the x-axis represents
VD . As, ID = IR ∝ VR , the y-axis represents ID .

Part 2: Study of Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier

Objective
1. To build a half-wave rectifier circuit and understand its operating principle.
2. To build a full-wave rectifier circuit and understand its operating principle.

Equipments
1. p-n junction diode (1N4007) x 4
2. Resistor (10kΩ) - ×1
3. Capacitors (1µF, 4.7µF) – 1 each
4. Function Generator
5. Oscilloscope
6. Multimeter
7. Breadboard and Wires

Background Theory
Diodes are used to build rectifier circuits which convert the input sinusoidal voltage Vs to a unipolar output Vo .
There are two types of rectifier circuits: (i) Half-wave rectifier and (ii) Full-wave rectifier.

Half-Wave (HW) Rectifier

The circuit of a half-wave rectifier is shown in the following figure:

Figure 7: Half-Wave Rectifier

Assuming ideal diode model,

For the period, t = 0 → T /2, VS > 0, Diode is ON and VO = VS
For the period, t = T /2 → T , VS < 0, Diode is OFF and VO = 0

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As only positive half cycle appears at the output and the negative half is blocked, the AC input voltage changes
into a unidirectional DC voltage at the output. The process of removing half of the input signal to establish
a dc level is aptly called half-wave rectification. Due to diode voltage drop, the actual output voltage will be
approximately, VO = VS – VD0 . For, VS = Vm sin ωt, DC voltage and current of a half wave rectifier are:

Vm VD0 Vdc Vm /π − VD0 /2

Vdc = − and Idc = =
π 2 R R
where, Vm = peak input voltage, VD0 ≈ 0.7v for Silicon diodes. The following figures show the input and output
wave shapes of a HW rectifier circuit:

Figure 8: (i) Assuming Ideal Diode (ii) Assuming Real Diode (CVD Model)

HW Rectifier with Filter Capacitor

Figure 9: Half-Wave Rectifier with Filter Capacitor

Although the rectification stage makes the sine wave voltage to be positive, the rectifier’s result is not as “flat”
a DC value as we would like to have from a reliable voltage source, as you will measure in the lab. The capacitor
is included to help smooth out the ripples that result in the output from the rectification stage.
Recall that the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, but rather it requires a certain amount
of time before it is fully charged. Initially, as the input voltage rises, diode turns on, and the capacitor starts
charging. After the input voltage reaches its peak value, the capacitor gets charged to the peak input voltage.
As the input voltage now starts decreasing below the peak value, the diode turns off, since the n-side is more
positive than the p-side due to the voltage across the capacitor which does not change instantaneously. The
stored charges on the capacitor will be released through RL .

For RL C >> T , it will take long time for the capacitor to discharge and the output terminal will main-
tain almost a dc voltage. Thus, large capacitance values help suppress the quickly changing voltage from the
rectifier and result in a flatter DC value being supplied to the load. Typical power supply designs use relatively
large capacitor values (greater than 1000 µF).

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 Figure 10: Vr or Vr(p−p) is the peak to peak ripple voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV): PIV is the maximum voltage that appears across the diode when it is reverse-
biased.
P IV = Vm

Ripple Voltage and Ripple Factor

The output of a rectifier though unidirectional, contains periodically fluctuating components. The theoretical
value for the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is given by,
Vp Vm − VD0
Vr(p−p) = =
f CRL f CRL
Here, Vp = peak voltage of the rectified output, f = input frequency, and RL is the resistance connected in
parallel with C.
Vr(p−p)
Average value of the output wave, Vdc = Vp −
2
Vr(p−p)
RMS value of the Ripple Voltage, Vr(rms) = √
2 3
A measure of the fluctuating components is given by the ripple factor r, which is defined as,

rms value of alternating components of the output wave (multimeter in AC)

r=
average value of the output wave (multimeter in DC)
Vr−rms
=
Vdc

Full-Wave (FW) Rectifier / Bridge Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of the input sinusoid. To provide a unipolar output,it inverts the
negative halves of the sine wave. Figure-5 shows the circuit diagram, input and output waveform of Full-Wave
Rectifier/Bridge Rectifier.

Figure 11: Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit without Capacitor and the Waveform of Input and Output

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In this case, constant voltage drop model was assumed. Peak inverse voltage across each diode and DC voltage
in reverse-bias can be calculated using the following equations,

P IV = Vm − VD0
2Vm
Vdc = − 2VD0
π

Full-Wave (FW) Rectifier with Capacitor

The pulsating nature of the output voltage produced by the rectifier circuits discussed above makes it unsuitable
as a dc supply for electronic circuits. A simple way to reduce the variation of the output voltage is to place
a capacitor across the load resistor. Figure-6 shows the circuit diagram and output waveform of Full-Wave
Rectifier with Capacitor.

Figure 12: Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Capacitor and the Output Waveform

Ripple Voltage and Ripple Factor

The output of a rectifier though unidirectional, contains periodically fluctuating components. The theoretical
value for the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is given by,
Vp Vm − 2VD0
Vr(p−p) = = , for a FW rectifier circuit
2f CRL 2f CRL
Here, Vp = peak voltage of the rectified output, f = input frequency, and R is the resistance connected in
parallel with C.
Vr(p−p)
Average value of the output wave, Vdc = Vp −
2
Vr(p−p)
RMS value of the Ripple Voltage, Vr−rms = √
2 3
A measure of the fluctuating components is given by the ripple factor r, which is defined as

rms value of alternating components of the output wave (multimeter in AC mode)

r=
average value of the output wave (multimeter in DC mode)
Vr−rms
=
Vdc

Larger ripple factor means the AC components of the output wave is larger compared to the DC components.
Hence, there fluctuation in the output wave is large. Smaller ripple factor means the AC components of the
output wave is smaller compared to the DC components. Hence, there fluctuation in the output wave is small.
So, the lower the value of the ripple factor, the better the rectifier.

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Task-02: HW Rectifier
Procedure
1. Construct circuit of Figure 7 . Observe VS and VO simultaneously on Channel 1 and Channel 2 of the
oscilloscope respectively.
2. Capture the image of the input and output waveforms using your mobile camera.
3. Measure VO with a multimeter in dc and ac mode to take data for the Data Sheet.
4. Connect 1µF capacitor across the resistor, RL = 10kΩ.

5. Capture the image of the input and output waveforms using your mobile camera.
6. Measure the peak voltage of the output, Vp and peak-to-peak ripple voltage Vr(p−p) from the oscilloscope.
To measure the peak and peak-to-peak the ripple voltages, go to the “measure” tab of the oscilloscope
or switch on the cursors of the oscilloscope. This allows you to level your cursor horizontally with the
peak or the ripple voltage and measure the values.
7. Again, measure VO with a multimeter in dc and ac mode to take data for the Data Sheet. Calculate the
ripple factor.
8. Replace 1µF Capacitor with 4.7µF and repeat steps 4-7.

Task-03: FW Rectifier
Procedure
1. Construct circuit of Figure 11 . Observe VS and VO separately on the oscilloscope [i.e. don’t use both
channels simultaneously, use only one channel].
2. Capture the image of the input and output waveforms using your mobile camera.
3. Measure VO with a multimeter in dc and ac mode to take data for the Data Sheet.

4. Connect 1µF capacitor across the resistor, RL = 10kΩ.

5. Capture the image of the input and output waveforms using your mobile camera.
6. Measure the peak voltage of the output, Vp and peak-to-peak ripple voltage Vr(p−p) from the oscilloscope.
To measure the peak and the peak-to-peak ripple voltages, go to the “measure” tab of the oscilloscope
or switch on the cursors of the oscilloscope. This allows you to level your cursor horizontally with the
peak or the ripple voltage and measure the values.
7. Again, measure VO with a multimeter in dc and ac mode and calculate the ripple factor.
8. Replace 1µF Capacitor with 4.7µF and repeat steps 4-7.

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Data Sheet
Experimental Observation: HW Rectifier
1. HW Rectifier without Capacitor:
Diode voltage, VD0 = Inputmax (oscilloscope) − Outputmax (oscilloscope) =
Peak output voltage, Vp (oscilloscope) =
Average or DC output voltage, Vdc (multimeter in DC mode) =
RMS or AC output voltage, Vr−rms (multimeter in AC mode) =
2. HW Rectifier with 1µF Capacitor:
Diode voltage, VD0 = Inputmax (oscilloscope) − Outputmax (oscilloscope) =
Peak output voltage, Vp (oscilloscope) =
Peak to peak ripple voltage, Vr(p−p) (oscilloscope) =
Average or DC value of the ripple voltage, Vdc (multimeter in DC mode) =
RMS or AC value of the ripple voltage, Vr−rms (multimeter in AC mode) =
Ripple factor, r = Vr−rms /Vdc =
3. HW Rectifier with 4.7µF Capacitor:
Diode voltage, VD0 = Inputmax (oscilloscope) − Outputmax (oscilloscope) =
Peak output voltage, Vp (oscilloscope) =
Peak to peak ripple voltage, Vr(p−p) (oscilloscope) =
Average or DC value of the ripple voltage, Vdc (multimeter in DC mode) =
RMS or AC value of the ripple voltage, Vr−rms (multimeter in AC mode) =
Ripple factor, r = Vr−rms /Vdc =

Theoretical Calculation: HW Rectifier

1. HW Rectifier Without Capacitor:
Peak output voltage, Vp (see the experimental observation) =
Peak input voltage, Vm =
Diode voltage, VD0 (see the experimental observation) =
DC output voltage of the rectifier, Vdc = Vπm − V2D0 =
V
RMS or AC output voltage, Vr−rms = 2p =
2. HW Rectifier With 1µF Capacitor:
Peak output voltage, Vp (see the experimental observation) =
Peak to peak ripple voltage, Vr(p−p) (see the experimental observation)=
Vr(p−p)
DC value of the ripple voltage, Vdc = Vp − 2 =
Vr(p−p)
RMS value of the ripple voltage, Vr−rms = √
2 3
=
Ripple factor, r = Vr−rms /Vdc =
3. HW Rectifier with 4.7µF Capacitor:
Peak output voltage, Vp (see the experimental observation) =
Peak to peak ripple voltage, Vr(p−p) (see the experimental observation) =
V
DC value of the ripple voltage, Vdc = Vp − r(p−p)
2 =
V
RMS value of the ripple voltage, Vr−rms = r(p−p)
√
2 3
=
Ripple factor, r = Vr−rms /Vdc =

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Experimental Observation: FW Rectifier
1. FW Rectifier without Capacitor:
Diode voltage,VD0 = Inputmax (oscilloscope)−Output
2
max (oscilloscope)
=
Peak output voltage, Vp (oscilloscope) =
Average or DC output voltage, Vdc (multimeter in DC mode) =
RMS or AC output voltage, Vr−rms (multimeter in AC mode) =
2. FW Rectifier with 1µF Capacitor:
Diode voltage,VD0 = Inputmax (oscilloscope)−Output
2
max (oscilloscope)
=
Peak output voltage, Vp (oscilloscope) =
Peak to peak ripple voltage, Vr(p−p) (oscilloscope) =
Average or DC value of the ripple voltage, Vdc (multimeter in DC mode) =
RMS or AC value of the ripple voltage, Vr−rms (multimeter in AC mode) =
Ripple factor, r = Vr−rms /Vdc =
3. FW Rectifier with 4.7µF Capacitor:
Diode voltage,VD0 = Inputmax (oscilloscope)−Output
2
max (oscilloscope)
=
Peak output voltage, Vp (oscilloscope) =
Peak to peak ripple voltage, Vr(p−p) (oscilloscope) =
Average or DC value of the ripple voltage, Vdc (multimeter in DC mode) =
RMS or AC value of the ripple voltage, Vr−rms (multimeter in AC mode) =
Ripple factor, r = Vr−rms /Vdc =

Theoretical Calculation: FW Rectifier

1. FW Rectifier without Capacitor:
Peak output voltage, Vp (see the experimental observation) =
Peak input voltage, Vm =
Diode voltage, VD0 (see the experimental observation) =
DC output voltage of the rectifier, Vdc = 2 πVm − 2 VD0 =
V
RMS or AC output voltage, Vr−rms = √p2 =
2. FW Rectifier with 1µF Capacitor:
Peak output voltage, Vp (see the experimental observation) =
Peak to peak ripple voltage, Vr(p−p) (see the experimental observation) =
V
DC value of the ripple voltage, Vdc = Vp − r(p−p)
2 =
Vr(p−p)
RMS value of the ripple voltage, Vr−rms = 2 3 =
√

Ripple factor, r = Vr−rms /Vdc =

3. FW Rectifier with 4.7µF Capacitor:
Peak output voltage, Vp (see the experimental observation) =
Peak to peak ripple voltage, Vp (see the experimental observation) =
V
DC value of the ripple voltage, Vdc = Vp − r(p−p)
2 =
Vr(p−p)
RMS value of the ripple voltage, Vr−rms = 2√3 =
Ripple factor, r = Vr−rms /Vdc =

Table for Comparison

Experimental Observation Theoretical Calculation

C(µF) Vr−rms (V) Vdc (V) Ripple Factor, r Vr−rms (V) Vdc (V) Ripple Factor, r
1
HW
4.7
1
FW
4.7

Signature of the lab faculty

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Report Submission Guidelines
1. Add a cover page that includes course code, course title, name, student ID, group, semester, date of
performance, date of submission.
2. Attach the captured photos of all the waveforms and measurements you have observed in the Oscilloscope.
Each photo should contain necessary description.
3. Answer the questions in the “Test Your Understanding” section.
4. Add a brief Discussion regarding the experiment. For the Discussion part of the lab report, you should
include the answers of the following questions in your own words:
• What did you learn from this experiment?
• What challenges did you face and how did you overcome the challenges? (if any)
• What mistakes did you make and how did you correct the mistakes? (if any)
• How will this experiment help you in future experiments of this course?

Test Your Understanding

Answer the following questions:

1. R = 1kΩ was used in the experiment. If we use R = 2.2kΩ, will there be any problem in observing the
I-V characteristics plot? Explain briefly.
Answer:

2. From the I-V characteristics of a diode that you obtained, which devices can be used to model the diode?
Answer:

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3. Which capacitor acts as a better filter? Explain briefly.
Answer:

4. Which of the two rectifiers is better? Which quantity is calculated for this purpose? Explain briefly.
Answer:

5. Why can’t you see the input and output using both channels of the oscilloscope simultaneously in Task-03?
Answer:

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