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UNIT-2: IOT PROTOCOLS

Protocol Standardization for IoT – Efforts – M2M and WSN Protocols – SCADA and
RFIDProtocols – Issues with IoT Standardization – Unified Data Standards – Protocols –
IEEE802.15.4–BACNet Protocol– Modbus – KNX – Zigbee– Network layer – APS layer –
Security
1 PROTOCOL STANDARDIZATION FOR IOT

Not every IoT communication protocol is right for every deployment or device. Consider the
power and security requirements before choosing one protocol over another.
Why are IoT protocols important?
The benefit and value of IoT comes from enabling the components to communicate;
this ability to communicate is what moves data from endpoint devices through the IoT
pipeline to central servers. This communication happens via IoT protocols, which ensure that
data sent from endpoint devices, such as sensors, is received and understood by the next and
subsequent steps in the connected environment, whether the next step for that data is to
another endpoint device or a gateway or an application.
Most commonly used IoT protocols and standards
Simply put, IoT protocols are as critical to the existence of IoT as the things
themselves.some protocols work well for IoT use in buildings, some are well suited for IoT
deployments spread among buildings and others work well for national or global IoT use
cases.
How many protocols are there in IoT?
There are multiple IoT protocols available, with each one offering certain capabilities
or combinations of features that make it preferable over other options for specific IoT
deployments. Each IoT protocol enables either device-to-device, device-to-gateway or
device-to-cloud/data center communication -- or combinations of those
communications.Factors such as geographic and special location, power consumption needs,
battery-operated options, the presence of physical barriers and cost determine which protocol
is optimal in an IoT deployment.

What are the different layers of IoT architecture?

Networking systems are built as a stack of technologies; these are frequently
visualized in a reference model -- a type of framework -- that technologists use to
conceptualize how data is communicated over the entire stack.The most well-known one is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which lists seven layers.

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IoT is also expressed in a multilayer model. Although some use the OSI seven-layer model,
others in use include the following:
✓ three-layer model: perception, network and application
✓ four-layer model: perception, support, network and application
✓ five-layer model: perception, transport, processing, application and business, or
physical, data link, network, transport and application

Internet protocols in use generally vary by layer. As such, an IoT ecosystem could
have multiple protocols, with different protocols enabling communication at different layers
and with some protocols bridging across layers, said Scott Young, principal research advisor
for infrastructure at Info-Tech Research Group.For example, Bluetooth and wireless support
communication at the lowest layers, while Data Distribution Service (DDS) and MQTT work
in the application layer.

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Most common protocols:

Technologists can select from multiple communication protocols when building a
network to serve their IoT ecosystem. The most common include the following.

1. AMQP
Short for Advanced Message Queuing Protocol, AMQP is an open standard protocol
used for more message-oriented middleware. As such, it enables messaging interoperability
between systems, regardless of the message brokers or platforms being used. It offers security
and interoperability, as well as reliability, even at a distance or over poor networks. It
supports communications, even when systems aren't simultaneously available.

2. Bluetooth and BLE

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology that uses short-wavelength, ultrahigh-
frequency radio waves. It had most commonly been used for audio streaming, but it has also
become a significant enabler of wireless and connected devices. As a result, this low-power,
low-range connectivity option is a go-to for both personal area networks and IoT
deployments.

3. Cellular
Cellular is one of the most widely available and well-known options available for IoT
applications, and it is one of the best options for deployments where communications range
over longer distances. Although 2G and 3G legacy cellular standards are now being phased
out, telecommunications companies are rapidly expanding the reach of newer high-speed
standards -- namely, 4G/LTE and 5G. Cellular provides high bandwidth and reliable
communication. It's capable of sending high quantities of data, which is an important
capability for many IoT deployments.

4. CoAP
The Internet Engineering Task Force Constrained RESTful Environments Working
Group in 2013 launched CoAP, for Constrained Application Protocol, having designed it to
work with HTTP-based IoT systems. CoAP relies on User Datagram Protocol to establish
secure communications and enable data transmission between multiple points. Often used for
machine-to-machine (M2M) applications, CoAP enables constrained devices to join an IoT
environment, even with the presence of low bandwidth, low availability and/or low-energy
devices.

5. DDS
Object Management Group (OMG) developed Data Distribution Service for real-time
systems. OMG describes DDS as "a middleware protocol and API standard for data-centric
connectivity," explaining that "it integrates the components of a system together, providing
low-latency data connectivity, extreme reliability and a scalable architecture that business and
mission-critical IoT applications need.

6. LoRa and LoRaWAN

LoRa, for long range, is a non cellular wireless technology that, as its name describes,
offers long-range communication capabilities. It's low power with secure data transmission

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for M2M applications and IoT deployments. A proprietary technology, it's now part of
Semtech's radio frequency platform. The LoRa Alliance, of which Semtech was a founding
member, is now the governing body of LoRa technology. The LoRa Alliance also designed
and now maintains LoRaWAN, an open cloud-based protocol that enables IoT devices to
communicate LoRa.

7. LWM2M
OMA SpecWorks describes its Lightweight M2M (LWM2M) as "a device
management protocol designed for sensor networks and the demands of an M2M
environment." This communication protocol was designed specifically for remote device
management and telemetry in IoT environments and other M2M applications; as such, it's a
good option for low-power devices with limited processing and storage capabilities.

8. MQTT
Developed in 1999 and first known as Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, it's
now just MQTT. There is no longer any message queuing in this protocol. MQTT uses a
publish-subscribe architecture to enable M2M communication. Its simple messaging protocol
works with constrained devices and enables communication between multiple devices. It was
designed to work in low-bandwidth situations, such as for sensors and mobile devices on
unreliable networks. MQTT, which started as a proprietary protocol, is now the leading open
source protocol for connecting IoT and industrial IoT devices.

9. Wi-Fi
Given its pervasiveness in home, commercial and industrial buildings, Wi-Fi is a
frequently used IoT protocol. It offers fast data transfer and is capable of processing large
amounts of data. Wi-Fi is particularly well suited within LAN environments, with short- to
medium-range distances. However, many Wi-Fi standards, including the one commonly used
in homes, is too power-consuming for some IoT use cases, particularly low-power/battery-
powered devices.

10. XMPP
Dating back to the early 2000s when the Jabber open source community first designed
its Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol for real-time human-to-human
communication, XMPP is now used for M2M communication in lightweight middleware and
for routing XML data. XMPP supports the real-time exchange of structured but extensible
data between multiple entities on a network, and it's most often used for consumer-oriented
IoT deployments, such as smart appliances.
11. Zigbee
Zigbee is a mesh network protocol that was designed for building and home
automation applications, and it's one of the most popular mesh protocols in IoT
environments. A short-range and low-power protocol, Zigbee can be used to extend
communication over multiple devices. It has a longer range than BLE, but it has a lower data
rate than BLE. Overseen by the Zigbee Alliance, it offers a flexible, self-organizing mesh,
ultralow power and a library of applications.

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12. Z-Wave
Another proprietary option, Z-Wave is a wireless mesh network communication
protocol built on low-power radio frequency technology. Like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, Z-Wave
lets smart devices communicate with encryption, thereby providing a level of security to the
IoT deployment. It's commonly used for home automation products and security systems, as
well as in commercial applications, such as energy management technologies. It operates on
908.42 MHz radio frequency in the U.S.; although, its frequencies vary country by country.

2 M2M AND WSN PROTOCOLS

i)M2M:

Machine to Machine (M2M):

✓ The process of exchanging information or messages between two or more machines or

devices is known as Machine to Machine (M2M) communication.
✓ It is the communication among the physical things which do not need human intervention.

M2M communication is also named as Machine Type communication in 3GPP(3rd

Generation Partnership Project). In this the interaction or communication takes place between
machines by automating data/programs. In this machine level instructions are required for
communication. Here communication takes place without human interaction. The machines
may be either connected through wires or by wireless connection. An M2M connection is a
point-to-point connection between two network devices that helps in transmitting information
using public networking technologies like Ethernet and cellular networks.

IoT uses the basic concepts of M2M and expands by creating large “cloud” networks of
devices that communicate with one another through cloud networking platforms.
Advantages :

✓ This M2M can operate over cellular networks and is simple to manage.
✓ It can be used both indoors and outdoors and aids in the communication of smart objects
without the need for human interaction.
✓ The M2M contact facility is used to address security and privacy problems in IoT
networks.
✓ Large-scale data collection, processing, and security are all feasible.

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Disadvantages :
✓ In M2M, use of cloud computing restricts versatility and creativity.
✓ Data security and ownership are major concerns here.
✓ The challenge of achieving interoperability between cloud/M2M IoT systems is
daunting.
✓ M2M connectivity necessitates the existence of a reliable internet connection.

Examples:
Smart Washing machine sends alerts to the owners’ smart devices after completion of
washing or drying of clothes. Smart meters tracks amount of energy used in household or in
companies and automatically alert the owner.

ii)Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) :

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is

deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor
the system, physical or environmental conditions. Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the
onboard processor that manages and monitors the environment in a particular area. They are
connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing unit in the WSN System. Base
Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.WSN can be used
for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.

Applications of WSN:

✓ Internet of Things (IoT)

✓ Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
✓ Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
✓ Noise Level of the surrounding
✓ Medical applications like patient monitoring
✓ Agriculture
✓ Landslide Detection

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Challenges of WSN:

✓ Quality of Service
✓ Security Issue
✓ Energy Efficiency
✓ Network Throughput
✓ Performance
✓ Ability to cope with node failure
✓ Cross layer optimization
✓ Scalability to large scale of deployment

A modern Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) faces several challenges, including:

Limited power and energy: WSNs are typically composed of battery-powered sensors that
have limited energy resources. This makes it challenging to ensure that the network can
function for long periods of time without the need for frequent battery replacements. Limited
processing and storage capabilities: Sensor nodes in a WSN are typically small and have
limited processing and storage capabilities. This makes it difficult to perform complex tasks
or store large amounts of data.
Heterogeneity: WSNs often consist of a variety of different sensor types and nodes with
different capabilities. This makes it challenging to ensure that the network can function
effectively and efficiently.
Security: WSNs are vulnerable to various types of attacks, such as eavesdropping, jamming,
and spoofing. Ensuring the security of the network and the data it collects is a major
challenge.
Scalability: WSNs often need to be able to support a large number of sensor nodes and
handle large amounts of data. Ensuring that the network can scale to meet these demands is a
significant
challenge.
Interference: WSNs are often deployed in environments where there is a lot of interference
from other wireless devices. This can make it difficult to ensure reliable communication
between sensor nodes.
Reliability: WSNs are often used in critical applications, such as monitoring the environment
or controlling industrial processes. Ensuring that the network is reliable and able to function
correctly in all conditions is a major challenge.

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Components of WSN:

Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is used for data
acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical signals.
Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN access point.
It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and power source.
WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally through the
internet.
Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software called as Evaluation
Software for presenting the report to the users for further processing of the data which can be
used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.

Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):

✓ Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy, making
them a cost-effective solution for many applications.

✓ Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired connections, which can
be costly and difficult to install. Wireless communication also enables flexible
deployment and reconfiguration of the network.

✓ Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to conserve energy,
enabling long-term operation without the need for frequent battery replacements.

✓ Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing sensors,

making them suitable for a range of applications and environments.

✓ Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical phenomena in

the environment, providing timely information for decision making and control.

Disadvantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):

✓ Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited, which can
be a challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments with obstacles that
obstruct radio signals.

✓ Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have limited
processing power and memory, making it difficult to perform complex computations
or support advanced applications.

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✓ Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as eavesdropping,

tampering, and denial of service attacks, which can compromise the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of data.

✓ Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to interference

from other wireless devices or radio signals, which can degrade the quality of data
transmission.

✓ Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the need for
proper sensor placement, power management, and network configuration, which can
require significant time and resources.

4. SCADA AND RFID PROTOCOLS

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) and RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification) protocols are two critical technologies that have transformed various
industries. SCADA systems allow for remote monitoring and control of industrial processes
in the oil and gas, energy, and manufacturing industries. These systems collect data from
sensors and deliver it in real-time to human operators, allowing them to monitor and adjust
the process as needed.

On the other hand, RFID is a wireless technology that communicates with tags attached to
objects via radio waves. These tags contain one-of-a-kind identification codes that allow the
system to track the object’s location, movements, and other data. RFID has a wide range of
applications, including supply chain management, inventory control, and security and access
control.

Introduction to SCADA and RFID Protocols:

Key Concepts and Applications Both Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) protocols are widely used in a variety
of industries. SCADA is a system that allows operators to remotely monitor and control
industrial processes, whereas RFID is a wireless technology used for object tracking and
identification.

SCADA Protocols:

SCADA systems collect data from sensors installed in the process and transmit it to a
central control system via communication protocols. This data is then analyzed to provide
human operators with real-time information, allowing them to make informed decisions and
remotely control the process. SCADA systems are used in many industries, including oil and
gas, water treatment, energy, and manufacturing. The integration of SCADA and RFID
technologies has given industrial environments a new level of visibility and control.
Operators can quickly identify issues and take action to prevent further problems by using

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RFID to track objects and SCADA to monitor and control the process. Due to this
integration, businesses have been able to optimize their operations, reduce downtime, and
improve safety and security.

The combination of SCADA and RFID protocols has given industries powerful tools
for increasing efficiency, productivity, and safety. We can expect to see even more innovative
applications in the future as these technologies continue to evolve. SCADA communication
protocols are used to transfer data between SCADA system components. Modbus, DNP3
(Distributed Network Protocol), and IEC 60870-5 are the most common communication
protocols used in SCADA systems. These protocols define the structure of the data being
transmitted, the type of data, and the method of data transfer. Control protocols are used to
manage the various components of a SCADA system. OPC (OLE for Process Control),
BACnet (Building Automation and Control Networks), and SNMP are the most common
control protocols used in SCADA systems (Simple Network Management Protocol). These
protocols are used to configure devices, set and adjust system parameters, and manage alarms
and events.

SCADA systems allow for remote monitoring and control of industrial processes
while providing real-time data to human operators. These systems are used in various
industries, including energy and water treatment, manufacturing, and transportation. SCADA
protocols allow these systems to operate seamlessly, ensuring the process’s efficiency and
safety. Understanding SCADA protocols is critical for ensuring that industrial processes run
efficiently and safely. Properly selecting and implementing communication and control
protocols are critical for a SCADA system’s integrity.
SCADA systems are poised to continue revolutionizing industries and providing
critical support for industrial processes as new protocols, and technological advancements
emerge.

SCADA Security:
Protecting Industrial Control Systems from Cyber Threats
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems are used in industrial settings to
monitor and control critical processes, making them vulnerable to cyber-attacks. SCADA
systems are frequently linked to other systems and networks, posing potential security risks.
SCADA security entails safeguarding industrial control systems against cyber threats that
could cause disruptions, sabotage, or other types of attacks. There are two types of cyber
threats to SCADA systems: external and internal. External threats come from outside the
organization, whereas internal threats come from within the organization.

Security measures that ensure data confidentiality, integrity, and availability must be
implemented to protect SCADA systems from cyber threats. One important measure is to use
strong access controls, such as multi-factor authentication and role-based access controls, to
limit access to sensitive information and systems. In addition to monitoring network traffic
and detecting anomalies that may indicate a security breach, firewalls, and intrusion detection
systems can be used.

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Safeguarding SCADA systems against cyber threats is critical to ensuring the safe and
efficient operation of industrial processes. Strong access controls, current software and
hardware, and regular security assessments are critical measures for protecting SCADA
systems from external and internal cyber threats. Organizations can reduce the risk of cyber
attacks on their SCADA systems by implementing these measures and fostering a culture of
security awareness

RFID Protocols:
Types and Standards for Identification and Tracking RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification) protocols identify and track objects using radio waves. RFID protocols of
various types and standards are used in various industries for various applications.

The most common RFID protocols are low-frequency (LF), high-frequency (HF), and
ultra-high-frequency (UHF). LF RFID operates at a frequency of 125-134 kHz and is used for
short-range communication, typically up to 10 cm. HF RFID operates at a frequency of 13.56
MHz and is used for short- to medium-range communication (up to 1 meter). UHF RFID
operates at a frequency range of 860-960 MHz and is used for long-range communication up
to several meters.

RFID protocol and standard implementation vary depending on the application. For
example, LF RFID is commonly used in animal identification, whereas HF RFID is used in
access control, payment systems, and inventory management. UHF RFID is used in supply
chain management, asset tracking, and other applications that require long-range
communication.

RFID protocols and standards are critical in identifying and tracking objects across
industries. The appropriate protocol and standard are chosen based on the specific application
requirements. RFID is poised to continue revolutionizing industries and enabling a new level
of visibility and control as technology advances, and new standards emerge.

RFID and SCADA Integration:

Enhancing Visibility and Control in Industrial Environments In industrial

environments, the integration of RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) and SCADA
(Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems can improve visibility and control over
critical processes, assets, and inventory. RFID identifies and tracks objects in real-time,
whereas SCADA monitors and controls industrial processes.

RFID and SCADA system integration can provide a variety of benefits, including
increased accuracy, efficiency, and productivity. RFID tags can be attached to assets or
inventory, allowing for real-time tracking and monitoring, and SCADA can use this data to
optimize processes, reduce downtime, and improve overall efficiency.

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RFID and SCADA integration can improve security by providing real-time alerts when
unauthorized access is detected, in addition to tracking and monitoring. RFID tags can also be
used to identify employees and track their movements, preventing access to restricted areas
and increasing safety.

SCADA and RFID in Smart Manufacturing:

Advancements and Challenges In smart manufacturing environments, the integration
of SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) and RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification) technologies can lead to significant advancements in automation, efficiency,
and productivity. Smart manufacturing optimizes industrial processes and improves
performance by leveraging technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial
intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML).

In smart manufacturing environments, SCADA and RFID technologies can provide

real-time monitoring, control, and automation of industrial processes. RFID tags are useful
for identifying and tracking inventory and assets, whereas SCADA systems are useful for
monitoring and controlling critical processes like temperature, pressure, and flow rate.

The integration of SCADA and RFID technologies in smart manufacturing

environments has the potential to improve automation, efficiency, and productivity
significantly. Real-time data from RFID tags, for example, can be used to optimize
production lines, reduce waste, and improve overall efficiency. SCADA systems can also be
used to automate routine tasks like quality control and maintenance, allowing personnel to
focus on more difficult tasks.

The integration of SCADA and RFID technologies in smart manufacturing environments has
the potential to improve automation, efficiency, and productivity significantly. However, it
presents several challenges, including the need to ensure data privacy and security and the
integration of multiple systems and technologies. Organizations can gain a competitive
advantage in the marketplace and improve their operations by addressing these challenges
and leveraging the full potential of these technologies.

The lack of standardization is a problem for the Internet of Things (IoT) because it
makes it difficult for different devices and systems to communicate and work
together seamlessly. IoT devices are made by many different manufacturers and can
use a wide variety of communication protocols and data formats, making it
challenging to develop a unified standard that works across all devices.

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5 ISSUES WITH IOT STANDARDIZATION

The lack of standardization creates interoperability issues, which can lead to
compatibility problems and limited functionality. For example, if two IoT devices
cannot communicate with each other because they use different protocols or data
formats, they cannot work together to achieve a common goal.

The absence of standardization can also cause security risks, as it can be easier
for hackers to exploit vulnerabilities in systems that are not using standard security
protocols. In addition, it can hinder the development of new applications and
services that could bring value to businesses and consumers. the lack of
standardization in the IoT industry can lead to reduced efficiency, increased costs,
and a slower rate of innovation.
Compatibility Issues
Compatibility problems can be a common issue with IoT (Internet of
Things) devices. There are several reasons why compatibility issues can arise in
IoT, including:
Protocol incompatibility:
IoT devices use different communication protocols, which can lead to
incompatibility issues between devices from different manufacturers.
Security protocols:
IoT devices have different security protocols, which can also lead to
incompatibility issues. For example, if one device uses a more secure encryption
protocol than another, they may not be able to communicate with each other.
Firmware updates:
IoT devices often receive firmware updates, which can sometimes cause
compatibility issues if one device's firmware is updated while the other remains on
an older version.
Power requirements:
IoT devices have different power requirements, which can lead to
compatibility issues. For example, if one device requires more power than another,
they may not be able to communicate with each other.
Physical compatibility:
IoT devices may not be compatible with the existing infrastructure, such as
sensors that require a certain type of wiring or connectors.
To address IoT compatibility issues, manufacturers and software vendors
are working together on developing standard protocols that can be used by all IoT
devices, as well as creating devices that are more flexible and adaptable to different
types of networks and infrastructure. IEEE is also playing an important role in
creating standards. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is a
professional organization that plays a crucial role in the standardization of IoT
(Internet of Things). IEEE has several working groups dedicated to developing
standards for IoT devices, networks, and protocols.
In addition to developing standards for IoT, IEEE also provides resources
and support to the IoT community. IEEE hosts conferences and workshops on IoT,

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and it also publishes research papers, books, and articles on IoT technologies and
applications. It's also important for users to research and purchase devices from
reputable manufacturers that areknown to work well with other devices in their IoT
ecosystem.

6 UNIFIED DATA STANDARDS IN IOT

Many standardization efforts have been trying to define a unified data

representation and protocol for IoT. Before the Internet of Things, the Internet was
actually an Internet of documents or of multimedia documents. The two pillars of
the Internet including HTML/ HTTP turned the Internet into the World Wide Web
There are many different levels of protocols, but the ones that most directly
relate to business and social issues are the ones closest to the top, the so- called
application protocols such as HTML/ HTTP for the web. HTML developers were
limited to CSS and JavaScript in order to produce animations or visual effects for
their websites, or they would have to rely on a plug-in like Flash.
With the addition of technologies like the canvas element, Web GL, and
scalable vector graphics (SVG) images in HTML5, this is no longer the case. In
fact, many new features deal with graphics on the web with HTML5. Using
graphics to display real- world behaviour of things is a very important feature of
IoT systems.

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✓ Mango it is an open- source software system for M2M applications. It enables

users to access and control electronic sensors, devices, and machines over
multiple protocols simultaneously. It relies heavily on JavaScript to render its
graphical pages.
✓ SVG supported by HTML5 as well as major browsers such as Internet Explorer
9,Safari, and others, with embedded scripting capabilities can be a very useful
technology; however, enhancement to HTML/ HTTP and the browsers is still
required for MTC support.
✓ Human- oriented browsers may also have to be enhanced for processing
massive MGDs similar to the mobile browser on audio devices. Content
management is a big market sector of the Internet and web; future IoT contents
may also require similar technologies for sensor content management.
✓ Resource Description Framework (RDF) is a family of W3C specifications
originally designed as a metadata model. It is used for modeling of information
that is implemented in web resources, using a variety of syntax formats. It could
be investigated and used as a metadata model for ioT applications.
✓ An RDFM browser is a piece of technology that enables you to browse RDF
data sources by way of data link traversal. The key difference between this
approach and traditional browsing is that data links are typed whereas
traditional links are notty ped. There are a number of RDF browsers including
Tabulator, DISCO(Hyperdata Browser), and Open Link RDF Browser.
✓ SOAP and RESTful protocol frameworks are extensions on top of HTTP for
web services .SOAP and REST frameworks can be used to provide data
exchange protocols for IoT applications.
✓ E- commerce comprises the B2B, business- to- consumer (B2C), and
consumer-to- consumer (C2C) business models, which describe who the target
buyer market the target seller market are.
✓ B2B application integration bridged the gap between legacy IT infrastructures
and emerging B2B collaboration frameworks and allows the IT infrastructure to
provide greater adaptability to the business of the enterprise and easier
management of constantly evolving business processes.
There are two important enabling technologies: electronic data interchange(EDI)
and XML.
✓ EDI describes the rigorously standardized format of electronic documents.EDI
can be transmitted using any methodology agreed to by the sender andrecipient.
This includes a variety of technologies, including modem (asynchronousand
synchronous), FTP, e- mail, HTTP, AS1, AS2, and so forth.
✓ XML is a markup language used to create smart data and documents for
applications. A newer standard such as ebXML incorporates as part of its design
solution some borrowed ideas from both EDI and XML. It offers businesses the
opportunity to build an interoperable e- commerce infrastructure. In a computer
system, ebXML specifies the business rules for how two different systems talk
to each other.To model B2B business processes, an abstract computer-
modeling language such as
✓ UML or the XML language–specific business process modeling
language(BPML) is used.
✓ BPML is an XML- based meta- language for modeling, deploying, and
managing business processes such as order management, customer care,
demand planning, product development, and strategic outsourcing.
✓ XML or ebXML coexists with the popular web formatting

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languageHTML.HTML tells us how the data should look, but XML tells us
what it means.
✓ The key issue of IoT applications is also about integration and interoperability,
so the HTML/ ebXML approaches still apply and new HTML- based, ebXML-
like standards should be the solution for the Internet of Missed Things and the
focus of IoT data representation standards for ioT applications.
There are a few specifications for the WoT data format:
• CBRN, format for Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear data
• CAP, Common Alerting Protocol
• EXDL, Emergency Data Exchange Language of OASIS
• FDT, Field Device Tool
• IRIG, Inter- Range Instrumentation Group
• PML, Physical Markup Language

✓ There are many efforts to create a unified, cross- segment data

representation standard for ioT. Due to domain knowledge differences, this
is a great technological challenge or even mission impossible.
✓ Even within a pillar segment, it’s not an easy task to create a unified data
standard

7 PROTOCOLS
✓ IEEE802.15.4
✓ BACNET PROTOCOL
✓ MODBUS
✓ KNX
✓ ZIGBEE

1. IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4 is a low-cost, low-data-rate wireless access technology for
devices that are operated or work on batteries. This describes how low-rate
wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs) function. IEEE 802.15.4e for
industrial applications and 802.15.4g for the smart utility networks (SUN) The
802.15.4e improves the old standard by introducing mechanisms such as time
slotted access, multichannel communication and channel hopping.

IEEE 802.15.4e introduces the following general functional enhancements:

1. Low Energy (LE): This mechanism is intended for applications that can trade
latency for energy efficiency. It allows a node to operate with a very low duty
cycle.
2. Information Elements (IE) It is an extensible mechanism to exchange
information at the MAC sub layer.
3. Enhanced Beacons (EB): Enhanced Beacons are an extension of the 802.15.4
beacon frames and provide a greater flexibility. They allow to create application-
specific frames.

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4. Multipurpose Frame: This mechanism provides a flexible frame format that can
address a number of MAC operations. It is based on IEs.

5. MAC Performance Metric: It is a mechanism to provide appropriate feedback

on the channel quality to the networking and upper layers, so that appropriate
decision can be taken.

6. Fast Association (FastA) The 802.15.4 association procedure introduces a

significant delay in order to save energy. For time-critical application latency has
priority over energy efficiency.

IEEE 802.15.4e defines five new MAC behavior modes.

1. Time Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH): It targets application domains such as
industrial automation and process control, providing support for multi-hop and
multichannel communications, through a TDMA approach.

2. Deterministic and Synchronous Multi-channel Extension (DSME): It is aimed to

support both industrial and commercial applications.

3. Low Latency Deterministic Network (LLDN): Designed for single-hop and

single channel networks

4. Radio Frequency Identification Blink (BLINK): It is intended for application

domains such as item/people identification, location and tracking.

5. Asynchronous multi-channel adaptation (AMCA): It is targeted to application

domains where large deployments are required, such as smart utility networks,
infrastructure monitoring networks, and process control networks.
Advantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

✓ cheap cost
✓ long battery life,
✓ Quick installation
✓ simple
✓ extensible protocol stack

Disadvantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

✓ IEEE 802.15.4 causes interference and multipath fading.
✓ doesn’t employ a frequency-hopping approach.
✓ unbounded latency
✓ interference susceptibility

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Applications of IEEE 802.15.4:

✓ Wireless sensor networks in the industry

✓ Building and home automation
✓ Remote controllers and interacting toys
✓ Automotive networks

2. BACNET PROTOCOL

What is BACnet Protocol?

A data communication protocol that is used to build an automated control
network, is known as BACnet or Building Automation Control Network. This data
communication protocol is both an ISO & ANSI standard used for interoperability
between cooperating building automation devices. Bacnet Protocol includes a set of
rules for governing the data exchange on a computer network that simply covers all
from what type of cable to utilize, to form a particular command or request in a
normal way.

Why is Bacnet Protocol required?

The BACnet protocol’s importance is to define typical techniques that
manufacturers can execute to build components as well as systems that are
interoperable through other components & systems of BACnet. It also specifies
how data is signified on the network as well as the services that are utilized to
transmit data from one node of BACnet to another node. It also has messages that
recognize network & data nodes.
Bacnet Protocol Architecture
The BACnet protocol architecture is predominately restricted to lighting controls,
HVAC & gateways. This protocol highlights lightweight and efficient
communication which is optimized for short messages, small networks, and inter-
networks.

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BACnet protocol architecture is a collapsed architecture that matches to 4-layers of

the OSI model. The four layers in the BACnet architecture mainly include Application,
Network, Data Link & Physical. Even though, just the Network layer & Application layer are
simply BACnet. The above architecture is the BACnet protocol stack which includes
different layers as shown in the diagram. This protocol is a collapsed version of the OSI
stack. The transport and session layers are not used. The application layer takes on the
functions of these two layers.

BACnet Physical Layer

The upper layers of BACnet do not depend on the physical layer. So the Physical
layer of BACnet makes it feasible for BACnet to be executed on different networks. The
physical layers of BACnet have been specified with ARCNET, Ethernet, IP tunnels,
BACnet/IP, RS-232, RS485, and Lonworks/LonTalk. RS232 is for point-to-point
communication. RS485 supports up to 32 nodes with a distance of 1200 m at 76Kbps.

BACnet Protocol Link Layer

BACnet protocol is implemented directly with LonTalk or IEEE802.2 link layers. So

it specifies Point to Point (PTP) data link layer for RS232 connections. It specifies MS/TP
data link layer intended for RS-485 connections. The standard simply specifies BVLL
(BACnet Virtual Link Layer) which states all the services required through the BACnet
device at this link layer. IP BACnet Virtual Link Layer encapsulates required control data in
a header of BACnet virtual link control information. Because of IP, BVLL, and BACnet
protocol devices can directly communicate over IP networks without the requirement of any
router device.

BACnet Network Layer

This layer simply specifies the required addresses of the network for routing. BACnet
network includes a minimum of one or above segments that are connected with bridges once
they utilize similar LAN technologies. If they utilize various LAN protocols then they are
connected through routers.

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Application Layer

BACnet does not separate presentation as well as application layers. So it takes care
of reliability & sequencing or segmentation mechanisms generally connected with both the
session & transport layers. BACnet includes devices like objects to exchange service
primitives which are described with ASN.1 syntax & serialized with ASN.1 BER.

BACnet Security Layer

The concept of BACnet security can be understood easily with an example say when
BACnet device-A requests a session key from the key server for establishing secure
communication through device-B, then this key is transmitted to both the device-A & device-
B through the key server which is known as ‘SKab’. BACnet protocol uses 56-bit DES
encryption.

3. Modbus PROTOCOL

What is Modbus?

Modbus is a serial communication protocol for use with programmable logic controllers.
It is typically used to transmit signals from instrumentation and control devices back to a
main controller; or data gathering system, for example a system that measures temperature
and humidity and communicates the results to a computer, according to Simply Modbus.

How does it work, and why use it for IoT?

The method is used for transmitting information over serial lines between electronic
devices. The device requesting information is called “master” and “slaves” are the devices
supplying information. In a standard Modbus network, there is one master and up to 247
slaves, each with a unique slave address from 1 to 247.

communication between a master and a slave occurs in a frame that indicates a

function code. The function code identifies the action to perform, such as read a discrete
input; read a first-in, first-out queue; or perform a diagnostic function. The slave then
responds, based on the function code received, with a response indicated by a set of bytes.
Slaves can therefore be intelligent devices or simple devices that represent a single sensor.

Because of this operation, systems based on the protocol are critical parts of the
industrial “internet of things” for automation and control, housing valuable information that
can be unlocked and used by analytics and enterprise systems.

The protocol is commonly used in IoT as a local interface to manage devices. It is an

open protocol that is free for manufacturers to build their equipment into, and is now the most
commonly available means of connecting industrial electronic devices, according to Simply
Modbus.

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BENEFITS OF USING MODBUS

These are some advantages of using Modbus, as outlined by the Modbus Organization:

✓ If a Modbus driver is already installed and the user is familiar with Ethernet and TCP/IP
sockets, a driver can be up and running and talking to a PC in a few hours. Development
costs are said to be low; minimum hardware is required; and development is said to be
easy under any operating system.
✓ There are no “exotic” chipsets required and the system can use standard PC Ethernet cards
to talk to newly implemented device; as the cost of Ethernet falls, there should be a cost
reduction in hardware; and users are not tied to one vendor for support, but can benefit
from current developers.
✓ The specification is available free of charge for download, and there are no subsequent
licensing fees required for using Modbus protocols.
✓ Interoperability among different vendors’ devices and compatibility with an installed base
of compatible devices.

4. KNX:

KNX protocol is an open standard, which means it isn’t proprietary to a single

manufacturer. This is a key element of its concept as it allows devices and components
from different manufacturers to work together seamlessly. This interoperability opens up
a broad range of possibilities for creating custom smart home systems that can
incorporate a variety of devices. At its core, the KNX protocol is designed to offer a
standardized communication method for smart home and building automation devices.

It enables the interaction and coordination between various devices and systems,
ranging from lighting, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, to more complex
systems like security and energy management. One of the fundamental aspects of the
KNX protocol is that it operates on a decentralized model. This means that it doesn’t rely
on a central controller or computer to function. Each component in a KNX network can
operate independently and is capable of communicating directly with any other
component. This design concept provides the system with a high degree of reliability and
robustness. If one device fails, the rest of the system can continue to function without any
interruption.

KNX Decentralization

KNX protocol uses a common language that enables devices to understand each other,
regardless of their specific functions. This means that a lighting system, for instance,
can ‘talk’ to a heating system and coordinate operations to improve energy efficiency.
For example, if the lighting system detects that it’s daylight, it can send a signal to the
heating system to lower the temperature because the sunlight is providing natural
warmth.

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KNX Protocol Specification

Transmission Media: KNX supports different types of transmission media, making it a

versatile protocol for different environments and applications. The transmission media
supported include twisted pair wiring (KNX TP), power line (KNX PL), radio frequency
(KNX RF), and Internet Protocol (KNX IP).

Twisted Pair Wiring (KNX TP): This is the most commonly used form of KNX installation.
It requires a low-rate transmission of data (9600 bit/sec) over a twisted pair of wires.

Power Line (KNX PL): KNX PL uses existing AC electrical wiring for communication,
eliminating the need for separate data cables. It is often used for retrofit applications where it
is difficult to run new cables.

Interoperability: One of the key technical specifications of KNX is itsinteroperability. As an

open standard, KNX-certified products from different manufacturers can work together. This
guarantees that all elements within a KNX system can communicate and interact with each
other seamlessly.

Decentralized Intelligence: Each KNX device possesses its own microcontroller, which
allows it to process information and make decisions independently. This decentralization
enhances the reliability and resilience of the system, ensuring that even if one device fails, the
overall system continues to operate.

Scalability: KNX systems can be scaled from small single-room installations to large
building complexes. This is made possible by the KNX’s topology, which supports line, area,
and backbone structures, as well as a combination of these.

Security: KNX provides a secure framework for home and building automation. Security
measures include cyclic redundancy check (CRC) for error detection, and more recently,
secure authentication and encryption mechanisms have been introduced.

Energy Efficiency: The KNX protocol places a strong emphasis on energy management and
conservation. It allows for intelligent control of lighting, heating, cooling, and other systems
to minimize energy usage.

KNX IP Protocol

KNX IP Protocol is an extension of the KNX standard that allows KNX telegrams to be
communicated over IP networks such as Ethernet, WiFi, or the Internet. It provides a bridge
between traditional KNX bus systems and IP-based networks, enhancing the flexibility,
scalability, and remote accessibility of smart home and building automation systems.

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5. ZIGBEE:

ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4. It is a
technology of home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling
and sensing the network. As we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area Network of task
group 4 so it is based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.

ZigBee is an open, global, packet-based protocol designed to provide an easy-to-use

architecture for secure, reliable, low power wireless networks. Flow or process control
equipment can be place anywhere and still communicate with the rest of the system. It can
also be moved, since the network doesn’t care about the physical location of a sensor, pump
or valve. IEEE802.15.4 developed the PHY and MAC layer whereas, the ZigBee takes care
of upper higher layers.

ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation of Low
power devices with Low data rates for short-range wireless communications. IEEE 802.15.4
supports star and peer-to-peer topologies. The ZigBee specification supports star and two
kinds of peer-to-peer topologies, mesh and cluster tree. ZigBee-compliant devices are
sometimes specified as supporting point-to-point and point-to-multipoint topologies.

Types of ZigBee Devices:

✓ Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used for
connecting the devices.
✓ Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
✓ Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:

✓ Low Power Consumption

✓ Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
✓ Short-Range (75-100 meters)
✓ Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
✓ Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240 devices
(Practically))
✓ Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source Protocol)
✓ Extremely low-duty cycle.

Features of Zigbee:

1. Stochastic addressing: A device is assigned a random address and announced.

Mechanism for address conflict resolution. Parents node don’t need to maintain
assigned address table.

2. Link Management: Each node maintains quality of links to neighbors. Link quality is
used as link cost in routing.

3. Frequency Agility: Nodes experience interference report to channel manager, which

then selects another channel

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4. Asymmetric Link: Each node has different transmit power and sensitivity. Paths may
be asymmetric.

5. Power Management: Routers and Coordinators use main power. End Devices use
batteries.

Advantages of Zigbee:

✓ Designed for low power consumption.

✓ Provides network security and application support services operating on the top of
IEEE.
✓ Zigbee makes possible completely networks homes where all devices are able to
communicate and be
✓ Use in smart home
✓ Easy implementation
✓ Adequate security features.
✓ Low cost: Zigbee chips and modules are relatively inexpensive, which makes it a
cost-effective solution for IoT applications.
✓ Mesh networking: Zigbee uses a mesh network topology, which allows for devices to
communicate with each other without the need for a central hub or router. This
makes it ideal for use in smart home applications where devices need to
communicate with each other and with a central control hub.
✓ Reliability: Zigbee protocol is designed to be highly reliable, with robust
mechanisms in place to ensure that data is delivered reliably even in adverse
conditions.

Disadvantages of Zigbee :

✓ Limited range: Zigbee has a relatively short range compared to other wireless
communications protocols, which can make it less suitable for certain types of
applications or for use in large buildings.
✓ Limited data rate: Zigbee is designed for low-data-rate applications, which can make
it less suitable for applications that require high-speed data transfer.
✓ Interoperability: Zigbee is not as widely adopted as other IoT protocols, which can
make it difficult to find devices that are compatible with each other.
✓ Security: Zigbee’s security features are not as robust as other IoT protocols, making it
more vulnerable to hacking and other security threats.
✓ Zigbee Network Topologies:
✓ Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a coordinator and several end
devices, end devices communicate only with the coordinator.
✓ Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology consists of one coordinator,
several routers, and end devices.
✓ Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists of a central node which is a
coordinator, several routers, and end devices. the function of the router is to extend
the network coverage.

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8 IOT NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS

The network layer is divided into two sub layers: routing layer which handles the transfer of
packets from source to destination, and an encapsulation layer that forms the packets.

RPL PROTOCOL

RPL stands for Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network. It is a distance-
vector protocol that supports a varity of Data Link Protocols. RPL builds a Destination
Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) which has only one route from each leaf node
to the root. All the traffic in this DODAG is routed through the root. Initially, each node
sends a DODAG Information Object (DIO) announcing them self as a root. This information
travels in the network, and complete DODAG is gradually built. When a new node wants to
join the network, it sends a DODAG Information Solicitation (DIS) request and root responds
back with a DAO Acknowledgment (DAO-ACK) confirming the join.

CORPL PROTOCOL

CORPL protocol is the extension of the RPL protocol, which is termed as cognitive
RPL. This network protocol is designed for cognitive networks and uses DODAG topology.
CORPL protocol makes two new modifications in the RPL protocol. It uses opportunistic
forwarding to forward a packet between the nodes. Each node of CORPL protocol keeps the
information of forwarding set rather than parents only maintaining it. Each node updates its
changes to its neighbor using DIO messages. On the basis of this updated message, each node
frequently updates its neighbor for constant forwarder set.

CARP PROTOCOL

CARP (Channel-Aware Routing Protocol) is a distributed routing protocol. It is

designed for underwater communication. It has lightweight packets so that it can be used for
Internet of Things (IoT). It performs two different functionalities: network initialization and
data forwarding. CARP protocol does not support previously collected data. Hence, it is not
beneficial for those IoT or other application where data is changed frequently. The
upgradation of CARP is done in E-CARP which overcomes the limitation of CARP. The E-
CARP allows the sink node to save previously received sensory data.

6LOWPAN

The 6LoWPAN protocol refers to IPv6 Low Power Personal Area Network which
uses a lightweight IP-based communication to travel over low data rate networks. It has
limited processing ability to transfer information wirelessly using an internet protocol. So, it
is mainly used for home and building automation. The 6LoWPAN protocol operates only
within the 2.4 GHz frequency range with 250 kbps transfer rate. It has a maximum length of
128-bit header packets.

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6LOWPAN SECURITY MEASURE

Security is a major issue for 6LowPAN communication Protocol. There are several
attacks issues at the security level of 6LoWPAN which aim is to direct destruction of the
network. Since it is the combination of two systems, so, there is a possibility of attack from
two sides that targets all the layer of the 6LoWPAN stack (Physical layer, Data link layer,
Adaptation layer, Network layer, Transport layer, Application layer).

Properties of 6LowPAN protocol

o Standard: RFC6282
o Frequency: Used over a variety of other networking media including Bluetooth
Smart (2.4GHz) or Zigbee or low-power RF (sub-1GHz)
o Range: NA
o Data Rates: NA

9.APS LAYER(APPLICATION SUPPORT LAYER)

The application layer is present at the top of the OSI model. It is the layer through which
users interact. It provides services to the user. Application layer performs several kinds of
functions which are requirement in any kind of application or communication process.

Application Layer Protocol in Computer Network

1. TELNET

Telnet stands for the TELetype NETwork. It helps in terminal emulation. It allows Telnet
clients to access the resources of the Telnet server. It is used for managing files on the
internet. It is used for the initial setup of devices like switches. The telnet command is a
command that uses the Telnet protocol to communicate with a remote device or system.

Command

telnet [\\RemoteServer]

\\RemoteServer

: Specifies the name of the server to which you want to connect

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2. FTP

FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is the protocol that actually lets us transfer files. It
can facilitate this between any two machines using it. But FTP is not just a protocol but it is
also a program.FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computers with reliable and efficient
data transfer. The Port number for FTP is 20 for data and 21 for control.

Command :ftp machine name

3. TFTP

The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is the stripped-down, stock version of FTP,
but it’s the protocol of choice if you know exactly what you want and where to find it. It’s a
technology for transferring files between network devices and is a simplified version of FTP.
The Port number for TFTP is 69.

Command :tftp [ options... ] [host [port]] [-c command]

4. NFS

It stands for a Network File System. It allows remote hosts to mount file systems over a
network and interact with those file systems as though they are mounted locally. This enables
system administrators to consolidate resources onto centralized servers on the network. The
Port number for NFS is 2049.

Command :service nfs start

5. SMTP

It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a part of the TCP/IP protocol. Using a
process called “store and forward,” SMTP moves your email on and across networks. It
works closely with something called the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to send your
communication to the right computer and email inbox. The Port number for SMTP is 25.

Command :MAIL FROM:<[email protected]?

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6. LPD

It stands for Line Printer Daemon. It is designed for printer sharing. It is the part that receives
and processes the request. A “daemon” is a server or agent. The Port number for LPD is 515.

Command

lpd [ -d ] [ -l ] [ -D Debug Output File]

7. X window

It defines a protocol for the writing of graphical user interface–based client/server

applications. The idea is to allow a program, called a client, to run on one computer. It is
primarily used in networks of interconnected mainframes. Port number for X window starts
from 6000 and increases by 1 for each server.

Command

Run xdm in runlevel 5

8. SNMP

It stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It gathers data by polling the devices on
the network from a management station at fixed or random intervals, requiring them to
disclose certain information. It is a way that servers can share information about their current
state, and also a channel through which an administrate can modify pre-defined values. The
Port number of SNMP is 161(TCP) and 162(UDP).

Command

snmpget -mALL -v1 -cpublic snmp_agent_Ip_address sysName.0

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9. DNS

It stands for Domain Name System. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS
service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain
name www.abc.com might translate to 198.105.232.4.

The Port number for DNS is 53.

Command

ipconfig /flushdns

10. DHCP

It stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). It gives IP addresses to hosts.
There is a lot of information a DHCP server can provide to a host when the host is registering
for an IP address with the DHCP server. Port number for DHCP is 67, 68.

Command

clear ip dhcp binding {address | * }

11. HTTP/HTTPS

HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol and HTTPS is the more secured version of
HTTP, that’s why HTTPS stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. This protocol is
used to access data from the World Wide Web. The Hypertext is the well-organized
documentation system that is used to link pages in the text document. HTTP is based on the
client-server model. It uses TCP for establishing connections. HTTP is a stateless protocol,
which means the server doesn’t maintain any information about the previous request from the
client. HTTP uses port number 80 for establishing the connection.

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UNIT III- IOT PHYSICAL DEVICES AND ENDPOINTS

Introduction to Arduino and Raspberry Pi- Installation, Interfaces (serial, SPI, I2C),
Programming – Python program with Raspberry PI with focus on interfacing
external gadgets, controlling output, and reading input from pins.

Introduction to Arduino :

✓ Arduino is a software as well as hardware platform that helps in making electronic

projects.
✓ It is an open source platform and has a variety of controllers and microprocessors.
✓ There are various types of Arduino boards used for various purposes.
✓ The Arduino is a single circuit board, which consists of different interfaces or parts.
✓ The board consists of the set of digital and analog pins that are used to connect various
devices
✓ and components, which we want to use for the functioning of the electronic devices.
✓ Most of the Arduino consists of 14 digital I/O pins.
✓ The analog pins in Arduino are mostly useful for fine-grained control.
✓ The pins in the Arduino board are arranged in a specific pattern.
✓ The other devices on the Arduino board are USB port, small components (voltage
regulator or oscillator), microcontroller, power connector, etc
✓ The requirement to learn Arduino is the basic knowledge of C and C++ programming
language.
✓ A basic understanding of circuits, Microcontrollers, and Electronics is also essential.

FEATURES

The features of Arduino are listed below:

✓ Arduino programming is a simplified version of C++, which makes the learning
process easy.
✓ The Arduino IDE is used to control the functions of boards. It further sends the set of
specifications
✓ to the microcontroller.
✓ Arduino does not need an extra board or piece to load new code.
✓ Arduino can read analog and digital input signals. The hardware and software
platform is easy to use and implement

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MICROCONTROLLER:

The most essential part of the Arduino is the Microcontroller, which

is shown below:

✓ Microcontroller is small and low power computer. Most of the

microcontrollers have a RAM (Random Access Memory), CPU (Central
Processing Unit), and a memory storage like other computer systems.
✓ It has very small memory of 2KB (two Kilobytes). Due to less
memory,some microcontrollers are capable of running only one program at
a time.
✓ It is a single chip that includes memory, Input/Output (I/O) peripherals, and
a processor.
✓ The GPIO (General Purpose Input Output) pins present on the chip help us
to control other electronics or circuitry from the program.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AROUND US

✓ We have many electronic devices around us. Most of the appliance consists
of the microcontroller for its functioning. Let's discuss some of the examples.
✓ Microcontroller present in Microwave Oven accepts the user input and
controls the magnet run that generate microwave rays to cook the food and
displays the output timer.
✓ Modern cars also contain dozens of microcontrollers working in tandem (one
after another) to control functions like lighting, radio interface, etc.

ARDUINO KITS
✓ We can easily start with our electronics projects using the complete kit.
✓ It also helps us to create hand-on and engaging project

Some of the popular Arduino kits are listed below:

✓ Arduino Starter kit

✓ Robot Linking UNO kit for learning
✓ Arduino UNO 3 Ultimate starter kit
✓ UNO Super starter kit
✓ Mega 2560 Starter Kit

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ARDUINO BOARDS
There are variety of Arduino board used for different purposes. The board varies in
I/O pins, size, etc. The various components present on the Arduino boards are
Microcontroller, Digital Input/Output pins, USB Interface and Connector, Analog
Pins, Reset Button, Power button, LED's, Crystal Oscillator, and Voltage Regulator.
Some components may differ depending on the type of board.

Let's discuss some of the popular Arduino boards.

✓ Arduino UNO
✓ Arduino Nano
✓ Arduino Mega
✓ Arduino Due
✓ Arduino Bluetooth

SHIELDS
✓ Shields are defined as the hardware device that can be mounted over the board
to increase the capabilities of the projects

The shield is shown below:

✓ The shield together with Arduino can make the projects even smarter and
simpler. For example, Ethernet shields are used to connect the Arduino board
to the Internet.
✓ The shields can be easily attached and detached from the Arduino board. It
does not require any complex wiring.

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The difference between Arduino and Raspberry Pi :-

S Arduino
No. Raspberry Pi

1. In the year 2005, the classrooms of

In the year 2012, Eben Upton first
the Interactive Design Institute in
introduced the Raspberry Pi device in
Ivrea, Italy, first introduced the
February.
Arduino board.

Control unit of the Arduino is from The control unit of Raspberry Pi is from the
2.
the Atmega family. ARM family.

Arduino is based on a While Raspberry Pi is based on a

3.
microcontroller. microprocessor.

4. While Raspberry Pi computes data and

It is designed to control the electrical
produces valuable outputs, and controls
components connected to the circuit
components in a system based on the
board in a system.
outcome of its computation.

Arduino boards have a simple While Raspberry Pi boards have a complex

5.
hardware and software structure. architecture of hardware and software.

6. CPU architecture: 8 bit. CPU architecture: 64 bit.

While Raspberry Pi requires more RAM, 1

7. It uses very little RAM, 2 kB.
GB.

It clocks a processing speed of 16 While Raspberry Pi clocks a processing

8.
MHz. speed of 1.4 GHz.

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Raspberry Pi

What is Raspberry PI?

It is a cheap, credit-card-sized device that uses a daily keyboard and mouse and joins
to a TV or computer monitor. It is a thin weighable computer that let every person of all ages
to discover programming and gain how to programme in variant languages like Python and
Scratch. From exploring the internet and watching high-definition video, word-processing, to
creating spreadsheets, and it can do every possible thing we'd expect a desktop computer to
do and playing sports. Including, the device has the potential to link with the outer world and
has been used in a large variety of communicative developer ventures, including music
machines and infra-red cameras tweeting birdhouses and parent detectors to weather stations.

Because of its low cost, modularity, and open architecture, it is now commonly used
in many fields, such as for weather forecasting.
The Foundation started a new company, called Raspberry Pi Trading, after the let out of the
second form of board, and installed Eben Upton as CEO, with the control of creating
technology. In schools and progressing countries, the Foundation has been dedicated again as
an institutional charity to cheer the instructing of basic computer science..

Raspberry Pi Foundation

A listing institutional charity (registration number 1129409) located in the UK is the

Raspberry Pi Foundation. The target of the Foundation is to emphasis on the education of
adults, and children.The Foundation of Raspberry Pi is an aid based in the United Kingdom
that targets to get the authority of computing and digital development into the hands of
people in the world. The target is to more people can leverage the power of computing and
appearing technology for work, solve and express themselves creatively in order to solve
concerns that really matters.

SD card
We recommend a class 4 or class 10 microSD card of at least 8 GB. People can get a
card which is pre-existed with NOOBS or Raspberry Pi OS to save the time but it's easy to
establish self-card.
Display and connectivity cable Any HDMI/DVI monitor or TV can work as a display for the
Pi. Use a monitor with an HDMI input for the best results; other link types are also available
for older devices.

Keyboard and mouse

Any regular USB keyboard and mouse will work with Raspberry Pi. If already
paired, wireless keyboards and mice can run. For configuration options for keyboard
configurations, see raspi-config.

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Power supply
Pi is represented by a USB Micro or USB Type-C for power supply.
Like Model 4B, 2A at 5V for 3B and 3B+, or 700mA at 5V for the earlier, low-powered Pi
versions, we require good-quality power connection that can facilitate legit 3A at 5V. We
suggest that one must use the real Raspberry Pi power supply that is specifically made for
Raspberry Pi.Low-current power supplies can work for normal, but if it gets too much
supply, it might cause the Pi to restart. For work with the Pi 3 or 4, they are not comfortable

Optional Peripheral

[Model B/B+/2B/3B/3B+/4B only] Ethernet (network) cable for linking our Pi to an

area network or to the internet, an Ethernet cable will be required.
Wireless USB dongle Required only if we require wireless connectivity and operating an
older model without wireless qualities pre-installed.

Audio lead
It can be played by speakers or headphones working with a standard 3.5mm jack. An
audio lead is required without an HDMI cable to produce sound.
An HDMI cable to link to a monitor with speakers, no separate audio lead is needed, so audio
can be worked straight way by the monitor; but if we decide to get the audio worked by other
more speakers, can linked one - it needs layout.

3.2 Installation,
Step 1 − First you must have your Arduino board (you can choose your favorite
board) and a USB cable. In case you use Arduino UNO, Arduino Duemilanove, Nano,
Arduino Mega2560, or Diecimila, you will need a standard USB cable (A plug to B plug), the
kind you would connect to a USB printer as shown in the following image.

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Step 2 − Download Arduino IDE Software.

You can get different versions of Arduino IDE from the Download page on the Arduino
Official
website. You must select your software, which is compatible with your operating system
(Windows, IOS, or Linux). After your file download is complete, unzip the file.

Step 3 − Power up your board.

The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano automatically draw power from
either,the USB connection to the computer or an external power supply. If you are using an
Arduino Diecimila, you have to make sure that the board is configured to draw power from
the USB connection. The power source is selected with a jumper, a small piece of plastic that
fits onto two of the three pins between the USB and power jacks. Check that it is on the two
pins closest to the USB port.Connect the Arduino board to your computer using the USB
cable. The green power LED (labeled PWR) should glow.

Step 4 − Launch Arduino IDE.

After your Arduino IDE software is downloaded, you need to unzip the folder. Inside the
folder,you can find the application icon with an infinity label (application.exe). Double-click
the icon to start the IDE.

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Step 5 − Open your first project.

Once the software starts, you have two options −
Create a new project.
Open an existing project example.
To create a new project, select File → New.

To open an existing project example, select File → Example → Basics → Blink.

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Here, we are selecting just one of the examples with the name Blink. It turns the LED on
and off with some time delay. You can select any other example from the list.
Step 6 − Select your Arduino board.
To avoid any error while uploading your program to the board, you must select the correct
Arduino board name, which matches with the board connected to your computer.
Go to Tools → Board and select your board.

Here, we have selected Arduino Uno board according to our tutorial, but you must selectthe
name matching the board that you are using.

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Step 7 − Select your serial port.

Select the serial device of the Arduino board. Go to Tools → Serial Port menu. This is likely
to
be COM3 or higher (COM1 and COM2 are usually reserved for hardware serial ports). To
find
out, you can disconnect your Arduino board and re-open the menu, the entry that disappears
should be of the Arduino board. Reconnect the board and select that serialport.

Step 8 − Upload the program to your board.

Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board, we must
demonstrate thefunction of each symbol appearing in the Arduino IDE
toolbar

A − Used to check if there is any compilation error.

B − Used to upload a program to the Arduino board.
C − Shortcut used to create a new sketch.
D − Used to directly open one of the example sketch.
E − Used to save your sketch.
F − Serial monitor used to receive serial data from the board and send the serial data to
theboard.Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds; you
will see the RX and TX LEDs on the board, flashing. If the upload is successful, the message
"Done uploading" will appear in the status bar.

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3.3 Interfaces (serial, SPI, I2C),

BASICS OF THE SPI COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL

Communication between electronic devices is like communication between humans.

Both sides need to speak the same language. In electronics, these languages are called
communication protocols. Luckily for us, there are only a few communication protocols we
need to know when building most DIY electronics projects. In this series of articles, we will
discuss the basics of the three most common protocols: Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI),
Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C), and Universal Asynchronous

Receiver/Transmitter (UART) driven communication.

First, we’ll begin with some basic concepts about electronic communication, then
explain in detail how SPI works. In the next article, we’ll discuss UART driven
communication, and in the third article, we’ll dive into I2C.
SPI, I2C, and UART are quite a bit slower than protocols like USB, ethernet, Bluetooth, and
WiFi, but they’re a lot more simple and use less hardware and system resources. SPI, I2C,
and UART are ideal for communication between microcontrollers and between
microcontrollers and sensors where large amounts of high speed data don’t need to be
transferred.
SERIAL VS. PARALLEL COMMUNICATION
Electronic devices talk to each other by sending bits of data through wires physically
connected between devices. A bit is like a letter in a word, except instead of the 26 letters (in
the English alphabet), a bit is binary and can only be a 1 or 0. Bits are transferred from one
device to another by quick changes in voltage. In a system operating at 5 V, a 0 bit
is communicated as a short pulse of 0 V, and a 1 bit is communicated by a short pulse of 5 V.
The bits of data can be transmitted either in parallel or serial form. In parallel
communication, the bits of data are sent all at the same time, each through a separate wire.
The following diagram shows the parallel transmission of the letter “C” in
binary (01000011):

In serial communication, the bits are sent one by one through a single wire. The following
diagram shows the serial transmission of the letter “C” in binary (01000011):

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INTRODUCTION TO SPI COMMUNICATION

SPI is a common communication protocol used by many different devices. For
example, SD card reader modules, RFID card reader modules, and 2.4 GHz wireless
transmitter/receivers all use SPI to communicate with microcontrollers.
One unique benefit of SPI is the fact that data can be transferred without interruption. Any
number of bits can be sent or received in a continuous stream. With I2C and UART, data is
sent in packets, limited to a specific number of bits. Start and stop conditions define the
beginning and end of each packet, so the data is interrupted during transmission.

Devices communicating via SPI are in a master-slave relationship. The master is the
controlling device (usually a microcontroller), while the slave (usually a sensor, display, or
memory chip) takes instruction from the master. The simplest configuration of SPI is a single
master, single slave system, but one master can control more than one slave (more on this
below)

MOSI (Master Output/Slave Input) – Line for the master to send data to the slave.
MISO (Master Input/Slave Output) – Line for the slave to send data to the master.
SCLK (Clock) – Line for the clock signal.
SS/CS (Slave Select/Chip Select) – Line for the master to select which slave to send data to.

*In practice, the number of slaves is limited by the load capacitance of the system, which
reduces the ability of the master to accurately switch between voltage levels.

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HOW SPI WORKS:

THE CLOCK
The clock signal synchronizes the output of data bits from the master to the sampling of bits
by the slave. One bit of data is transferred in each clock cycle, so the speed of data transfer is
determined by the frequency of the clock signal. SPI communication is always initiated by
the master since the master configures and generates the clock signal.
Any communication protocol where devices share a clock signal is known
as synchronous. SPI is a synchronous communication protocol. There are
also asynchronous methods that don’t use a clock signal. For example, in UART
communication, both sides are set to a pre-configured baud rate that dictates the speed and
timing of data transmission.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SPI
There are some advantages and disadvantages to using SPI, and if given the
choice between different communication protocols, you should know when to use SPI
according to the requirements of your project:
ADVANTAGES
✓ No start and stop bits, so the data can be streamed continuously without interruption
✓ No complicated slave addressing system like I2C
✓ Higher data transfer rate than I2C (almost twice as fast)
✓ Separate MISO and MOSI lines, so data can be sent and received at the same time
DISADVANTAGES
✓ Uses four wires (I2C and UARTs use two)
✓ No acknowledgement that the data has been successfully received (I2C has this)
✓ No form of error checking like the parity bit in UART
✓ Only allows for a single master
✓
INTRODUCTION TO I2C COMMUNICATION
I2C combines the best features of SPI and UARTs. With I2C, you can connect
multiple slaves to a single master (like SPI) and you can have multiple masters controlling
single, or multiple slaves. This is really useful when you want to have more than one
microcontroller logging data to a single memory card or displaying text to a single LCD.
Like UART communication, I2C only uses two wires to transmit data between devices:

SDA (Serial Data) – The line for the master and slave to send and receive data.
SCL (Serial Clock) – The line that carries the clock signal.
I2C is a serial communication protocol, so data is transferred bit by bit along a single wire
(the SDA line).
Like SPI, I2C is synchronous, so the output of bits is synchronized to the sampling of bits by
a clock signal shared between the master and the slave. The clock signal is always controlled
by the master.

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HOW I2C WORKS

With I2C, data is transferred in messages. Messages are broken up into frames of
data. Each message has an address frame that contains the binary address of the slave, and
one or more data frames that contain the data being transmitted. The message also
includes start and stop conditions, read/write bits, and ACK/NACK bits between each data
frame:

Start Condition: The SDA line switches from a high voltage level to a low voltage
level before the SCL line switches from high to low.
Stop Condition: The SDA line switches from a low voltage level to a high voltage
level after the SCL line switches from low to high.
Address Frame: A 7 or 10 bit sequence unique to each slave that identifies the slave when
the master wants to talk to it.
Read/Write Bit: A single bit specifying whether the master is sending data to the slave (low
voltage level) or requesting data from it (high voltage level).
ACK/NACK Bit: Each frame in a message is followed by an acknowledge/no-acknowledge
bit. If an address frame or data frame was successfully received, an ACK bit is returned to the
sender from the receiving device.

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ADDRESSING
I2C doesn’t have slave select lines like SPI, so it needs another way to let the slave
know that data is being sent to it, and not another slave. It does this by addressing. The
address frame is always the first frame after the start bit in a new message.
The master sends the address of the slave it wants to communicate with to every slave
connected to it. Each slave then compares the address sent from the master to its own address.
If the address matches, it sends a low voltage ACK bit back to the master. If the address
doesn’t match, the slave does nothing and the SDA line remains high.
READ/WRITE BIT
The address frame includes a single bit at the end that informs the slave whether the
master wants to write data to it or receive data from it. If the master wants to send data to the
slave, the read/write bit is a low voltage level. If the master is requesting data from the slave,
the bit is a high voltage level.
THE DATA FRAME
After the master detects the ACK bit from the slave, the first data frame is ready to be
sent. The data frame is always 8 bits long, and sent with the most significant bit first. Each
data frame is immediately followed by an ACK/NACK bit to verify that the frame has been
received successfully.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF I2C
There is a lot to I2C that might make it sound complicated compared to other
protocols, but there are some good reasons why you may or may not want to use I2C to
connect to a particular device:
ADVANTAGES
✓ Only uses two wires
✓ Supports multiple masters and multiple slaves
✓ ACK/NACK bit gives confirmation that each frame is transferred successfully
✓ Hardware is less complicated than with UARTs
✓ Well known and widely used protocol
DISADVANTAGES
✓ Slower data transfer rate than SPI
✓ The size of the data frame is limited to 8 bits
✓ More complicated hardware needed to implement than SPI
3.4 Programming
Learn Python 3 basics on the Raspberry Pi

Use Thonny IDE

Thonny IDE is a great tool for beginners. Start it, write some Python code, and execute it by
pressing on the “play” button. No need to install Python, configure the version you want to
use, the environment variables, and the package manager.
Thonny IDE just works out of the box. And for a Python beginner, that’s just what you need
to get started quickly.

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Learn Python 3 basics

Now you can start to learn how to code with Python. For this you can follow online tutorials
or courses. Here are the minimum core basics you need to learn:
Variables
Functions
Loops
Lists
And that’s pretty much it to get started strong. With that you certainly don’t have a complete
Python knowledge, but this is enough to write any program you want and get started on your
own projects.
Python modules
One important thing to add to the previous list: learn how to use Python modules, which
means how to:
Install a Python module (you can easily do that from the Thonny IDE, no need to
open a terminal yet).
Import the module in your code.
Use the functionalities from the module.
3.5 Python program with Raspberry PI with focus on interfacing external
gadgets, controlling output, and reading input from pins.

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I2C stands for Inter-Integrated Circuit. It is a bus interface connection protocol incorporated
into devices for serial communication. It was originally designed by Philips Semiconductor in
1982. Recently, it is a widely used protocol for short-distance communication. It is also
known as Two Wired Interface(TWI).

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Working of I2C Communication Protocol :

It uses only 2 bi-directional open-drain lines for data communication called SDA and SCL.
Both these lines are pulled high.
Serial Data (SDA) – Transfer of data takes place through this pin.
Serial Clock (SCL) – It carries the clock signal.
I2C operates in 2 modes –
Master mode
Slave mode
Each data bit transferred on SDA line is synchronized by a high to the low pulse of each
clock on the SCL line.
According to I2C protocols, the data line can not change when the clock line is high, it can
change only when the clock line is low. The 2 lines are open drain, hence a pull-up resistor is
required so that the lines are high since the devices on the I2C bus are active low. The data is
transmitted in the form of packets which comprises 9 bits. The sequence of these bits are –
Start Condition – 1 bit
Slave Address – 8 bit
Acknowledge – 1 bit
Start and Stop Conditions :
START and STOP can be generated by keeping the SCL line high and changing the level of
SDA. To generate START condition the SDA is changed from high to low while keeping the
SCL high. To generate STOP condition SDA goes from low to high while keeping the SCL
high, as shown in the figure below.

Start and Stop Condition

Repeated Start Condition :
Between each start and stop condition pair, the bus is considered as busy and no master can
take control of the bus. If the master tries to initiate a new transfer and does not want to
release the bus before starting the new transfer, it issues a new START condition. It is called
a REPEATED START condition.

Read/Write Bit :
A high Read/Write bit indicates that the master is sending the data to the slave, whereas a low
Read/Write bit indicates that the master is receiving data from the slave.

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ACK/NACK Bit :
After every data frame, follows an ACK/NACK bit. If the data frame is received successfully
then ACK bit is sent to the sender by the receiver.

Addressing :
The address frame is the first frame after the start bit. The address of the slave with which the
master wants to communicate is sent by the master to every slave connected with it. The
slave then compares its own address with this address and sends ACK.

I2C Packet Format :

In the I2C communication protocol, the data is transmitted in the form of packets. These
packets are 9 bits long, out of which the first 8 bits are put in SDA line and the 9th bit is
reserved for ACK/NACK i.e. Acknowledge or Not Acknowledge by the receiver.
START condition plus address packet plus one more data packet plus STOP condition
collectively form a complete Data transfer.
Features of I2C Communication Protocol :
Half-duplex Communication Protocol –
Bi-directional communication is possible but not simultaneously.
Synchronous Communication –
The data is transferred in the form of frames or blocks.
Can be configured in a multi-master configuration.
Clock Stretching –
The clock is stretched when the slave device is not ready to accept more data by holding the
SCL line low, hence disabling the master to raise the clock line. Master will not be able to
raise the clock line because the wires are AND wired and wait until the slave releases the
SCL line to show it is ready to transfer next bit.
Arbitration –
I2C protocol supports multi-master bus system but more than one bus can not be used
simultaneously. The SDA and SCL are monitored by the masters. If the SDA is found high
when it was supposed to be low it will be inferred that another master is active and hence it
stops the transfer of data.
Serial transmission –
I2C uses serial transmission for transmission of data.
Used for low-speed communication.

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Advantages :
Can be configured in multi-master mode.
Complexity is reduced because it uses only 2 bi-directional lines (unlike SPI
Communication).
Cost-efficient.
It uses ACK/NACK feature due to which it has improved error handling capabilities.

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INTERNET OF THINGS PRIVACY, SECURITY AND

UNIT IV GOVERNANCE

Introduction, Overview of Governance, Privacy and Security Issues, Contribution from FP7
Projects, Security, Privacy and Trust in IoT-Data-Platforms for Smart Cities, First Steps
Towards a Secure Platform, Smartie Approach. Data Aggregation for the IoT in Smart Cities,
Security

1. Introduction, Overview of Governance, Privacy and Security Issues

Privacy is the right to control how your information is viewed and used, while
security is protection against threats or danger. In the digital world, security generally refers
to the unauthorized access of data, often involving protection against hackers or cyber
criminals. Internet of Things privacy is the special considerations required to protect the
information of individuals from exposure in the IoT environment, in which almost any
physical or logical entity or object can be given a unique identifier and the ability to
communicate autonomously over the Internet or similar network.

Why privacy and security is important in IoT?

The more devices are connected to the internet, the more attractive the data becomes
for cybercriminals (through ransom ware, for example). This is why it is crucial to protect
IoT devices so as not to fall victim to cybercrime.

How will IoT affect security and privacy?

Too Much Data: The sheer amount of data that IoT devices can generate is staggering. A
Federal Trade Commission report entitled “Internet of Things: Privacy & Security in a
Connected World” found that fewer than 10,000 households can generate 150 million
discretedatapoints every day.IoT security and privacy c
oncerns
Although IoT is rapidly growing, it still faces security and privacy issues:

Security Risks
1.IoT devices are connected to your desktop or laptop. Lack of security increases the risk of
your personal information leaking while the data is collected and transmitted to the IoT
device.

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2.IoT devices are connected with a consumer network. This network is also connected with
other systems. So if the IoT device contains any security vulnerabilities, it can be harmful to
the consumer’s network. This vulnerability can attack other systems and damage them.
3.Sometimes unauthorized people might exploit the security vulnerabilities to create risks to
physical safety.

Privacy Risks
1.In IoT, devices are interconnected with various hardware and software, so there are obvious
chances of sensitive information leaking through unauthorized manipulation.
2.All the devices are transmitting the user’s personal information such as name, address, date
of birth, health card information, credit card detail and much more without encryption.
3.Though there are security and privacy concerns with IoT, it adds values to our lives by

allowing us to manage our daily routine tasks remotely and automatically, and more

importantly, it is a game-changer for industries.

IoT applications across industries

Various companies now help businesses use IoT to solve long-standing, industry-

specific challenges. They develop IoT solutions that connect things, collect data and derive

insights with open and scalable solutions that reduce costs, improve productivity and increase

revenue. Let’s see the industry categories, that are using IoT solutions in the figure below:

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IoT Security Issues

Public Perception: If the IoT is ever going to truly take off, this needs to be the first problem

that manufacturers address. In 2015 control State of the Smart Home study found that 44% of
all Americans were “very concerned” about the possibility of their information getting stolen

from their smart home, and 27% were “somewhat concerned.” With that level of worry,

consumers would hesitate to purchase connected devices.

Vulnerability to Hacking: Researchers have been able to hack into real, on-the-market

devices with enough time and energy, which means hackers would likely be able to replicate

their efforts. For example, a team of researchers at Microsoft and the University of Michigan

found a plethora of holes in the security of Samsung’s Smart Things smart home platform, and
the methods were far from complex.

IoT Privacy Issues

Too Much Data: The sheer amount of data that IoT devices can generate is staggering. A

Federal Trade Commission report entitled “Internet of Things: Privacy & Security in a

Connected World” found that fewer than 10,000 households can generate 150 million discrete

data points every day. This creates more entry points for hackers and leaves sensitive

information vulnerable.

Unwanted Public Profile: You’ve undoubtedly agreed to terms of service at some point, but
have you ever actually read through an entire document? The aforementioned FTC report

found that companies could use collected data that consumers willingly offer to make

employment decisions. For example, an insurance company might gather information from
you about your driving habits through a connected car when calculating your insurance rate.

The same could occur for health or life insurance thanks to fitness trackers.

Eavesdropping: Manufacturers or hackers could actually use a connected device to virtually

invade a person’s home. German researchers accomplished this by intercepting unencrypted

data from a smart meter device to determine what television show someone was watching at

that moment.
Consumer Confidence: Each of these problems could put a dent in consumers’ desire to

purchase connected products, which would prevent the IoT from fulfilling its true potential.

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Security Issues in IoT

With a clear impression of the significance of security and privacy in IoT, it is
important to find out the issues. Businesses could reap credible benefits from the capabilities
of the Internet of Things (IoT). However, the threats to security could present notable
setbacks for the effective adoption of IoT-enabled solutions. On the other hand, a clear
impression of the IoT security issues could help in developing suitable strategies for
mitigation. Let us take a look at some of the notable issues for security in IoT.

Inadequate Password Protection

Hard-coded and embedded credentials in IoT devices provide an easy target for
hackers to compromise the devices directly. Default passwords may enable hackers to enter
the machine without any obstacles. One of the examples of such an attack refers to the Mirai
malware, which infected IoT devices such as routers, video recorders, and video cameras.
The Mirai malware was successful in logging in by using 61 general hard-coded usernames
and passwords.

Subsequently, the malware brought almost 400,000 connected devices in its control
and resulted in the world’s first 1Tbps DDoS attack. The Distributed Denial of Service of
DDoS attack affects some parts of Amazon Web Services and its clients such as Twitter,
Netflix, Airbnb, and GitHub. Now in 2021, a Mirai-type malware, known as Mozi, is the
most active botnet.

Limited Compliance from IoT Manufacturers

Another important factor affecting the security factor in privacy and security in
IoT refers to the lack of compliance from IoT manufacturers. Many fitness trackers with
Bluetooth generally remain visible after pairing. Your refrigerator could give out your Gmail
login credentials.

As manufacturers continue the development of devices with limited security, the concerns
of security in IoT would definitely witness an upward turn. IoT device manufacturers have
started introducing internet connectivity in their devices without paying attention to the
‘security’ aspect in the product designing process. Some of the notable security risks for IoT
which are due to manufacturers include,
1. Hardware issues
2. Lack of security in data transfer and storage
3. Hard-coded, weak, or guessable usernames and passwords

Device Update Management

The concerns of security and privacy in IoT could also refer to security issues due to
device update management. Insecure firmware or software could generally lead to IoT
security risks. Even if a manufacturer offers a device with the most recent software update,
you will encounter new vulnerabilities.

Therefore, updates are highly important for ensuring security on IoT devices, which
should be updated immediately after the discovery of new vulnerabilities. The use of IoT
devices without necessary updates could escalate the threats to their security. In addition,
update management can be risky due to the fact that devices will send backups to the cloud.

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Without appropriate encryption for the connection and protection for updated files, any
malicious agent could access sensitive information.
Lack of Secure Interfaces
The answers to ‘Why security is important in IoT?’ become clear with the security
issues due to insecure interfaces. All IoT devices are involved in the processing and
communication of data. The IoT devices need apps, protocols, and services for
communication, and the insecure interfaces are responsible for various IoT vulnerabilities.

You can find insecure interfaces in web, API, cloud, mobile, and application interfaces with
possibilities for compromising the device and data. The most common concern of security in
IoT interface is the lack of device authorization and authentication mechanism and weak or
no encryption mechanism.

Block chain technology undoubtedly has many benefits, especially cryptographic security,
albeit with several issues.

Privacy Concerns in IoT

While the challenges to security are quite prevalent in IoT, the concerns of privacy are
also another critical factor. Many people also want to find out ‘What are the privacy concerns
in IoT?’ and the answers could help in improving IoT for large-scale adoption. Let us take a
look at some of the common privacy concerns in IoT which you can find today.

Abundance of Data
The data generated by IoT devices is radically staggering for all the right reasons.
According to the Federal Trade Commission, less than 10,000 households could create almost
150 million discrete data points daily. Therefore, you can clearly notice the increased
possibilities for breaches of privacy in IoT. You have more entry points for hackers while
leaving sensitive information and your IoT devices vulnerable.

Eavesdropping
IoT users would also have to find eavesdropping as one of the ominous answers to
What are the privacy concerns in IoT?’ for specific reasons. Imagine a hacker using one of
your smart home appliances to snoop in your personal life. As a matter of fact, hackers and
even manufacturers could use a connected device to basically invading an individual’s home.
For example, researchers have been successful in eavesdropping in IoT by intercepting
unencrypted data from a smart meter device. The unencrypted data helped in identify the
television show an individual was watching at the particular instance of time.

Unwanted Public Exposure

The next and probably the most important entry among privacy issues in IoT would refer to
unwanted public exposure. IoT device manufacturers often have long documentation for
terms of service, and there is barely anyone who reads the document thoroughly. According
to the Federal Trade Commission, manufacturers and enterprises could leverage data offered
willingly by consumers for making employment decisions. For example,
an insurance company could collect information from an individual regarding their driving
habits through a connected car. Similarly, health or life insurance providers could also use
data from fitness trackers for calculating the insurance rates of different individuals.

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Platforms for Smart Cities, First Steps Towards a Secure Platform, Smartie Approach.

Basic components of a secure IoT structural design for smart cities.

✓ Black networks for offering data authentication, data confidentiality, the integration of
data and data privacy;
✓ A trusted third party (TTP) as a regulator for efficient and unidentified routing
through IoT nodes that can become passive up to 90% of the time;

✓ An incorporated registry for a database of such devices as sensors, gateways, nodes,

and their attributes; and

Key management for an external key management system for IoT networks.
The black networks are networks that are responsible for securing all data, including
the meta-data, which accompany each frame or packet in an IoT protocol. One of the
highlights is that this kind of network encrypts the payload and the meta-data inside IoT
protocol link layer communications. Likewise, the meta-data are self-sufficiently able to get
security in the network layer. There are several encryption options, such as using Grain128a
or AES in various modes (the EAX or OFB modes). By use of a shared secret, the resultant
compatible frame permits the intended receiver to receive the message in the approved
manner and decode the message.
This type of network is highly useful in defending both passive and active attacks. It
is able to offer privacy, integrity, and confidentiality in IoT networks due to the authenticated
and secured communications. This kind of secure communication is applicable to both the

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link layer and the network layer. One issue is that encrypting the header produces routing
issues for IoT nodes, especially those that are in the passive mode most of the time.
The sample components of a secure IoT structural design for smart cities with their offered
security services are shown in Table 1.

IoT-based smart city security

Security Security services
component
Black networks Confidentiality, integrity, privacy
TrustedSDN
Secure routing (black packets). Availability
regulator
Identity management, node authentication, authorization,
United registry
accounting, availability and mobility
Key management External key management

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Data Aggregation for the IoT in Smart Cities, Security.

data aggregation is the primary process of IoT The purpose of data aggregation
mechanisms on IoT is to achieve high QoS, including low data transmission delay, high
reliability, minimum energy consumption, and considering the data's priority.

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UNIT V IOT APPLICATIONS

IoT applications for industry: Future Factory Concepts, Brownfield IoT, Smart
Objects, Smart Applications. Study of existing IoT platforms /middleware, IoT- A,
Hydra etc.

1 IOT APPLICATIONS FOR INDUSTRY: FUTURE FACTORY

CONCEPTS
IoT (Internet of Things) is an advanced automation and analytics system which exploits
networking, sensing, big data, and artificial intelligence technology to deliver complete
systems for a product or service. These systems allow greater transparency, control, and
performance when applied to any industry or system.
Is a network of devices that allows them to communicate and exchange data with other
smart devices over the Internet. The embedded sensors and software make these material
things “smart”.
IoT enables seamless communication between people and things by connecting everyday
utilities such as home appliances, security systems, kitchen appliances, thermostats, cars,
baby monitors, and more via embedded unique identifiers (UIDs). The connected devices
transmit data over the internet without needing human-to-computer interaction.
IoT allows enterprises to improve decision-making, enhance customer service, and
increase business value. Additionally, cloud platform availability empowers individuals and
businesses to access and scale up infrastructure without managing it.

1.Engineering,industry and Infrastructure

Applications of IoT in these areas include improving production, marketing, service
delivery, and safety. IoT provides a strong means of monitoring various processes; and real
transparency creates greater visibility for improvement opportunities.
In this applications, IoT allows rapid and more action on those opportunities, which include
events like obvious customer needs, nonconforming product, malfunctions in equipment,
problems in the distribution network, and more.
Example: if you runs a manufacturing facility that makes shields for manufacturing
equipment. When regulations change for the composition and function of the shields, the new
appropriate requirements are automatically programmed in production robotics, and
engineers are alerted about their approval of the changes.

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2.Government and Safety

IoT applied to government and safety allows improved law enforcement, defense, city
planning, and economic management. The technology fills in the current gaps, corrects many
current flaws, and expands the reach of these efforts. For example, IoT can help city planners
have a clearer view of the impact of their design, and governments have a better idea of the
local economy.
Example You lives in a small city. She’s heard about a recent spike in crime in her area, and
worries about coming home late at night.
Local law enforcement has been alerted about the new “hot” zone through system flags, and
they’ve increases their presence. Area monitoring devices have detected suspicious behavior,
and law enforcement has investigated these leads to prevent crimes.

3.Home with Office

In our daily lives, IoT provides a personalized experience from the home to the office
to the organizations we frequently do business with. This improves our overall satisfaction,
enhances productivity, and improves our health and safety. For example, IoT can help us
customize our office space to optimize our work.
4.Health and Medicine
IoT pushes us towards our imagined future of medicine which exploits a highly
integrated network of sophisticated medical devices. Today, IoT can dramatically enhance
medical research, devices, care, and emergency care. The integration of all elements provides
more accuracy, more attention to detail, faster reactions to events, and constant improvement
while reducing the typical overhead of medical research and organizations.
5.Media,Marketing&Advertising
In which the system analyzes and responds to the needs and interests of each
customer. This includes their general behavior patterns, buying habits, preferences, culture,
and other characteristics.
6.Improved Advertising
Current advertising suffers from excess and poor targeting. IoT promises different and
personalized advertising rather than one-size-fits all strategies. It transforms advertising from
noise to a practical part of life because consumers interact with advertising through IoT rather
than simply receiving it. This makes advertising more functional and useful to people
searching the marketplace for solutions or wondering if those solutions exist.
7.Environmental Monitoring
The applications of IoT in environmental monitoring plays a role of environmental
protection, extreme weather monitoring, water safety, endangered species protection,
commercial farming, and more. In these applications, sensors detect and measure every type
of environmental change

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, Water Air and Pollution Current monitoring technology for air and water safety
primarily uses manual labor along with advanced instruments, and lab processing. IoT
improves on this technology by reducing the need for human labor, allowing frequent
sampling, increasing the range of sampling and monitoring, allowing sophisticated testing on-
site, and binding response efforts to detection systems. This allows us to prevent substantial
contamination and related disasters.
1. Extreme Weather Though powerful, advanced systems currently in use allow deep
monitoring, they suffer from using broad instruments, such as radar and satellites, rather
than more granular solutions. Their instruments for smaller details lack the same accurate
targeting of stronger technology. New IoT advances promise more fine-grained data,
better accuracy, and flexibility. Effective forecasting requires high detail and flexibility in
range, instrument type, and deployment. This allows early detection and early responses
to prevent loss of life and property.

2. Commercial Farming Today's sophisticated commercial farms have exploited advanced

technology and biotechnology for quite some time, however, IoT introduces more access
to deeper automation and analysis. Much of commercial farming, like weather
monitoring, suffers from a lack of precision and requires human labor in the area of
monitoring. Its automation also remains limited. IoT allows operations to remove much of
the human intervention in system function, farming analysis, and monitoring. Systems
detect changes to crops, soil, environment, and more. They optimize standard processes
through analysis of large, rich data collections. They also prevent health hazards (e.g., e.
coli) from happening and allow better control

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8. Manufacturing

It helps the organizations become fully developed for product delivery rather than a
global network of suppliers, makers, and distributors loosely tied together.
Intelligent Product Enhancements Much like IoT in content delivery, IoT in manufacturing
allows richer insight in real-time. This dramatically reduces the time and resources devoted to
this one area, which traditionally requires heavy market research before, during, and well
after the products hit the market. IoT also reduces the risks associated with launching new or
modified products because it provides more reliable and detailed information. The
information comes directly from market use and buyers rather than assorted sources of varied
credibility.
Dyamic Response to Market
Demands Supplying the market requires maintaining a certain balance llacted by a
number of factors such as economy state, sales performance, season, supplier status,
manufacturing facility status, distribution status, and more. The expenses associated with
supply present unique challenges given today's global partners. The associated potential or
real losses can dramatically impact business and future decisions. IoT manages these areas
through ensuring fine details are managed more at the system level rather than through
human evaluations and decisions. An IoT system can better assess and control the supply
chain (with most products), whether demands are high or low.
Lower Costs, Optimized Resource Use, and Waste Reduction
IoT offers a replacement for traditional labor and tools in a production facility and in
the overall chain which cuts many previously unavoidable costs; for example, maintenance
checks or tests traditionally requiring human labor can be performed remotely with
instruments and sensors of an IoT system. IoT also enhances operation analytics to optimize
resource use and labor, and eliminate various types of waste, e.g., energy and materials. It
analyzes the entire process from the source point to its end, not just the process at one point
in a particular facility, which allows improvement to have a more substantial impact. It
essentially reduces waste throughout the network, and returns those savings throughout.
1.Industry: Various IoT devices are employed in industrial environments to monitor the
manufacturing processes and improve productivity. Using IoT-based industrial management
systems has achieved real-time functional parameters, improved throughput, and reduced
organizational costs . Besides, sensors in hazardous environments such as mines and gas
pipelines can collect environmental data, transmit them to the sink, and guarantee employee
safety through real-time warnings
2.Agriculture: IoT devices and smart sensors can automatically switch on/off at specified
times to sense the environmental data in real-time . Indeed, hundreds of sensors are deployed
in a monitoring area as a self-organized and multi-hop network to aggregate environmental
data and deliver them to the cloud computing servers for further analysis and decision-
Besides, IoT-based systems are used to automate the monitoring process of agricultural
environments and control farms and greenhouses remotely

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3.Transportation: Smart transportation systems refer to networks based on the internet of

vehicles . These systems integrate advanced information technology and electronic sensors to
manage traffic, provide travel guides, reduce environmental pollution, improve safety, and
enhance traditional transportation systems
4.Smart buildings: IoT systems integrate digital technologies and network communication
protocols to offer automated building control and security tools .Intelligent management of
the buildings provides comfort, energy savings, reliability, and environmentally friendly
living. In smart buildings, IoT devices can be joined to the system using remote
communication networks or short-range wireless connectivity to allow the users to manage
their home/office remotely. Indeed, IoT devices need to be diverse and scalable so that a
smart building has the characteristics of the traditional buildings and provides efficient
communication between equipment.
5.Healthcare systems: In recent years, IoT has become a smart technology for providing
healthcare services, monitoring the behavior and vital signs of the elderly/patients without
disturbing their daily activities, and improving the quality of surgical procedures. Smart
phones, clocks, bracelets, and other wearables can sense humans' heart rate, blood pressure,
and sleep patterns to analyze their health situation in real-time remotely. Furthermore, IoT-
based robots can offer suggestions for improving users' health behaviors. IoT applications'
significant achievements in smart healthcare systems are patient's comfort, safer surgeries,
improved management of the hospitals, and offering more certain medications.
6.Security: IoT-based security systems are defined as a combination of anti-theft and general
safety tools such as communications security, fire safety, medical aids, and monitoring risk
factors. Security systems monitor the indoor and outdoor environments, collect essential data
and send a warning to the user in emergencies

9.SMART OBJECTS & SMART APPLICATIONS

Smart objects are devices, machines, equipment and products equipped with their
own local intelligence in a form of microprocessors, software, PLCs, sensors, etc. that enable
them to collect data of themselves and their environment.
Smart Objects (also known as Intelligent Objects) are objects that are equipped with
positioning and communication technologies and are integrated into a communication
network, the so called Internet of Things (IoT).
What is Smart Object give an example?
An interconnected network of machines, communication mechanisms, and
computing power, the smart factory is a cyber-physical system that uses advanced
technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning to analyze data, drive
automated processes, and learn as it goes.
What are smart objects examples?
When it comes to individuals, smart objects provide more convenience in everyday
life. They save us time, energy and sometimes money. Examples: connected watch,
connected thermostat, connected light bulbs, smart refrigerator, voice assistant.

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Why are smart objects useful?

Because Smart Objects saves the source image data, you can transform and
manipulate your layer without fear of jeopardizing the image's quality or data. This allows
you to scale, distort, warp, rotate or otherwise transform a layer within your project and keep
the original image data untouched.

A smart application (otherwise known as a smart process application or smart app)

is a type of software that utilizes data in a dynamic way to gather insights and enhance
user experience.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) It provides users with positioning, navigation, and
timing (PNT) services. This system consists of three segments: the space segment, the control
segment, and the user segment.

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10.APPLICATIONS OF IOT

1. Agriculture: The ever-increasing world population drives up the demand for agricultural
products. However, the migration of young people to big cities destabilizes the human
resource required for agricultural development. IoT and related technologies can be
pivotal in automating farming processes and fulfilling food demand.

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2. Consumer Applications: The Internet of Things makes people’s lives easier by

monitoring and managing their lifestyles. There is a massive market for intelligent
electronics, watches, television systems, health tracking, and virtual reality. In addition,
IoT is leading the market with applications such as home security and personal asset
tracking.

3. Healthcare: Wearable IoT devices provide a range of benefits to patients and healthcare
providers alike. By extension, IoT enables healthcare professionals to monitor patients
remotely. The devices can automatically collect patients’ health vitals like blood pressure,
heart rate, temperature, and more.

4. Insurance: IoT is altering traditional business models like insurance. It simplifies and
accelerates the claim and underwriting process. Besides reducing costs, digital
networking via IoT generates additional revenues. Cross-selling and more significant
customer interaction become a strategic component for insurers.

5. Manufacturing: The Internet of Things creates a more technically-driven environment

for manufacturing industries. It can automatically track development cycles, facilitate the
production flow, and manage inventories

6. Retail: IoT devices can collect vital data on a product’s shopping lifecycle. Once this
data is processed and analyzed, retail managers can make valuable decisions to improve
retail operations and the customer experience.

7. Transportation: IoT applications integrate personal and commercial vehicles by

improving communication and information distribution. Besides connecting consumers
and goods, it offers benefits such as route optimization, automobile tracking, weather
monitoring, distance coverage, and more.

8. Utilities/Energy: A grid can have IoT capabilities with intelligent meters, receivers,
sensors, and energy boxes communicating. IoT applications in utilities generate revenue,
improve efficiency, and conserve resources. Utility providers can keep up with the rising
demand by optimizing energy and distribution with the help of IoT.

9. Traffic Monitoring: Intelligent traffic monitoring helps improve decision-making and

achieve urban growth. An IoT-based system collects, processes, and analyzes real-time
traffic data to provide updates on traffic incidents and congestion. In addition, early
warning messages save commute time during peak hours

10. Hospitality: Many hotels allow guests to control air conditioning, heating, or ventilation
from a central location. Television control and greeting devices are also common.
Moreover, Internet of Things devices alert the staff about various appliances’ operating
status. As a result, technicians can fix critical appliances even before any major
functionality loss occurs.

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11. Water Supply: Water scarcity is a reality. IoT applications have a potential solution to
monitor, control, and regulate the quality and usage of water. Besides, it also maintains
associated equipment such as pumps, pipes, etc. Smart water technology connects water
systems with people.

12. Fleet Management: IoT enables predictive fleet maintenance by boosting visibility,
efficiency, and manageability. It helps to monitor cargo better and improves driver
operation. In addition, IoT devices can predict maintenance and help replace parts before
the issue gets too expensive.

13. Smart Pollution Control: IoT devices and attached sensors are stationed at key city
locations. They monitor pollution levels and periodically upload data to the IoT cloud.
The system then processes the information to trigger public actions such as diversions or
road closures.

14. Smart Cities: A smart city has better public utilities, infrastructure, services, and more.
Smart meters allow utility companies to regulate energy flow efficiently, while connected
vehicles make public transit tremendously efficient. In addition, smart grids are coming
up to conserve resources and lower peak hour stress.

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11. STUDY OF EXISTING IOT PLATFORMS /MIDDLEWARE,

IOT-A, HYDRA ETC.

Middleware is software that is used to connect the gap between applications and other
tools or databases. Middleware. connects different, often complex and already existing
programs that were not originally designed to be connected. The essence of the Internet of
Things is making it possible for just about anything (any Thing) to be connected and to
communicate data over a network. Middleware is part of the architecture enabling
connectivity for huge numbers of diverse Things by providing a connectivity layer
for sensors and also for the application layers that provide services that ensure effective
communications among software.

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IoT middleware solution can generally provide the following functionalities:

• Device abstraction, discovery, management, and control: It includes interoperation

among the heterogeneous connected devices/things using different standards.
Application programming interfaces (APIs) are used for abstracting the
communication with the physical layer and also for disseminating data and services to
the different connected backend applications, hiding all details and complexities.
• Data management and dissemination: It provides the different data preprocessing
functionalities, such as filtering, duplicate removal, aggregation.
• Context detection and processing
• Security, privacy, and business rules processing
• Application abstraction

The main layers include device abstraction and resource management layer, which
handle the interoperability and interaction with the heterogeneous devices, and manage the
low-level hardware parameters such as the used protocols, communication technologies,
standards, and air interface; data management layer is responsible for storing and processing
(filtering, aggregation, inference, etc.)

The raw data captured by the different devices/things; event management and context
detection layer include the application of policies and business rules requested by the
applications (e.g., security and privacy rules); and application abstraction layer allows the
communication of applications with the different devices and helps them to get the desired
processed data and generated events from the middleware.

An IoT implementation covers data collection and insertion through sensors as well as
giving control back to devices. The different types of IoT middleware are categorized as:

• Application-centric (application and data management)

• Platform-centric (application enablement, device management and connectivity
management)
• Industry-specific (manufacturing, healthcare, energy and utilities, transportation
and logistics, agriculture, etc)

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• HYDRA it is the most popular and well documented middleware in

Networked Embedded System middleware for Heterogeneous physical devices in a
distributed architecture

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Key open source IoT middleware platforms

Holistically, an IoT implementation covers data collection and insertion through sensors as
well as giving control back to devices. The different types of IoT middleware are categorised
as:

• Application-centric (application and data management)

• Platform-centric (application enablement, device management and connectivity
management)
• Industry-specific (manufacturing, healthcare, energy and utilities, transportation
and logistics, agriculture, etc)

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