THEME 2 GENERAL THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION AND LEARNING. THE CONCEPT

OF “INTERLANGUAGE”. ERROR ANALYSIS AND
TREATMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

No one knows exactly how people learn languages. A great deal of

research has been done into the subject. Certain theories have had a
profound effect upon the practice of language teaching and continue to do
so. We will concentrate on 4 major Theories: Behaviourism, Cognitivism,
The Monitor Model and Constructivism.
The relevance of the unit to the teaching o foreign languages stems
in the fact that theories of language learning exert a notable influence
upon specific methodologies and learning materials. Moreover, we, as
teachers, should incorporate the advantages of each one in our classroom
practice and we can form a principled basis upon which to develop our own
teaching approaches and avoid becoming a slave of changing fashions.
Apart from that, this theme introduces us to errors and provides some
clues as to how we should deal with them.
I’m going to start by analysing the main theories for SLA

2. GENERAL THEORIES OF SLA

2.1. BEHAVIORISM

In an article published in 1920, two psychologists (WATSON and

RAYNOR) reported the result of an experiment they had carried out with a
young baby called "Albert". When he was 9 months, they discovered that
the easiest way to frighten him was to make a loud noise by striking a steal
bar with a hammer. Later on, they frightened Albert in this way while he
was in the presence of various animals: a rat, a dog, a rabbit The result of
this experiment was that after 3 months Albert showed fear when
confronted with animals even when the noise was not made and even showed
unease when a fur coat was put in front of him. The ethics of this
experiment are highly questionable, but Albert's experiences are an early
example of the idea of "conditioning".

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 The idea of conditioning is based on the theory that you can train an
animal to do something if you follow a procedure that has 3 principle stages
(in the classic form of the theory, a rat in placed in a box): stimulus a signal
light is operated. .response: the rat goes up to a bar in the coge and
presses it. .reinforcement. and a food pellet drops (you could also train a
rat not to do anything= negative reinforcement).

In a book called Verbal behaviour, the psychologist SKINNER applied

this theory of conditioning to the way humans acquire language; it is a form
of behaviour in much as the same way as the rat pressing the bar for food.
So, the same model of stimulus-response-reinforcement accounts for
how a human baby learns language:
STIMULUS RESPONSE REINFORCEMENT
Thirsty "water" given it
A stimulus produces a change or response in the individual. The
reinforcement which increases the likelihood of a particular response is
considered to be a positive reinforcement. A reinforcement that decreases
the likelihood of a particular response is known as negative reinforcement.
If no reinforcement is necessary to produce a response the reinforcement
may eventually disappear, this is known as extinction. Our performance as
language users is largely the result of such positive (or negative)
reinforcement.
Behaviourism, which was a psychological theory, was adapted for
some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in America, and
the result was the audio-lingual method: this method used unending drilling
of the students followed by positive or negative reinforcement by the
teacher (mistakes were immediately criticized and correct utterances were
praised).
A great deal of language learning and teaching in the 1950s and
1960s was influenced by the tenets of behaviourism. This theory sees
learning as the formation of habits through a process of repetition and
reinforcement. Because language development is described as the
acquisition of a set of habits, it is assumed that a person learning a second
language starts off with ' the habits associated with the first language.
These habits interfere with those needed for second language speech, and
new habits must be formed.
Due to this emphasis on interference, behaviourism has often been
linked to the "contrastive analysis hypothesis" (CAH), which predicts that
where there are similarities between the two languages the learner will
acquire target language structures with ease; on the other hand the learner
will have difficulty when dealing with differences.

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 However, researchers have found that not all errors predicted by
the CAH are actually made. Furthermore, learners do make many errors
which are not predictable on the basis of the CAH. What is more, most
errors are very similar across learners from a variety of backgrounds. For
all these reasons, the behaviourist account has proven to be a poor
explanation of SLA. Psychologists and language acquisition researchers have
moved on to new, more complex theories of language learning.

2.2 COGNITIVISM

This theory views L2 learning as the acquisition of a complex

cognitive skill. To learn a L2 is a to learn a skill, because various aspects of
the task must be practised and integrated into fluent performance. This
requires the automatisation of component subskills. As performance
improves, there is constant restructuring as learners simplify, unify, and
gain increasing control over their internal representations.
This learning theory is incomplete without a linguistic framework of
some kind. This has led to some cognitive psychologists to seek
collaboration with linguists so that the aspects of language which are
studied will have clearer relevance to the complex phenomenon of SLA.
It is based on Chomsky’s theory of competence and performance, he
published a strong attack upon Skinner’s Verbal Behaviour based on the
following questions: If a language is learnt by behaviour how can children
and adults say things they have never said before? And how can be a new
sentence result of conditioning? According to Chomsky language is not a
form of behaviour but set of finite rules which allow us to create an
unlimited number of sentences in a language. This competence makes it
possible to use language in a creative way and say things never said before.
Cognitive approach theorists support a generative grammar, which is
based on the belief that learning involves mental processes, not simply the
formation of habits. This grammar supports learning with both inductive
and deductive processes

2.3. MONITOR MODEL

In the 1980s, an influential theory of SLA was developed by Stephen

Krashen. Five central hypotheses constitute his "Monitor Model".

2. 3. 1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis:

Krashen maintained that second language learners have at their

disposal two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in a

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second language:

(a) Acquisition, a subconscious process that involves the naturalistic

development of language proficiency through understanding language and
through using language for meaningful communication. Acquisition is not
dependent on the teaching of grammatical rules, since speakers are not
concerned with form but with meaning.
(b) Learning, a conscious process that results in explicit knowledge
about the forms of a language. Formal teaching is necessary for language
learning to occur. One of the central tenets of Krashen' s theory is that
learning cannot lead to acquisition. That is, what is consciously learned does
not become the basis of the acquisition of the target language
Acquiring language is more successful and longer lasting than learning
it. So, second language learners have to be like children acquiring their
mother tongue. He hears and experiences a considerable amount of
language in situations where he is involved in communicating; and his gradual
ability to use the language is the result of many subconscious processes,
based on experiences on which he began to acquire the ability to enter
linguistically into the communication

2.3.2. The Monitor hypothesis

It states that learning can function as a monitor or editor that
checks the output of the acquired system. It uses learnt Knowledge by
acting upon and modifying utterances generated from acquired knowledge.
We may call upon this monitor to correct ourselves when we communicate.
There are three conditions for its use: (1) enough time, (2)focus on form,
not on meaning, (3) the learner must know the rule

2.3.3. The natural order hypothesis

It states that we acquire the rules of language in a predictable
order. Certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired before
others in L1 acquisition of English,a similar sequence is found in L2
acquisition. This "natural" order is presumed to be independent from the
order in which the rules are taught in classes. That is, the rules that are
easiest to state aren’t necessarily the first to be acquired. This order will
be manifest when our pupils are engaged in natural communication tasks
According to Dulay and Burt acqisition of grammar follows this order:
1. Plural(-s) “books” 6. Irregular past “John went”
2. Progressive (-ing) “John going” 7. Regular past “John walked”
3. Copula (be) “John is here 8. Third person singular (-s) “John likes
4. Auxiliary (be,do, have) “John is going” books”

5. Articles “the books” 9. Possesive (‘s) “John’s books”

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 2.3.4. The input hypothesis
People acquire languages by being exposed to "comprehensible input",
i.e. input which is slightly beyond their current level of competence, input
should contain language already known by the students and also language
they have not seen yet. This can be done by using contextual information,
extra-linguistic knowledge and suchlike.

2.3.5. The affective-filter hypothesis

The "affective filter" is an imaginary barrier that prevents learners
from using input which is available in the' environment. "Affect" refers to
such things as motives, needs, attitudes and emotional states. A learner
who is tense, angry, anxious or bored will screen out input, making it
unavailable for acquisition.

On the whole, Krashen’s work has been very influential in

strengthening the recent focus on CL T. However, the Monitor Model-
whose intuitive appeal few teachers and researchers deny- has been
seriously criticised for failing to meet certain minimum standards
necessary in scientific research.

2.4. CONSTRUCTIVISM
It takes elements of both cognitivism and KRASHEN model. It tries
to foster both acquisition and learning, so our pupils can use language to
create learning. Effective learning must be:
• Relevant: new input based on our students' needs.
• Significative: our students can relate the new input with previous
knowledge so as to understand it better
• Comprehensible input: is when the gap between previous knowledge
and new information is bridge by means of social interaction. This
process transforms the input into intake.
Constructivism considers errors as an integral part of the learning
process. It also emphasizes the importance of teaching students learning
to learn strategies, that is, to focus our pupil's attention on how they learn
in addition to what they learn.
Proponents of this view agree with Krashen that comprehensible
input is necessary for language acquisition. However, they are more
concerned with how input is made comprehensible. They see "interactional
modifications" which take place in conversations between native speakers
and non-native speakers as the necessary mechanism for this to take place.
Some examples of interactional modification are comprehension
checks, clarification requests, self-repetition and paraphrase. Moreover,

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this type of speech contains shorter utterances, more imperative
directives, and more simplified vocabulary than interaction between native
speakers. Similar adjustments have also been reported in studies of
"teacher talk" in classroom environments. According to M. Long, modified
interaction promotes acquisition by making input comprehensible

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN FIRST AND ROREIGN LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION

Needless to say, that there are more differences than similarities between the acquisition of
the first and second language learning, being one similarity that the first language learning at school
is similar to second language in the sense that both learning take place in planned settings: schools.
Let' s see now the differences between first and foreign language learning:
1. The most obvious one refers to the setting. The setting of the first language learners is a natural
one (at home, in the street, neighbourhood,...). the chi Id lives in the sociocultural environment in
which the language is spoken, so the simple exposition to it is enough to assimilate it perfectly. On
the contrary, the habitual environment for the second language learners is usually reduced to the
scholar centres, where the foreign language is just one more subject of the educative programme.
This planned setting brings about 5 main differences (STEINBERG, 1982):
• Preselected language which must follow planned curriculum, whereas in first language
learning the language arises naturally depending on the necessities.
• Grammatical rules are present inductively or deductively where as in first language learning
children acquire them unconsciously.
• Unreal limited situations they are limited in scope and variety and they are simulated, not
real as in first language learning.
• Psichological demands. they have to get adapted or adjust to group processes, classroom
discipline and procedures, as well as a decrease on the amount of personal attention
• Educational aids and assignments. They may use books, tapes and work assignments may be
given.
2. Another difference is that motivation is higher in first language learning as it springs form the
need to learn to communicate: while in second language we, teachers must also bear in mind that the
first thing to do before starting our lessons is to motivate our students, to create in them the need
to learn.
3. Another difference has to do with the age of learning. Come linguistics soy that once a person is
mature, the pronunciation of new languages is harder and harder every time. On the other hand the
learning of the mother tongue coincides with the first years of the life of the child in which the
child experiments physical and mental development, which favours the learning of the language. This
is not the case of second language learners: as they have a linguistic system already formed and they
need the acquisition of a new one.
Given such differences we may expect the development of foreign language acquisition to be
different from that of the first language acquisition, being the most influential/determinant one the
natural context where the first language learning takes place.
Let’s bear in mind that second language learning when the learners get immersed in the target
language in the foreign language community is almost as easy as first language learning: both learners
and the language in a natural context and live surrounded by the language itself. As this is not
possible for our students, we must help them, to communicate as much as possible in the target
language creating natural contexts

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3. THE CONCEPT OF “INTERLANGUAGE”

The term "interlanguage" was coined by Selinker in 1969 to refer to

the interim grammars constructed by second-language learners on their
way to the target language. The term won favour over similar constructs,
such as "approximative system" or "transitional competence".
According to interlanguage theory, learners use their cognitive
abilities in a creative way to work out hypotheses about the structure of
the target language. They construct rules, try them out, and alter them if
they prove to be inadequate. This is a gradual process where learners form
their own linguistic system as they establish approximations of the target
language and how it is used by native speakers
Language learning, in this account, proceeds in a series of transitional
stages as learners acquire more knowledge of L2. At each stage, they are in
control of a language system which is equivalent to neither the L1 nor the
L2, i.e. an "interlanguage".

FACTORS AFFECTING THE INTERLANGUAGE SYSTEM

Selinker listed five factors which affect the output of the interlanguage system:
1. Language transfer: as a result of the transfer from native language
2. Transfer of training: resulting from particular approaches used in training
3. Strategies of second language learning: approaches of the learner to
communicate with native speakers
4. Over-generalistion of the target language linguistic material

Selinker also noted that many L2 learners fail to reach target

language competence. That is, they cease to elaborate their interlanguages
in some respect. This phenomenon is known as "fossilisation", and cannot be
remedied by further instruction. A good example of fossilisation is the set
of pronunciation errors which constitute a foreign accent. Fossilisation may
occur because learners believe that they do not need to develop their
interlanguages any further in order to communicate effectively. But there
are more reasons for fossilization, such as: preserving part of their
previous social identity, not realising differences with the TL, not
accepting changes in personality that learning languages involve and facing
physiological changes related to age.
The concept of interlanguage paved the way for communicative
teaching methods. Since errors are considered a reflection of students
temporary language system and therefore teachers could now use teaching
activites which did not call for constant supervision of the student’s
language.so, group work or pair work became suitable

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4. ERROR ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT

Error analysis plays a central role in interlanguage theory, because

errors provide positive evidence about the process of acquisition. On the
one hand, errors provide evidence about the sequence of development the
learners pass through. In addition, errors throw light on the strategies
that learners use to assimilate the rules of the L2.the investigation of
errors has a double purpose: diagnostic and prognostic. Diagnostic tell us
the learner state of the language and prognostic can reorient language
learning materials on the basis of the learners current problems

4.1. TYPES OF ERRORS

A first distinction is made between an Error, which is the result of a
lack of competence, and Mistake or Lapse (these are Non-systematic
errors), which is the result of fatigue, lack of attention or some other
aspect of performance, everybody makes mistakes even in their mother
language, but they are capable of recognising and correcting them.
Research in the field of error analysis tends to concentrate on
psycholinguistic errors, because they can tell us more about the learners'
developmental sequence than linguistic errors (incorrect utterances at a
given point in time).
Psycholinguistic errors are usually classified into interlingual and
intralingual errors. Interlingual Errors are those resulting from L1
interference, it’s a learning strategy known as transfer. The teacher must
always be aware of the possible interactions in order to emphasise those
points that may pose problems to students. Intralingual or Developmental
Errors resulting from partial learning of the target language. As regards
the latter, they provide clues about the kind of strategies that learners
employ to simplify the task of learning a second language. Two examples of
such strategies are:
• Overgeneralization, an extension of some general rule to items not
covered by this rule (e. g. *goed for went, *cooker for cook)
• Simplification, which occurs when the learner omits grammatical or
propositional elements in production (* He hitting for He' s hitting
me).

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 4.2. ERROR TREATMENT AND LANGUAGE LEARNING
IMPLICATIONS

Probably the most widely observable change in the attitudes of

teachers in the last two decades has been the rejection of the view that
every error will reinforce deviant forms in subsequent performance.
However, an excessive focus on fluency has sometimes resulted in a
complete rejection of attention to form and error correction in foreign
language teaching.
Lightbown and Spada argue that foreign language teachers can (and
should) provide guided, form-based instruction and correction in specific
circumstances:
• Teachers should not hesitate to correct persistent errors which
learners seem not to notice.
• Moreover, teachers should be especially aware of errors that the
majority of learners in a class are making when they share the same
language background
• Teachers might also try to become aware of those structures which
are beginning to emerge in their students' interlanguage and provide
some guided instruction precisely at that moment
• It may be useful to encourage learners to take part in the process,
e.g. by creating activities which draw their attention to forms they
use in communicative practice, which encourage them to ask
questions about language forms, and which engage the students in
self- and peer-correction.

In general, teachers should accept students own pace, adapt

activities to the problems of students, grade the communicative demands
of the activities, accept communication errors as more important than
grammatical errors, develop a code system for marking written exercises
and finally, treat errors according to class stages, which are: presentation,
controlled practice, free practice, feedback on content and feedback on
form

There are many different procedures and techniques, according to

Harmer, that can be used for the correction of oral and written work.
• Oral work can be corrected by the own student, in this case the
teacher help him by means of: finger correction, questioning,
repetition, different intonation, use of rods and flashcards and
mime. Oral work can also be corrected by another student through

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 peer-correction. And of course, the teacher can also correct the
students
• Written work can be corrected by means of a code, reference
grammar books and question prompts. Some techniques are listing
the most important or common errors and listing them in class,
correction games, correction in groups or self correction

5. CONCLUSION

To finish off, I may say that language teaching is a complex process

in which we should pay special attention to the process occurring to each
of our pupils, not only to errors but also to their evolution. In that way, we
could decide on how to help them in their way to the acquisition of the
foreign language.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Some of the books I have checked to elaborate this unit, all of them
published in the 2nd half of the 20th century, are the following:

• CHOMSKY,N. 1957. Syntactic structures

• HARMER,J. 1983. The Practice of English Language Teaching
• KRASHEN,S. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Learning

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