NEW SYNTAX INTO BY TAKAM

TALLA(673554543)

COMPUTER SCIENCE
Table
Computer Studies Notes Form 1 ............................................................................................................ 2
Computer Studies Notes Form 2(practical work included) ............................................................... 69
Computer Studies Notes Form 3 ........................................................................................................ 179
Computer Studies Notes Form 1
Chapter 1

Introduction to Computers

This chapter introduces the student to what a computer is, classifies computers into different
categories, compares the different classes of computers and also introduces the keyboard as as a
basic input device.

1.1 Definition of a computer

1.2 Classification of computers

1.2.1 Physical size

1.2.2 The way they process data

1.2.3 By purpose

1.2.4 By use

1.3 Acquisition of Keyboard skills

1.3.1 Layout of keyboard

1.3.2 Summary

1.3.3 Questions

Information is the result of processed data. For example adding some numerical values like the
numbers 14 and 17 into the computer will give you the result of 31.

The later is information you required. Information can be defined as data computed into a more
useful form than raw form.

Program is a series of instructions written in the language of the computer for them to obey and
perform specific tasks as outlined by the instructions.

A Computer can therefore be defined as "an electronic machine that takes in data (facts) in the
raw form, processes the data to give out in another form called information".
When a computer is fed with data, it passes through four basic steps before the data can be
displaced;

(i) Input Process — the user will type the data from say the keyboard (to be introduced later in
the chapter)

and the computer will accept the dame and store within it.

(ii) Storage Process — the data that is fed into the computer at the same time is held, even
during the time of processing and after processing; it can further be stored for further reference.

These data are held in computer memory.

(iii) Processing — the computer will manipulate the data held within it to a more useful form —
results (information

(iv) Output process - the user is given the information he desired

The four basic processes can be summarized in the following way by looking at the same terms
of information processing cycle.

Organizing data for processing — to get quality results (information) you must have quality
data to start with. Unreliable original data generates unreliable results.

If you give a computer garbage, you get garbage in return. It's called GIGO — Garbage In —
Garbage Out.

Information Processing Cycle - Information Processing Cycle includes a series of steps for
transforming data into meaningful information for people.

A cycle is defined as a sequence of activities performed in an order that it produces expected and
meaningful results.

A Processing Cycle is repeated, it means, if the same resources are used in the same way, the
same outcome will result.

The standard cycle followed to process data and deliver information comprises of 4 major
functions:

(i) Input Function - the input function gathers and collects stored data items and enter them into
the system for processing.

Input can come from many sources, for example from files kept in the office, banking institutions
and accounts.
(ii) Storage Function — this function allows the user to store data being processed in the
memory of the computer as well as to store the information for future use.

(iii) Processing Function — the desired operation by the user is carried out on the data keyed in
and stored in the memory so as to turn it into meaningful information.

(iv) Output Function — the data stored is processed and then output into files, printed as hard
copies or displayed on the screen for the user.

Note: For any information processing system to run smoothly on a day-to-day basis, the
processing activities must be organized.

A system has little work if it provides helpful information on one day and useless information the
next day. Output should be useful the first time and every time for the system.

1.2 Classification of Computers

There are four basic ways by which computers can be classified:

(i) Physical size i.e how large the computer is.

(ii) By the way they process data

(iii) By purpose

(iv) By use

1.2.1 Physical Size

The following computer systems are categorized by how large they are:

a) Monster Computer

Sometimes it is referred to as Super computers or Maxi computers. These are computers of

enormous power and are very large in size. Its installation requires special floors to carry its
weights and it also needs special plumbing to carry a fluid known as fluorocarbon needed to cool
it.

One unique feature of maxi computers is that when you purchase it, the purchase price will
include the services of 2 permanent engineers to maintain it forever.

They are typically used for scientific research and military applications, petroleum engineering,
nuclear physics and meteorology.

Examples of monster computers include CYBER and CRAY computers. For example. the whole
globe needs only one monster computer to forecast weather at once.
b) Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are second in size to monster computers. These computers perform more
data processing work than any other type of computer.

For this reason they form a large portion of installation in most organization.

As does the monster computers, mainframe computers also have some special requirements, for
the reason, they are housed in special rooms brought about by the special power that they posses
together with environmental control requirements.

Mainframe computers can be used by more than one person at a time since they can support a
large network of other computers organizations that employ mainframe computers alongside
other computers are banks, government agencies, commercial and industrial agencies.

c) Minicomputer

Also called Medium sized computers. These computers compared to mainframe are smaller,
slower and less expensive.

A minicomputer has an advantage over the previous two in the sense that it does not have any
special power or environmental control requirements.

For this reason, the medium sized computer can always be located anywhere within the
organization. Minicomputers can do the work that the mainframe does but on a small scale.

d) Microcomputers Of the types of computers, microcomputers are the slowest. However, they
counteract this disadvantage because they are easy to use and the cost of purchase is also low.

A microcomputer gets its name from the fact that its main computing component, the
microprocessor (to be introduced later) is located in one integrated circuit (IC) or what we call a
Chip.

Microcomputers fit nicely on desktops, for that reason they are sometimes known as Desktop
Computers.

They are also referred to as Personal Computers since many individuals purchase them for
personal use.

1.2.2 Type of data processed

Classification of computers by the way they process data falls into 2 main types with the third
being a combination of the two:

(i) Analog and

(ii) Digital Computers

(iii) Hybrid

(i) Analog Computers

These computers process data that vary continuously, for example variations in temperature,
amount of current flowing through an electrical conductor and so on.

The flow of such data is in the form of wave like movement i.e. not predictable. Such computers
are used for a wide variety of industrial and scientific applications that require the processing of
data that are measured continuously. In conclusion, we say that analog computers measure things.

(ii) Digital Computers

As opposed to analog computers, these type count things. Data passed to a digital computer is
usually operated on in steps i.e. form of discrete numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, (a discrete operation). It is
like counting on one's fingers (1, 2, 3, 4...). Most computers in use today are digital.

This is because there are more counting applications than there are applications

than there are applications that requires continuous measurements

(iii) Hybrid Computers

These computers possess features of both digital and analog computers meaning both counting
and measurement operations in one computer.

1.2.3 By Purpose Classification by purpose falls into 2 categories:

a) Special Purpose Computers

These are computers that are single task oriented. In other words, they are designed to solve only
a particular type of problem.

Examples include embedded computers in our common digital watches.

b) General Purpose

Computers These are computers that can perform a vast number of operations or solve problems
of different varieties.

Most of the computers in use today are general purpose. However, it is wise to note that general-
purpose computers can always be adapted with special programs to do a job specified hence
becoming a special purpose computer.
c) Embedded Computers

These are computers attached to other computers that help in operating them. E.g. computers
embedded in lifts, petrol pumps, digital watches and so on.

1.2.4 By Use

It is worthy noting that we categorize these computers according to what it is used for and when
it is used. Under this category, the list is endless. For this reason we will limit ourselves to only
five main types.

(I) Personal Computers or Desktop Computers

These are also known as Microcomputers. They get their name from the fact that they fit nicely
on the desktop. They can also be used on the desk in the office environment or for personal use at
home.

(ii) Home based Computers

These computers are those designed to be used at home. An individual may install only games
program in it or a word processor to enable them write letters, still some would install accounting
packages to enable them budget and control their finances at home.

(iii) Laptop Computers

These computers get their name from the fact that you can place them on your laps while using.
They are very small computers that have the structure of a briefcase i.e. you open and close the
same way.

These have a keyboard attached to them and a flat screen together with a mouse ball and
chargeable batteries. This means that you can use them in the rural areas where the is no
electricity.

Laptop computers also have ports (small slots) through which you can attach an external
keyboard, mouse or external drive like drive A:.

1.3 Acquisition of Keyboard Skills

There are many ways to enter data into the computer. However, the keyboard still remains the
predominant input device for the many users.

A computers keyboard is used much like a typewriter keyboard. A keyboard has alphabetic,
numeric, and special characters found on a typewriter.

The only difference is that data keyed in, is recorded in the computer systems' data coding
scheme and is stored in the memory.
The traditional format of a computer or terminal keyboard follows the organization prescribed by
the typewriter keyboard.

This is known as QWERTY keyboard because of the sequence of the six letters on the upper left
corner of the alphabet position of the typewriter keyboard.

1.3.1 Layout of Keyboard and Functions of Keys

A typical keyboard takes the form of a normal typewriter keyboard.

A keyboard usually has standard keys; that is letters of the alphabet plus special characters
e.g„,,?, `, @ e.t.c. In addition to the standard keys, one finds a numeric keypad which is essential
for applications that require entry of large amounts of numerical information.

Function Keys are identified as Fl through F12, they can be programmed to ease the work of
frequently used operations. Cursor control keys of direction keys ) the ones with arrows, move
the cursor on the CRT (screen).

Other special keys include: Delete keys and backspace keys which deletes characters. Delete key
deletes a character that is in front of the cursor whereas backspace key delete characters before
ti+cursor.

Insert key will insert characters from text. Others e.g home key will take you to the top of the
document and end key to the end of the document.

Computer keyboard employ one or more control keys.

Control works just like the shift key on a keyboard in that they cause other keys to perform
functions different from their normal operations. Example, if you hold shift key down and press
the letter "e", you get a different character "E".

Holding down the control key while you press any of the other keys causes still another character
to be sent to memory. Like the control keys, the escape key is used to cause other keys to perform
special functions. Unlike the control keys, however, it is not held down while pressing another
key.

Once sending_ a signal to the corn uter s stem for that cursor.

If you press another key following Escape, it will cause the computer to execute a function
established by the program in use.
1.3.2 Summary

❖ A computer is a device that takes data in one form and processes it to give out in another form
called information. + Data is the name given to facts. + Information is processed data.

❖ Program is a set of instructions written in the language of the computer indicating what the
computer is to perform.

❖ 4 basic functions of a computer: Input, Storage, Processing and Output.

❖ Computers can be classified by: Size, The way they process data, By Purpose and by use.

❖ Typical keyboard is the same as a typewriter keyboard, has: standard keys, Numeric Keypad,
Function keys, Cursor Control keys or Direction keys, Control Keys, Alternate keys, Escape keys
e.t.c.

1.3.3 Questions:

i. Define a Computer.

ii. Differentiate between Data and Information.

iii. What is a Computer Program,

iv. What are the 4 basic functions a Computer will perform on data.

v. Discuss in detail how computers can be classified.

vi. Discuss the layout of a typical keyboard and functions of the different keys.

Chapter 2

Computer Components

This chapter introduces the student to the computer hardware system.

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:, differentiate between hardware and
software, identify the elements of a computer systems' hardware, explain the functional
organization of the elements of a computer system, describe the central processing unit, describe
the types of input and output devices, describe the types of secondary storage devices and media
and finally be able to distinguish between system software and application software.

 Diagrammatic Representation of Divisions of a Cormputer System.

 Distinction between Hardware and Software.
 The Complete Computer System.
 Elements of a Computer Hardware System.
 Functional Organization of the Elements of a Computer System.
 Description of Central Processing Unit.
 Description of types of Input Devices.
 Description of types of Output Devices.
 Description of types of Secondary Storage Devices any Media.
 Distinction between System Software and Application Software.
 Summary. Questions.

.Diagrammatic Representation of Divisions of Computer

The following diagram shows the basic physical computer Breakdown that will serve as a
reference throughout the chapter.
Key:

C.P.0 - Central Processing Unit

A.L.0 - Arithmetic Logic Unit

DOS - Disk Operating System

ROM - Read Only Memory

RAM - Random Access Memory

DBMS- Data Base Management System

2.2 Distinction Between Hardware and Software

A Computer hardware from the simplest point of view is the physical or tangible parts of a
computer whereas software are the intangible parts that help the computer to do its task.

From a technical standpoint, the following are the valid definitions and hence the distinction
between the two terms.

A hardware is a name that describes all the electronic, electrical and mechanical components of a
computer together with its peripheral devices.

software is the name that describes all the programs that are used to run the computer or do a
specific task together with its documentation.

Explanation of the terms Peripheral devices referred to above are:

input devices e.g keyboard, mouse or output devices e.g monitor, printer.

These are devices that are used at the periphery or at the side or alongside the computer.

Documentation refers to, in its simplest form, the manual that helps the user to know how the
different parts of the software work, how to install it, uninstall, trouble shoot or as a reference
book. The definition of software is not complete until documentation is included.

2.3 The Complete Computer System

Because of the recent advances in hardware technology, people have thought of computers as
hardware devices only.

This is far from the truth. The fact is,, the hardware is only one part of the complete system.
Without programs to tell the computer what to do, they remain immobile and unproductive, just
like an automobile without fuel.

A computer system is therefore defined as a combination of hardware devices and programs

assembled to accomplish specific tasks. The broad categories of programs are often employed by
computer's operation. One category of program is known as Operating system.

As the name suggests, the operating system controls the basic aspects of the computer's
operation.

It is the driver of the computer.

The other category consists of the Application program which instructs the computer to perform
those procedures necessary to get some jobs done; for example Word-processing, Accounting
programs; as a group are often called Software.

Therefore, the three components of a complete computer system are: Hardware, the Operating
System and Application Software.

The following diagram (fig. 2.3) shows the relationship between these three components.

2.4 Elements of a Computer Hardware System

The hardware components of a computer system consist of a set of interconnected electronic and
mechanical devices. All computing machines be it a calculator, a microcomputer or a mainframe
has the same parts.

The parts of a hardware system are:

 Input devices e.g Keyboard,

 Output devices e.g Monitor, Printer and the Central Processing Unit which comprises of
Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Memory.

The figure 2.5 shows the parts of a computer hardware system.

2.5 Functional Organizational of the Elements of a Computer System

Fig. 2.6 below shows the major physical components of a computer system
2.6 Description of the Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit is the main component of a computer hardware system.

It is usually referred to as the CPU.

It consists of three parts. The main part of the CPU is the memory or primary storage, where data
being processed and the programs controlling the computer are contained.

Arithmetic Logic Unit forms the second part of the CPU.

The ALU performs the calculations and makes comparisons between units of data.
The last component is the Control Unit (CU), the work of which is to control the operations of the
hardware for example by issuing commands to all elements of the computer as per the dictations
of memory. (e.g from the input devices to memory, from memory to output devices, etc).

The Central Processing Unit determines the power of a computer hardware system which is
described in terms of :

(i) Size of Memory, which is measured by the number of characters of data it can store

(ii) Speed of the Control and Arithmetic Logic Unit, which is measured in millions of instructions
per second (MIPS).

The work of the various input devices such as terminal keyboard, disk storage units and tape
storage units is to send data into the CPU, whereas the work of the output devices such as
printers, visual display units, disk and tape units is to give out the results from the processing
operations.

The Central Processing Unit also "houses" Registers.

The latter is a small part in the CPU that holds data before processing or probably after.

They store data to be processed and thereafter partial results.

Registers are of different kinds performing different functions:

(i) Ordinary Counter Register (OC) - This register addresses the next instruction to be
expected or we could say it contains the addresses of the next instruction to be executed.

(ii) Instruction Register (IR) - This register contains the actual instruction under execution.

(iii) Accumulator Register -This register stores data to be processed or the results of a partial
execution.

The processor communicates with the main memory through 2 registers:

(a) Memory Address Register (MAR)

(b) Data Address Register (DAR) When reading a word from the memory, the CPU stores the
address of that word in MAR and sends a read signal to a main memory.

After one memo M cycle, the value of the word is in DAR from where the CPU will search for it.
When reading a word, the CPU stores in MAR the address of where the write operation will take
place.

The value to be written will be stored in the DAR and then it sends the write signal to the
memory.
Execution of an Instruction

The execution of an instruction of the central processing unit is performed through the following
steps:

(i) Storage of the next instruction to be executed from the main memory to the instruction register
(IR);

(ii) Modification of the contents of the OC registers the address of the next instruction;

(iii) Recording of the instruction recently stored;

(iv) Localization of the data needed by the instructions in the memory;

(v) Storage of data if necessary into the internal registers of the CPU generally the accumulator;

(vi) Execution of the instruction;

(vii) Storage of the results in the appropriate place;

(viii) Return to step () for the execution of the next instruction.

The Processor

The Control and Arithmetic/Logic Units are usually considered as a hardware device separate
from the memory.

This is because the size of the memory may vary independently from the Control and
Arithmetic/Logic Units.

As separate devices they are known as Processor.

Processors used in microcomputers are known as microprocessors (refer to chapter 1), but
conceptually they are the same processors found in larger computer systems.

Memory

Memory A computer's memory stores data before, during and after processing as well as the
application program in use at the time.

These data are stored in cells of the memory. Each memory cell contains one byte of data (a byte
= 8 characters: a character is say a letter of the alphabet, or a number).

Therefore, one cell will contain eight characters called a byte.

The size of the computer memory is measured in terms of "Kilobytes" or "Megabytes" or
"Gigabytes". Since "Kilo" stands for 1,000 and "Mega" for 1,000,000 computer memory is
measured by the thousands or millions of bytes that can be stored in memory at one time.

In computer usage, the prefix "Kilo" actually stands for 1024 bytes and "Mega" for 1,048,576
bytes (explanation later in form 2 - Number systems).

Computer memory is sometimes known as Primary memory Storage, Main Memory and RAM
(Random Access Memory).

Primary Memory

Primary storage or RAM is the computer's working bench.

All data to be processed must first be recorded in it and all output of results draws data from it.

Primary storage has 2 crucial characteristics.

The first is that data can only be stored temporarily, and two, it cannot store a great deal of data.

Secondary Storage

These characteristics of primary storage give rise to the requirements to store large quantities of
data in machine readable form that can be fed into RAM in small segments for processing. Units
that do this are called secondary storage devices also referred to as Auxiliary Storage or
Backing Storage.

. Description of these devices later in the chapter The two most prevalent of these are disks and
magnetic tapes. These media offer the ability to store data offline, meaning that data can be
processed from time to time by the computer system and are not stored permanently as part of the
hardware configuration.

When needed, they are mounted on data reading and writing devices, called drops, as required by
their application programs.

(i) The processor receives data from main storage, performs operations on them, then the result is
given back to the same.

(ii) Data then goes to the main memory comes from input devices or secondary devices, and data
from the main memory goes to backing storage or output devices.

(iii) The ALU and CU combine to form the processor as discussed.

2.7 Description of Types of Input Devices

Input devices in whatever form as the name suggests are devices that help the user to
communicate with the computer by issuing commands in different ways which the computer
obeys.

2.7.1 Keyboard

Please refer to 1.4 for full keyboard explanations. Using the keyboard is a matter of knowing
which command you want to issue to the machine or what entries in the form of characters you
want to make; then simply type in the right characters from the keys of the keyboard.

2.7.2 Mouse

This is another type of input device but as opposed to the keyboard, it doesn't have keys. A
mouse has usually two buttons (but not always).

When installed in your machine, a pointer is always seen on the screen. Underneath the mouse is
a rotating ball which with the slight movement of the device on a pad, the pointer will
correspondingly move on the screen by the same distance and to the right direction.

To issue an instruction to the system, the user simply needs to click (press the mouse button once
- usually the left) a menu and choose a command he wishes to issue or click a command he would
want to use.

You can use a mouse also to draw different shapes of your style apart from simply clicking
commands.

A mouse (mice - plural) is usually employed in Windows Applications without which the
Windows Operating System become incomplete.
2.7.3 Light Pens

Looks like an ordinary pen but its tip is a light sensitive detector. When you touch the tip of the
pen to the display screen, the computer locates what are called the x-y -ray coordinates of that
point.

By touching the screen at various points, or by moving the pen across the surface of the screen,
you can write and draw. Normally used with palm tops. Since palm tops are very small light pens
replace mouse.
2.7.4 Joy Stick

This is a device that permits you to move a picture, line, word, or cursor from point to point in a
display screen. Used normally in playing computer games.
You operate a joystick by moving it in various directions. It carries out the same functions as the
locate keys (cursor control) on the keyboard. But it is faster and lets you move in 8 directions
instead of four.

2.7.5 Graphic Tablet

It lets you draw a design just as you might do on paper. You use a special pen or your finger to do
the drawing on a flat, table-like surface. Your drawing appears immediately on the display
screen.
Laser Scanner

This input device is used to scan a picture or other documents from print onto the screen and
hence can be available for storage in the computer memory for processing or future reference.

Some printers come with inbuilt scanners.

However, we have small scanners (manual) that are held in the hand while scanning an object to
the monitor into the memory.

You can scan for example your photograph, signature and logo on other documents. Another
scanner is known as a flat bed which is used by placing the document to be scanned on it.
2.7.7 Voice Input

Voice input systems require that the user pronounce the vocabulary of voice command several
times while the system does the "listening" and analyses the voice patterns of the various words.
After this, using an airplay of the voice patterns, the system will respond to the commands as
dictated.

Once the computer has been initialized with the voice pattern of the person, such a system will
always not respond to anyone else. Example is voice dialing in a mobile phone.

2.7.8 Voice Input

Voice input systems require that the user pronounce the vocabulary of voice command several
times while the system does the "listening" and analyses the voice patterns of the various words.

After this, using an airplay of the voice patterns, the system will respond to the commands as
dictated. Once the computer has been initialized with the voice pattern of the person, such a
system will always not respond to anyone else. Example is voice dialing in a mobile phone.

2.7.9 Optical Character Reader (OCR)

This device alone with others to be discussed shortly after, have been developed to make data
input to computer s stenKleenc lerm Optical Character Readers (OCR) accept data input optically
or with machines that respond to magnetic ink or magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR).

2.7.10 Optical Mark Readers (OMR)

This device will place marks placed on forms for data gathering purposes. Such marks will then
be translated into the computer by the device as input data.

2.7.11 Bar Code Readers (or Line Code Readers)

Bar Code Readers will read price and inventory codes printed on products that are frequently
purchased such as in supermarkets. This code is usually referred to as Universal Product Code
(UPC).

Such Bar Code Readers employed in supermarkets are one type of remote date entry terminals.
They are known as Point-Of-Sale (POS) terminals. Remote data entry terminals promote entry of
data directly into the computer system for the purpose of updating, inventing files and preparing
customer's bills and other similar tasks.

They are often used in manufacturing and distribution in warehouses, retail stores, bank teller
counters and other business offices.

Workers and executors in the field usually use portable data entry terminal to enter and retrieve
data directly into and from the main computer control via telephone lines.

2.7.12 Key to Tape / Key to Disk

This is a system of data entry normally employed when processing spiral documents usually in
batches.
In any key to disk system, there must be a microcomputer that is used as the processing computer
or server.

There will be a special computer terminal, each with a different operator in front of it Provision
for a fixed disk drive where data is stored when keyed in is made, and finally there is a tape drive
where after completing a given batch of data, then you re-locate. One of the terminals is usually
dedicated for a supervisor to the system that oversees the whole operation.

2.7.13 Key to Disk

Operation Each operator loads the program usually employed to enable data entry of batches.,
then keys in the data from the original documents usually source documents.

The program in use will validate the data entry and incase of any error; this will be given on the
screen and then will enable the operator to correct.

Once this is corrected, the data is stored on disk and the second operator is given the same source
document to verify using the same process to the terminal and program.

Once a batch is verified as compact, the data is transferred from the disk to the tape drive and
finally physically transferred to the server (minicomputer) for processing.

2.8 Description of Types of Output Devices

There are several output devices that are available within the current technological advancement.
For our level, we will limit ourselves to the following: Printers, Monitors, Plotters, Sound Output
and Microfiche /Microfilm devices.

2.8.1 Printers

Printers are necessary when hard copies of displayed work on the monitor have to be sent to
customers, report prepared by the Management and the Board of Directors and so on must be
printed.

It's not disputable the fact that other electronic means of transmitting information are now
available. Printed- paper, however, still remains the most popular means of communicating the
same information.

Printers fall into three main categories classified by the amount of printed work the device is able
to produce in one operation.

a) Page Printers These printers print a whole page at once. They are sometimes known as image
printers.

They produce the images by laser or electrostatic means. The quality of output from such printers
is sufficiently high for business correspondence.
They use toners just like a photocopy b) Line Printers

These printers produce a whole line of a text from before. They are very fast but the quality of the
output is always low. It is important to note that the length of a line is not standard but different
with the requirement of the application in use. However, most of the printers will print between
120 and 144 characters per line.

This will require approximately paper width of about 14 inches so as to accommodate the said
character scale. 132 characters are often the most common width.

These use cartridges. c) Character Printers Form or print one character as a time on the• a er. This
rate of printing varies between 20 and 600 characters per second depending on the mechanism or
use in the • different makes employed.

These printers make use of ribbons. There are many different types of character printers.

The first is called Daisy Wheel Printer, which creates fully formed letters much like a typewriter
sometimes called Letter Quality Printer. The output is often good enough for business
correspondence.
The second is Dot Matrix Printer, which creates characters as spools of dots in a rectangular
matrix. The speed of the dot matrix printer is much higher than that of a daisy wheel but the
quality of the former is not sufficient enough for business correspondence.
A dot matrix printer has a print head consisting of a number of small pins between 9 and 24
depending on the make.

A printer with a 9 pin print will give a poor quality print compared to that of a 24 pin print head
since the dots in the former are widely spaced apart.

If a dot matrix is to produce a better quality output, sometimes referred to as Near Letter Quality
(NLQ), then a line is printed twice with the print head being moved along very slightly in the
second printing so that those moved spaces between the dots are filled into ensure continuity.

One advantage with the dot matrix printers is that they can print from either side, meaning the
print head does not have to move say to the left side of the paper in order to begin printing but
begin from the right as well. With the dot matrix printer you simply need to change the ribbon of
different colour to get a colored output.

How Character printer operates: A paper is passed through a printer that has a moving belt or a
chain containing a complete character set - as seen from the keyboard. A paper is then hit from
behind by a set of hammers, which are aligned for each printing position on the line. This will
then pass a paper against an inked ribbon behind which is the character to be printed.

Another way to categorize printers is by whether or not the print head strikes the paper. If it does,
it is called Impact Printer and if it does not it is called a Non-Impact Printer.

Dot matrix and Daisy wheel printers fall in the former category; all strike the paper while
printing.
Non-impact printers are usually the fastest since they minimize the amount of physical movement
required during the printing process.

Examples of non-impact printers include Thermal Printers, Inkjet and Electrostatic Printers.
Impact Printers are usually noisy given the physical motion involved during the printing process
when the printing device strikes the paper.

To get multiple copies from impact printers, all you need to do is interlace a carbon paper
between the papers.

How Non-Impact Printers work

a) Thermal Printers

The slowest of all non-impact printers, form characters by burning them on specially treated
paper. They operate at about 30 characters per second.

b) Electrostatic Printers

They form characters by charging the paper electrically. The paper is then passed through a toner
solution.

Particles of the toner solution (ink) stick to the electrically charged areas of the paper.
When the paper is heated, the particles melt thus producing the characters. They are quite fast;
some print about 300 pages per minute.

c) Ink Jet Printers

These printers "spit" streams of ink to the surface of the paper. The ink then drips almost
immediately.

They are fairly slow. They produce from about 50 to 100 characters per second. These printers
offset their relative disadvantage of slowness by their low cost and multiple colour printing.

2.8.2 Voice Output Computer voice output is commonplace. For example a computer could be
programmed to offer telephone information service, like directory help. Others let you know if
you dialed a wrong number or if the number you are calling is out of order or busy and the like.

2.8.3 Plotter

This is an output device used to produce graphical output like drawing graphs, charts, maps or
electric circuits.

The design of the graph, circuit is done on the computer then the output is sent to the plotter.

Plotters are of two types: one that has a single sheet sometimes called Flat Set Plotter and the
second uses a continuous sheet which rolls continuously on drum like cylinders: also known as
Drum Plotters.

2.8.4 Microfiche/Microfilm

Microfiche and Microfilm are both better known collectively as microform.

The later is a document photographed and hence stored in a film. Microfiche is a sheet of film
that measures 105mm x 148mm whereas a microfilm is actually a 16mm roll film.

A typical 16mm will hold the equivalent of 3,000 A4 Pages. One typical microfiche will hold the
equivalent of about 98 A4 Pages.

Usually this technique of giving output to a microfilm/microfiche or microform is usually

referred to as COM (Computer Output to a Microform).

The technique is simple, a machine called a microfilm Recorder reads output that is relayed onto
a magnetic tape for the computer, once read, the output is copied out on microfilm/microfiche.

The application of COM is suitable where an organization has to store data over a long period of
time or where backup copies need to be made.
Records that need to be out a long time would include: receipts and invoices of an organization or
say catalogues in a library or a bookstore.

2.9 Description of Secondary Storage Devices and Media

As mentioned earlier, secondary storage or backing storage provide supplementary memory to

main memory of the computer.

The following auxiliary media and devices will be discussed: Magnetic tape Drive and Magnetic
Tape, Magnetic Disk Drive and Magnetic Disc, Magnetic Diskette Unit and Magnetic Diskette,
Optical Disk Unit and Optical Disk, Mass Storage Devices and Media.

2.9.1 Magnetic Tape Drive and Magnetic Tape

The concept of storage in magnetic tape device used by computers is identical to tapes you may
have in your home video or audiotapes recorder.

As a matter of fact, most microcomputers can use exactly these devices to store data. Magnetic
tape consists of a large strip of plastic that has been coated with iron oxide compound that can be
magnetized.

This strip is typically wound on a 101/2 inch for mainframe and microcomputer applications.
Microcomputers employ audiotape cassettes. Data is recorded on and read from the tape using a
tape drive.

The latter has a "read head" for reading the information stored on the tape that's for transforming
data from the tape into main memory. It also has a "write head" for recording the information.
Usually, to read from, write to an individual tape, you have to mount it on a tape drive.

liuocsirit data is read from the ta e into main memo _oral )where the results are given out only as
a written report or as another tape file written on another drive.

Because RAM capacity is limited, only a small amount of data is used for the input tape or
written to the output device at one time.

Data that is stored on magnetic tape as well as other auxiliary storage devices are usually
organized into records.

A record for now should be understood as a unit of data consisting of characters about someone
or something. How data processing uses records is a matter of loading one or more records into
RAM for an output device. Processing those records and sending the result to an output device.

This technique of sorting records on tape in the form of groups that are read into or written from
RAM all at once giving rise to a number of technical terms that are used in all types of secondary
storage media. See fig. 2.9.1 below.
A group of records is called Physical Records or Block. Each record in the group is known as a
Logical Record. The number of logical records in a physical record is referred to as the Blocking
Factor.

A blocking factor of ten will indicate that ten logical records make up one physical record or
block.

The term block refers to a group of logical records, all of which are read onto or written from
RAM at once.

The physical records, or block, are suspended from each other by blank spaces on the tape known
as Inter- record Gap (IRG).

Sometimes known as Interlock Gap:, Magnetic tape is a sequential medium, this means that
records appear on it in sequential order for example personal records will appear by: employee
number, account number and so on.

Because data is stored on tape sequentially, they must also be processed sequentially. If a tape
file has only 60,000 records, access to record number 50,747 can be had only by reading through
all of the proceeding 50,746 records. This is usually a very slow way of accessing data.

2.9.2 Magnetic Disk Drive and Magnetic Disk

Magnetic disk storage is the preferred medium for most secondary data storage today. As
opposed to magnetic tape files, disk files need not be processed sequentially, although they may
be if the application calls for it. Any record stored on disk may be retrieved without having top
process through all of the proceeding records on the file. For this reason, a disk is usually referred
to a Direct Access Storage Device (DASD).

This factor is what makes a magnetic disk faster and more flexible than the tape. Physically a
magnetic tape consists of circular platters of non-magnetic such as aluminium and plastic, which
is combined with the same sort of non- oxide coating used on magnetic tape.
As with, characters are recorded by magnetizing microscopic magnetic fluids on the disk surface
using the usual data coding schemes.

Magnetization in one direction represents a zero in the other direction a one. To use a disk one
has to mount it on a spindle that causes it to rotate.

A read/write head, similar to that of magnetic tape, moves back and forth across the disk radius
rotating and storing data as required.

The read/write head can move to different sections of a record without necessarily having to write
or read this section; only when the instruction was prompted! Disk Drive is the device on which
the disk is mounted when used to store and retrieve data.

The device can position the read/write head in a number of portions along the disk radius.

As the disk rotates past the read/write head, data is recorded in a circular track. This means
therefore, that there are as many concentric tracks displayed on the surface of the disk, as there
are positions for the read/write head.

This is illustrated in Fig. 2.9.2 (a) Each track is divided into sections or blocks, similar to the
blocks of data in magnetic tape.

Each sector has an address. To store/retrieve data, the system finds the disk address used to
contain data by moving the read/write head to the appropriate track where it waits until the
desired sector passes by. Fig. 2.9.2 (b) shows how a track is divided into sectors and how the
sector contains an address used to locate where data is stored on the disk.

A hard disk with a capacity of 300k for example contains forty tracks (40) of nine sectors each;
having a total of 360 sectors available on each side; of a two-sided disk for a total of 720 sectors.

Each sector contains 512 bytes or 4096 (512 x 8 characters, so the disk offers a total data storage
capacity of 368,649-bytes. Such a disk is said to be a 360k disk following the conception that "k"
equals 1,024 (360 x 1024= 368640). Read/Write Head
Disk storage media take different forms. Hard disks are rigid in nature. They contain the most
data. Hard disks may be fixed in their devices or may be removed.

They are usually 14" in diameter, although it is unusual to the smaller hard disks in
microcomputers. One such system is known as Winchester, so named because its prototype
makes use of two drops of thirty million bytes each has effectively the "30-30". It uses a 14"
plotter. Later versions called Mini-Winchester or Mini-winns" used 8" or 6" and one-quarter inch
plotters, which are stored in the drives and can store up to 85,000,000 bytes.

2.9.3 Magnetic Diskette Unit and Magnetic Diskette

This is another form of disk storage media. Flexible disks or simply diskettes often called floppy
disks or floppies because they use a thin sheet of plastic as their case. They are an important data
storage medium for micro and mini computers. Diskettes ran:e in size from 3 1/2" to 8".

They offer the advantages of ease of transport and low cost.

They are encased permanently in a protective envelope, which is insulated in the disk drive.

The entrance to the drive is a narrow slot in front of the drive. This slot has a small flap over it,
which must be clipped shut once the disk is inserted.

2.9.4 Optical Disk Unit and Optical Disk

Optical disk is a kind of audio compact disk or CD that you might have in your home. The device
is made of plastic cover, which has transparent material.

The principle of work is the same as that of the CD; sound is recorded in them in digital form.
Data is recorded beneath the transparent layer that covers the surface of the CD by burning a
permanent pattern into the surface of the disk by means of a laser beam. Reading the data is also
by a laser beam in an optical disk recorder.

The capacity of a CD is usually about (600 - 750MB). 1 Gigabyte, which is made up of 40,000
tracts each divided into 25 sectors. 1 GB is equal to 1 million characters-(1 GB). One advantage
of CDs to magnetic disks is that losing data is not as rampant as with the latter. One disadvantage
is that some (i.e CD-R) CDs are not reusable.

They are usually referred to as WORM, which stands for Write Once Read Many times. Reading
from the CDs tends to be slower than that of the magnetic disks.

However, with the advert of CD- RW (Re-writable CDs) you can use a CD writer to delete
obsolete work and write new data.

2.9.5 Mass Storage Media

A great need for machine-readable data storage in industries has prompted computer equipment
manufacturers to develop storage devices with even higher capacities.

The top of the time disk unit manufactured by IBM doe example, stores more than 2.5 billion
bytes of data. Data Car-tridge System stores data in a series of 50 MB cartridges. These devices
provide up to half a million bytes of online storage.

The operation is similar to that of other secondary storage devices. A cartridge is loaded into the
read/write mechanism, the data is processed and then the cartridge is replaced in its honeycomb-
the storage bin.

Then the read/write mechanism moves onto finding the next catalogue to be processed. Cartridge
systems are slower than disk systems because they involve more physical movements.

2.10 System Software and Application Software

System Software are programs with their associated documentations that control the entire
operation of the computer.

It is what tells the computer what to do when you issue a command or when you switch on the
computer.

Within the set of system software, we find a set of programs called Operating Systems.

The latter is usually defined as a set of programs that standardize the way a computer's resources
are made available to the user and to applications software.

The resources here refer to the hardware components of the computer.

The system software command imprinted on a type of memory called ROM (Read Only
Memory). Such memories are usually reserved for such data of the operating system that the user
must not modify or inadvertently delete.

It is usually protected by the manner in which it is manufactured.

ROM is used to store programs and data that are essential for the proper operation of the
computer system and of the application program that are integral parts of the operation.

ROM is non - volatile; this means whatever is stored in such memory remains whether or not the
power is on.

(RAM - discussed earlier is volatile). Programs such as operating systems and application
programs stored in ROM are often called Firmware, meaning software that is engrained / fixed
into the hardware.
System software also has what we refer to as Utility Programs for File management, editing files,
management of disks and so on.

These are commands resident in system software. 2.10.2 Application Software This is a program
that is usually applied on one area of operation only - not as all encompassing as system software.

Application software is usually divided into 2 categories:

(i) Standard Packages or Application Packages (General Application Software)

These are packages that are designed to be used to solve a particular type of problem for example
Lotus 123, Ms Excel are all spreadsheet packages meant to be applied in accounting operation
only.

Word perfect, Ms-Word are all word processors. D-base 4, Ms Access are database packages and
so on.

(ii) User Developed Software (or Specialist Application Packages)

These are suites of programs with their associated documentation that are tailor made to solve
specific tasks only.

Usually, a user will give a specification to a programmer of the suite he wants to be developed to
meet his business or individual needs. This kind of software is only restricted to solving problems
to which it is programmed to solve.

Tailor made software is sometimes known as Bespoke Packages.

2.11 Summary

 Computer Hardware is defined as all the electrical, electronic and mechanical components of
the computer together with their devices used at the peripheral.
 Software are programs that are used to run the computer together with the associated
documentation.
 Computer hardware comprises Input devices, Output devices and the Central Processing Unit.
 A complete computer system comprises the operating system, system software, application
program and hardware.
 CPU is consisted of Arithmetic and Logic Unit which performs arithmetic and logic
comparisons, the control unit which coordinates the activities of the hardware (I/O operations) as
per the dictates of the memory, memory which stores data being processed, results and the
application in use, registers which are slum areas in the CPU that holds data before processing
and probably after.
 Storage Devices are in two forms: Primary Storage devices, the Main Memory and Secondary
Storage devices which supplements the main memory.
 Storage Devices are in two forms: Primary Storage devices, the Main Memory and Secondary
Storage devices which supplements the main memory. Q)
 Input devices include: Keyboard, mouse, paper scanner and magnetic ink holder. Other data
capture methods include: speech, magnetic, optical character readers and optical mark reader.
 Output devices include: Printers - which could be line, page or character printers, they are also
categorized by whether the print head strikes the paper while printing -impact and non-impact
printers, visual display Unit, (or monitor) - displays the text/graphics for the user to see and
plotters for plotting graphical output, electric circuits, charts etc.
 Secondary storage media and devices include: Magnetic tapes and disks, optical disks and
mass storage media.
 System software are programs that control the entire operation of the computer together with
the associated documentation. An application program is software that is usually applied on one
area of operations only. They could be standard packages or user developed packages.

2.11 Questions

1. Differentiate between hardware and software in a computer.

2. What does computer hardware consist of:

3. Discuss the functions of components of a computer hardware system.

4. A complete computer system comprises which components?

5. Discuss any 4 input devices.

6. Discuss any 4 output devices

7. What do you understand by secondary storage devices?

8. Discuss any three backing storage media and devices.

9. Distinguish between System Software and Application Software.

10. What is an Operating System?

11. What are Utilities?

12. What is Firmware?

13. What are the two types of Application Software? Discuss.

Chapter 3

Safe Use and Care of Computers

This chapter lets the student to be aware of the computer, its safety rules and how to apply them.
The safety rules to be observed regard personnel, materials and equipment in the computer
laboratory.

The student is also expected to state correctly safety precautions required in the lab and be able to
identify possible causes of loss of data and their precautions.

3.1 Behaviour in the Computer Lab.

3.2 Handling of Materials and Equipment.

3.3 Fire and Accidents.

3.4 Chemicals and Combustible Materials.

3.5 Ventilation in the Computer Lab.

3.6 Safety Precautions and Practices.

3.7 Possible Cause of Loss of Programs and Data.

3.8 Precautions.

3.9 Summary

3.9.1 Questions

13.1 Behaviour in the Computer Lab

Computer lab forms a very important section of an organization or school and therefore strict
rules in terms of behaviour of personnel/students working/studying in the lab needs to be put in
place and adhered to.

One factor to be taken into consideration is the cost involved in setting up the lab including the
cost of equipment.

This should not be taken for granted and computers and other peripherals damaged in the short
run could result in great losses to the organization. Cleanliness is a factor that stands out in the
lab.

The personnel need to be clean while in the lab. Dust in the hands, oil on fingers is not allowed
among personnel/students.

Foodstuffs to the lab is not allowed as the broken pieces from such will ultimately find their way
into the peripherals e.g keyboards, disk drive and so on. Depending on what material cover is on
the floor, certain shoes tend to cause a lot of distraction by making noise to the rest of the seated
personnel.
This slows down the work process as attention will definitely be shifted. External disks into the
lab are not recommended as this may result in virus infection to the system in the lab from
outside sources Internal disks should not be allowed to leave the room.

Some stringent procedures should be laid down to check the personnel who ignore the rule. If this
is not observed, it may lead to data from the organization being exposed to rivals or would be
"hackers" - those who gain access to the system without authority.

Any mechanical or technical faults noted should always be reported to the technical personnel
immediately for attention. Non-technical personnel should never attempt to deal with such a
fault! It is important also that every personnel make routine backup copies of every work done in
the lab as this will save the organization from any data loss in the event of disaster.

Shutting down and booting of computers is very important. Strict procedures depending on the
operating system specification should be adhered to, otherwise damages to the disk in the long
run and fragmentation of files and storage in the storage location will happen. This will cause
delays in reading and writing to the same.

All equipment should not be moved around the lab rather they should always be used where they
are installed! Changing of peripherals from one machine to another is not an encouraged practice.

Let a mouse meant for machine A remain the machine; if it does not work, please ask a technical
personnel to attend to it, but do not interchange it with another!

13.2 Handling of Materials and Equipment

Handling of some materials and equipment in the lab should be a privilege.

In other words, some disks and special machines like a server (in the case of a network) should
not be for everyone, only those authorized should be allowed for example to keep installation
disks and so on.

Generally the computers and peripherals in the laboratory should always be handled with care
since all of them have soldered electronic parts within them that when poorly handled and
perhaps dropped then such parts will always either break or be dislocated. This will mean the
equipment is damaged.

It is recommended that every movement to machines in the lab be done using a trolley.

No equipment should ever leave the lab unless with direct authority from the right person.

Computer cables should, if detached, be properly returned each to the right machine.

Technical operations in the lab should be left for only technical personnel. If every Tom, Dick
and Harry in the lab assume to repair even damaged equipment, then more will be worse off than
they were.
Disks should be kept from natural hazards like excessive temperatures, water and dust places and
a way from magnets if data integrity is to be maintained.

13.3 Fire and Accidents

Fire and other accidents in the lab are Such accidents would include electrocution of an
employee/student, slipping and falling on a slippery floor.

Fire is a big threat to data loss and equipment. Every lab should always offer training of how to
handle fir in thee event of such calamity and of course fire-fighting equipment like fire
extinguishers for example hand held CO2 and BCF extinguishers should always be available.

Data should also always be kept in fireproof safes to avoid loss of data loss in such event.

Insuring equipment and software in the organization with insurance firms will help since after
such an accident, the firm is paid.

13.4 Chemicals and Combustible Material

Chemicals and combustible materials should always be located on special places. False floors and
ceilings should always be available for chemicals like fluorocarbon fluid used as a cooling agent
for mainframe.

Such pipes and ducts should pass either up on false ceilings or below false floors.

Combustible materials like fire extinguishers should be located in places visible to everyone but
with strict instructions to be touched only in the event of a fire break out.

Other materials that could be harmful to the environment should be transmitted through properly
located ducts.

13.5 Ventilation in the Computer Lab/working Area

Windows provide adequate ventilation in labs. Such windows must not be very wide as such will
always be vulnerable to entry by intruders.

Any ventilation apart from the window should always be higher up and very small in size.

ventilation again, mostly windows, should have a well-dropped curtain so as to keep private the
operations in the lab.

13.6 Safety Precautions and Practices

 13.6.1 Cabling
Cables in the lab should be properly located either on false floor or ceiling or along the walls so
as to avoid interference for example with communication coolers in the lab.

Cables put haphazardly may result in possible power disconnection if stepped on or pushed
around.

 13.6.2 Stable Power Supply

Provision for stable, adequate and independent power supply is very important. Electricity
suaci.p037m the com Aer syste,Interruption of power supply for example will damage disks,
damage the processor and spikes will cause loss of data and fluctuations, voltage frequency will
cut off other areas from the return.

As a precaution, large batteries, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) and generators should
always be on standby to such a crisis.

 13.6.3Burglar

Proofing Counter All doors to the computer lab should be burglar proof. This is a physical
security measure since this will avert any attempts by intruders to break in and interfere with data
and equipment in the lab.

 13.6.4 Ventilation

It is a good practice to include ventilation in a computer room but the same should not provide an
entrance to hackers to tamper with data.

 13.6.5 Floor space

The space on the floor should be wide enough to provide a thorough route for equipment
installation and other movements of the trolley to transfer equipment. It should also provide for
an emergency exit.

NB: Slippery floors are not recommended in a computer lab. Such a floor if there is should be
covered with mats and the like.

Vdu Legislation

This is a legislation (British) that was passed in 1990 for frequent users of computer screens in
the lab.

It states as follows:

1. One should not use a computer for more than one hour continuously.
2. While using the VDU, the eyes should not look at the screen directly but at an angle of 30°-
60°.

3. The distance from the screen should be between 300mm-480mm.

4. While using the keyboard, the arms and elbows should be at right angles and parallel to the
ground.

5. The seats and desks in the lab should be adjustable to the users height this is to aid (iv) and
avoid Repetitive Strains Injuries (RSI) of the fingers and wrists. The seats should have backrests!

6. All seats in the lab should be fitted with castors - to make them mobile and less noisy.

NB: An Anti-glare screen is still recommended.

Computer Lab Design

Before we look at the safety regulations in the lab, it is vital to look at what factors must be put
into consideration when designing a computer room.

Constraints of Computer Room

 The following requirements must be observed in any computer room design:

 The need for air conditioning The dimensions of size of the lab
 The need to observe cleanliness Equipment sitting in the lab
 Accessibility for machinery maintenance and media re-supply.
 Consideration for health and safety
 Consideration for noise

Air Conditioning

Air conditioning is very essential in the computer room where main frames are housed or some
minicomputers together with their associated peripherals.

Most devices however, usually contain their own environmental controls that are automatic for
example fans, filters and sealed units.

Air conditioning is done to enable control the following:

(i) Temperature - for equipment should be between 18°C and 24°C.

(ii) Humidity - this helps to avoid moisture precipitation and build up of electrostatic charges.
Recommended humility should be 45% - 55%.

(iii) Dust control - disk media require high level of cleanliness.

Processors with highly packed electronics require high levels of cleanliness. To help keep a high
level of cleanliness, the lab should have positive pressure, air lock and sticking nuts on the floors.

Dimensions of the Lab

The size of the computer room should take into account the following:

• Requirements specified by the equipment supplier

• Operating conditions and

• The need for future expansion.

• The height should be enough to provide for false floors and ceiling to help spread equipment
loads provide safe cable paths and air ducts.

Accessibility

While installing equipment in the lab, there must be a provision for a through route, which is also
important for emergency exit.

Only for security purposes should such a route be closed.

Corridors of the lab must be high enough with double doors and floors, stairs or lifts must be
strong enough t bear the load of equipment.

It is often recommended that ground floor should be used but this again has many security risks.

Reception should always be spacious enough to allow for storage of trolleys (used for moving
equipment around the lab).

Equipment Sitting Design of the sitting equipment should always be such that it ensures the
workflow of the operator and minimizes the walking distance from one...end to another.

This means for example that the location of a stand-alone computer and the printer should be
close enough to ease the work!

Health and Safety

For the sake of health and safety of the staff and equipment, the following should be observed:

a) Lighting

There should be a provision for large lighting so as to avoid minimized reflections and glare.

A further provision should be for emergency lighting.

b) Alarms Fire alarms in the lab must be very clear (audible) and visible from any angle you are
placed. This will allow for quick action and reaction in the event of a fire break out.

c) Communications To avoid noise in the lab, telephone lines should be strategically placed with
visible indicators for quick response.

d) Physical security General:

• Only authorized personnel should be allowed into the computer room.

• The lab should not have any outside walls to keep off intruders.

• The lab should have small windows' provision for ventilation.

• Video cameras should be on to monitor the activities of the personnel and intruders.

e) Fire Alarms

should be in place as discussed earlier. Automatic detection of smoke and electrocuting systems
should be provided for. In the computer room, there should be hand held Coe and BCF
extinguishers. The personnel should be given evacuation training in the event of the fire break
out.

f) Flooding Computer labs should never be sited in basements where they are vulnerable to
floods. No water pipes should be placed under, over or in the computer rooms.

This is because water is likely to destroy equipment, programs and data in the lab.

g) Power

The computer room should have independent power supply, stable and adequate with shrouded
panic off button.

Problems with power supply come in three main forms:

(i) Supply interruption - is caused by a number of factors that include transformer failure,
cutting of supply lines by accident, by people, lightening and so on.

(ii) Spike - this is a voltage level imposed onto the supply by interface source such as switches,
electro-mechanical devices and so on. The problem caused by spikes is generally loss of data as
soon as power is removed. Disk files also get corrupted when store cycles are interrupted by
removal of power.

(iii) Voltage Frequency Variation - this is variation or fluctuation in the voltage frequency of
electricity supply.
Such fluctuations normally do not have effect since in most computers, there are power supply
units that are designed to adequately cope with any small fluctuations Problems caused by
voltage frequency variations is generally loss of users in the sense that terminal links get broken
in those parts of a network whose power is interrupted or destroyed. So this problem is normally
experienced when computers are networked. When designing a computer lab, it is important to
have a standby generator, large batteries or other uninterrupted power supply (UPS) units so that
in the event of power failure, the data is not lost, or users disconnected or disk media damaged
etc.

13.6.6Dust/Dump

Proof Disk storage media and processor require a high level of cleanliness and standard
temperature in order to maintain the data stored and of course for power to adequately function.

The lab should therefore have a positive pressure, suitable building materials to reduce
dust,special floor covering to reduce the dampness and so on.

13.6.7 Lighting

The computer lab should have adequate lighting. This lighting should be large enough to
minimize reflections and glare on the part of the user. There should also be a provision for
emergency lighting.

13.6.8 Standard Furniture

The furniture used in the lab, that is the table on which the machine is placed should be stable and
firm with enough room under for the user's legs and clearance to allow posture changes.

The surface of the desk should be spacious enough to allow flexible arrangements of items, it
should be glare free. The chair should be adjustable to allow different personnel of different
heights to use the desk.

13.6.9 Fire

Fighting Equipment Provision for the fighting equipment in the lab is vital.

Fire extinguishers like hand held BCF and CO2 extinguishers should never miss.

Supply equipment should always be located in visible places for staffs.

More important is the adequate training of how to handle such equipment and precaution
techniques for the personnel.

13.7 Possible Causes of Loss of Programs and Data

Loss of programs and data to the organization results in loss of information that may not be put in
monetary value. Some of the causes include:

13.7.1 Power Supply Power supply problem result in two forms:

 Power supply interruption - is one form which can be caused by transformer failure, cutting of
supply lines, by accident, by people, lightening and the like, inadvertent switching off of the
machine also could interrupt power supply.
 Spike - is the second form of power supply problem, this is a situation where a voltage level is
imposed onto the supply by interference source such as switches, electro mechanical devices and
so on.

All these forms of power problems especially supply interruption and spikes result in damage to
disk heads which often crush when power is suddenly removed.

This will mean loss of data since it will be hard to read or write to such a disk.

Spikes often result in serious loss of data since RAM being volatile losses data immediately
power supply is cut off.

Disk files also get crumpled when stores are interrupted by removal of power.

13.7.2 Virus

A virus is a peace of software (program) that replicates itself without the user intending it or
noticing it Viruses often affect our computers having been brought about by hardware/software
engineers who move from one computer to another carrying out demonstrations or through
external infected disks, which are brought into the lab.

Such disks are often infected with boot sector virus (boot sector is the first partition of the hard
disk/floppy).

When it (infected disk) is put into the drive, it will be loaded into memory. The disk is now
infected since the memory to which it must be loaded first is now infected.

A virus usually has many effects for example replication where a virus divides itself repeatedly
thus spoiling the data on the screen/memory/or disk.

Viruses have so many effects they cause to data/information and to the user.

What we need to note here is simply the fact that viruses will change or modify the data that was
stored to take a different format that is never useful to the operator.

13.7.3 Accidental
Erasure It is possible that the user without him wanting it could erroneously erase data. This
usually comes about for instance while using a delete command say in Ms - Dos(next chapter),
one happens to delete a whole directory while the intention was to delete a single file in the
directory.

As will happen,, one uses a disk command like disk copy without identifying the source diskette
from the destination disk.

If the two are mixed, then it is possible to wipe the contents of the source disks erroneously.

13.7.4 Crashing

Disks Disk heads, as mentioned earlier, often crush when there is sudden power supply
disconnection. Data is often lost since reading from one disk and writing to them is not possible.
This means that data in that disk was lost.

13.7. 5 Poor Storage of Disks

We said that the disks require very high levels of cleanliness above any other. Dusts will clog the
disk head.

That causes a problem in reading and writing to the disk. Storing disks in dump places and very
dry places have effects on the disks, the surface will either become too delicate or fold away from
its shape.

All these minimize the reading and writing processes to data in the disk.

13.7. 6 Unauthorized Access

Only authorized personnel should always be allowed into the lab.

It is possible that hackers could gain access to the room and "steal" data/information, which could
be tampered with in some way or even a virus infected into the system.

Also unauthorized persons could perform some fraud with the data for say personal gain at the
expense of the organization.

A hacker could gain access to for example change an existing invoice to reflect a higher or lower
bill, clear an invoice, etc.

13.8 Precautions

The following precautions should be put in place to avert the possible loss of data through the
risks identified above.

13.8.1 a) Power Failure

Power failure is a risk to data in the organizations. Precautions to be taken include:

b) Regular Saving of Documents/Files

The user of the system should always ensure that the work is saved as regularly as possible, say
after every automatically for the user.

If you don't save your work periodically, then any power interruption/spike will mean all the

c) Use of UPS

UPS in short for Interrupted Power Supply, This is a simple device that consists of suitable sized
strapped capacity of the system it is required to support and for how long. This method can be
interrupt driven from a simple 5 to 10 minutes.

Some applications will always do this work you did and will be lost. across the input supply.

Its size is dependent upon the hardware dictation circuit which automatically locks the user out as
soon as an interruption is detected and all data is automatically stored and also safely packed
before the system is switched off.

d) Use of Batteries and Generators

Standby generator systems together with large batteries are necessary to sustain the continuity of
computer facilities in such organizations as hospitals, military installations, factories and some
offices.

In the event of power interruption, what happens is that the system is first maintained by the
battery while the generator is started up.

13.8.2 Virus

The following precautions should be adhered to so as to guard against virus: a) Write Protection
Disks Every floppy 31/2 disk contains a physical write protect tab on the left hand corner that
slides down to indicate its "on".

When the disk is write protected, it means you cannot be able to write anything or change a word
in it, you can only read! This will protect you against virus since it cannot allow any external data
of any form!

b) Restriction of Disk Movement

Strict procedures should always be put in place and adhered to by all IT staff. Such software will
ask the user to "repair" hard disks and floppies as well as the boot sector from viruses.
Such a procedure should be for the sake of data integrity, no disk from the organization should
leave the computer room and at the same time any external disk should not be used in the system
unless "sheep dipping" is carried out.

The term simply means scanning the disk for viruses first before being used.>

c) Disable Disk Drives

Another viable alternative to virus protection would be to physically remove all the disk drives
once the normal working hours are over. This should be done by the technical staff only.

When this is done, it means that even if you had your disk to use you cannot because the disk
drive to let you read and write to the disk is not there. This will help protect the organization
against boor sector virus and the like.

d) Anti Virus Software

Software are available in the market today that help to disinfect diskettes (disks) and of course
the main memory from the virus infection.

Since new viruses come up often, it is always recommended that such software installed into your
system should be regularly updated or a newer more powerful one installed.

Such software is often easy to use once installed. Examples of such software include: Norton
Anti- virus, Dr. Solomon Anti-virus Tool Kit, F-Prot Professional etc.

Such software will scan and ask the user to "repair" hard disks and floppies as well as the boot
sector from viruses.

13.8.3 Accidental Erasure

When a file, document, software is accidentally erased, it is possible that you can put in place
some recovery procedures provided for in the form of utilities by the operating software.

Depending on the operating system in use, and the application software, the user can be able to
un delete an "already deleted file" or document by simply evoking the utility.

If the data was lost as a result of formatting a disk, a utility to un format the same could be
provided. These utilities will therefore help to recover such accidental lost data.

Another precaution to put in place would always be to use backup copies of the information lost.
A backup copy is simply the alternative copy that was made of the information contained in a
particular disk.

This as the explanation states will help the organization to continue working without any hitches.
Another option is to use fireproof safes (heat- resistant safes).
Heat is a threat to backup copies made on diskettes. Diskettes tend to fold under excessive heat.

To avoid the loss of data in this way, it is recommended that such disks be kept in heat resistant
safe always.

13.8.4 Crashing Disks

Power interruption, we said, causes the disk heads to crash. This causes a problem in reading and
writing to the same disks.

A precaution here would be to use backup copies of the same disks in the event of such a crash.
To avoid such a crash, it would be important to observe precautions for power failure.

13.8. 5 Poor Storage and Handling Disks

Disks are very sensitive storage media and a lot of care needs to be taken to ensure that the
data/information stored in them is safe and that the disk can be read and written to. Most floppy
disks are covered by plastic material which react easily to excessive temperatures like direct
sunlight or very cold dump situations.

Therefore, to preserve the disks, keep them away from sunlight as this is likely to cover the
plastic envelope covering the disk which will ultimately affect reading and writing; keep them
away from water which would make the disk surface dump and hence affect the storage layers
(sectors, tracks and cylinders) where data is stored.

Disks should also be kept away from dust environment, as those again will make the disk drive
heads.

This will cause loss of data if the disk heads cannot read and write.

The mode of storage to these magnetic disks is by magnetism of the positive and the negative
charges of the data to be stored.

If disks are kept next to magnets, it is possible that the demagnetization of this sequence could be
altered. This will of course destroy the data stored in the disk.

13.8.6 Unauthorized Access

Access to the computer room should be a privilege. Only those personnel working there should
be allowed in. when access to the lab is not restricted, then it becomes easy for hackers to gain
access to the system and hence destroy or "steal" information.

Fraudulent activities lem akin: confidential information to rivals for .a ment is also possible.
Other intruders could also gain access to the system and hence destroy or carry out ridiculous acts
like literally stealing the equipment.
Some files attributes should also be put in place to avert access to data stored. For example, the
use of passwords should be encouraged; data encryption method should also be adopted.

Passwords could be a number(s) or a word that is only known to one person or some "trusted"
personnel in a department or a sector that will enable the user to gain access to the system or a
particular document or file.

The use of passwords will ensure that only those people who know the password could gain
access to those files in the system.

Passwords if to be used should always be changed periodically in case it has been leaked to
someone who is not authorized to know it.

Data encryption is a way of writing a particular information using a given grid that could only be
deciphered by you or a group of personnel authorized to for example: to encrypt the following
statement in a 5 x 4 grid (i.e a row is 5 and a column is 4 letters) would be:

The statement: MEET TO NIGHT AT 8PM

MEET.TO . NIGHT . AT . 8.PM

The statement to be stored as data is MMN.EEIAE.GTTTHt.OT8

The statement LICENCED TO KILL could be encrypted as LCOLIE..CDK.E.I.NTL. in a 5 x 4

grid i.e. LICEN LICENCED.T O.KILL NB: Note that a word to be encrypted in full as you move
along the row. Separate each space by a dot. To read, read the first letter in the first column and
move down the column. Each dot is a space.

13.9 Summary

Factors to consider when designing a computer lab are the following: Dimension, accessibility,
sitting of equipment, health and safety of personnel, lighting, power supply, physical security and
noise.

Strict rules to the lab concerning behaviour as outlined should be observed.

For safety precautions on the lab, the following should always be considered: Fire fi htin
equipment, standard furniture, proper lighting, dust/dump-proof lab, proper installations, stale
power supply and burglarproof doors.

Possible causes of data loss and programs are the following: power failure, viruses, accidental
erasure, erasing of disks, poor storage and handling of disks and unauthorized access by hackers
and other intruders.

The following are precautions to be taken in the event of data loss from such risks mentioned.
■ Use UPS, large batteries and generators in the event of power failure.

■ Use of anti virus software, write protecting disks.

■ Movement restrictions.

■ Disabling disk drives to protect against viruses or accidental erasure.

■ Use of undeleted and unformatted utilities.

■ Use of backup copies and heat resistant safes.

■ Disks should be stored away from water, fire or excessive temperatures and away from
magnets and should be kept in dust free environments.

■ Use of passwords and encryption methods to protect files against unauthorized access by
people.

13.10 Questions

Operating Systems

This chapter will introduce the student to what operating terms are the functions and types. It will
also serve to explain how disk Operating System (DOS) organizes information. The student is
expected to use some DOS commands for file and disk management and be able to list external
and internal DOS commands at the end of the chapter.

4.1 Definition of the term Operating System.

4.2 Functions of Operating System.

4.3 Types of Operating Systems.

4.4 How DOS organizes information.

4.5 List of DOS commands.

4.6 File Management Commands.

4.7 Disk Management Commands.

4.8 Summary.

4.9 Questions.

4.1 Definition of the Term: `operating System

Operating System as defined earlier, is a set of programs available within the system software
that standardizes the way a computer's resources are made available to the user and to
applications software.

4.2 Functions of an Operating System

The following functions are identified as common to all Operating Systems:

4.2.1 Memory Management

An Operating System allocates memory to itself and to its resident system programs, sets aside
areas of application programs and user partitions, arranges the input and output buffers (areas on
RAM where input data and output data are temporarily stored) and reserves storage for
specialized purposes.

4.2.2 Input/Output (I/O) Management

The Operating System controls reading of data coming in from the various input devices into the
memory and writing of data to output devices such as printers.

The Operating System will ensure that each time the user types in commands those inputs are
accepted into the memory, and if the latter is busy the it holds the same temporarily on buffers
until the memory is free and also does the same to output data awaiting to be displayed on the
monitor or to be sent to the printer if the same are busy.

4.2.3 Resource Allocation

Operating System load programs into the computer memory and starts them running after
receiving instructions from the user, at the same time, operating systems must have ability to
divide resources available to different users, memory and of course the peripherals to different
processors going on at the same time so that none of the users gets "stuck" or "deadlocked"
during the operation for lack of a computer resource.

4.2.4 Error Handling

Any Operating System must have the ability to handle errors in the computer system be it
hardware or software faults and be able to provide routines to correct these errors.

4.2.5 Provision for User

Interface Any Operating System should have the ability to receive commands from the user and
respond to them accordingly.

4.2.6 Interrupt Handling

An interruption could be caused by software errors, mechanical faults of a machine or by the
operator by pressing the Break key for example which halts the system. The operating system
should always be able to handle such interrupts without causing any malfunctions as a result.

4.3 Types of Operating Systems

There are majorly two types of Operating Systems that we will discuss in this section.

4.3.1 Single User System

In this type of Operating System, only one user can use the machine at a time, load one program
at a time in the main memory and process only that one program. Most of the small
microcomputers employ single user systems. Examples are Ms-DOS, Pc-DOS and Windows.

4.3.2 Multi User System

This system as the name suggests is for multi user, as opposed to the single user system.

This system is employed by Agency microcomputers and minicomputers. More than one program
can be loaded into the main memory by different users and processed at the same time in an
interactive manner. Examples of such an operating system are UNIX and Windows NT.

4.4 File Management

Medium of storage employed by most microcomputers is often disk. Data that is stored on disks
are often held in a file.

The latter is often referred to as a group of related records. The records may hold data about
customers, employees of the organization and names of students in a school and the like
depending on the organizations.

Therefore, the file as a group of program instructions is actually a computer program. When files
are stored on such storage media, then the term "file" refers to anything stored on the medium, be
it a program or data file.

4.4.1 File and Directories

The work of the Operating System is to keep or maintain a directory of the address of the files on
disk. Each file on the storage media is assigned a name called filename (one word).

The directory is a list of filenames and the disk addresses at which the file may be found. When
the user refers to a particular filename, it causes the operating system to consult its directory of
filenames, locate the address of the required file and make it ready for use. Let us have a look at a
directory listing of files of a system disk using Ms DOS.

All of the files in this directory are programs.

A system disk is so called because it contains the directory system. We shall list directory for
system drive A: Volume in drive A: has no label.

Directory of A: COMMAND COM 18107 13-12-97 13.00PM SYS COM 7407 13-12-97
13.00PM DIRECTORY COM 1307 13-12-97 13.00PM FIND EXE 1278 13-12-97 13.00PM 4
FILE(S) 142890 BYTES FREE

What the list shows:

(i) the name of the file e.g. COMMAND

(ii) Filename extension e.g. COM

(iii) The number of bytes contained in this file

(iv) Date and time on which it was printed into the directory.

(v) The total figure at the bottom of this directory listing show the number of bytes remaining for
storing other files. MS-DOS has certain rules for formation of filenames for example; A filename
must not exceed 8 characters in length and in some cases requires filename extensions, which is
3- character in addition to the filename.

In the above example, COM and EXE are extensions. Although not visible, there is usually a full
stop between the filename and the extension e.g. Diskcopy.COM is the complete name for the
above file.

The user has to type in the computer name of the file including the period in order to effectively
use some file maintenance utilities like copying or deleting. Filename extensions usually indicate
the type of file for example "COM" and ti3XE" above will refer to program files.

4.4.2 Directory Hierarchy

Files stored on a disk can always be organized into subdirectories.

Directory hierarchy refers to a "tree" like structure formed by directory -subdirectories - files. For
example, we could have a directory called KENYA with subdirectories of towns NAIROBI,
MOMBASA, NAKURU and files of Estates within each town, e.g. Hurlinghum, Nyali and
Milimani. The figure below shows the directory hierarchy.

To be able to specify which file to open, the user has to specify to the operating system the data
path or path to that file. For example, to open a filename Milimani, the following path must be
specified: Kenya \ Nakuru \ Milimani.

A path is often defined as a logical, sequential list of directories and subdirectories leading to a
filename. The names of directories and subdirectories are separated from each other by
determinates which could be a backslash(\) or a hyphen (-) or a slash (/) depending on the Ms-
Dos version in use. The directory names have extension DIR wheras the files have TXT.

The directory named Kenya under which the subdirectories Nakuru, Mombasa and Nairobi are
stored is called root directory.

4.4.3 Volume Lable and Directories

A labels is a name given to a disk to enable you identify the contents from those of other disks
when it's off-line in that if it's not mounted on a drive.

Since the use could have multiple disk drives on- line (mounted) at one time, the operating
system must have a way of determining when disks are actually mounted on the driver.

To do this, we use volume labels or volume directory, which simply a name assigned to each disk
used in the computer installation.

The difference between volume labels identifies a storage medium as physical unit while the
latter two identify data stored on disk. Suppose we gave a volume label country to the hierarchy
above, the complete name for reaching Milimani file will be: COUNTRY \ KENYA \ NAKURU
\ MILIMANI

The operating system will ensure that disk on a volume label Country is located first if it is the
one mounted, before it searches for the actual file in the specific directories.

4.4.4 Tab Control

Computers and their operating systems can perform a great number of different tasks, not just one
job as say a stand-alone word processor or a calculator. Therefore, the user of the system must be
prepared to tell the operating system what particular task to perform at the moment.

When the computer system is complete, usually the application program is what the user
communicates with the program when a particular task is desired.

When the application program finishes, it is no longer a part of the system. The user therefore
must communicate with the operating systems to tell it what to do next.

He or she does this through the use of what we call OS's Tab Control Language or TCL. TCL
consists of a number of operating system commands also called system commands that control
the operating system.

How does one know that the application program has finished its work and it is no longer loaded
by the operating system?

The operating system will display that by displaying its prompt; it could be a character or two
that will signal the user it awaits further system commands. The MS-DOS Operating System,
uses the prompt C: \> or C>. The "C" in the prompt indicates the disk drive in which the
operating system will look for any files referred to by the next TCL instructions.

The disk drive attached to the s stem are usually identified by letters of the alphabet through a
system with four drives could have drive identifiers A: through D.

Any reference to a drive must include the colon in the drive identifier. The drive identifier
displayed by the dos prompt is known as a logged drive, the default drive or the active drive.

4.5 Ms-dos Commands

Using system commands is quite easy.

It is a matter of knowing the right commands key, key it in and press enter key for the command
to be accepted.

System commands help us to manage our files and directories for example; we can copy a file
from one disk to another, delete files or change names. We can also manage our disks for
example to format a disk, label a disk or copy disks.

The Syntax of a Dos Command

The Syntax of a Dos Command A Dos command usually has a command name (i.e the system
command the user intends to use) and an argument which is information required by the
command.

An argument used with a Dos command will indicate the disk drive on the file to be used by the
command Example: COPY ANN 1 TO ANN 2 The command has a command name COPY. The
arguments are ANN 1 and ANN 2.

This command copies a file known as ANN 1. The new copy is named ANN 2.

N/B: ANN 1 and ANN 2 are arguments and are separated from each other by a blank space. They
are also separated from the command name by a blank space.

4.5.1 Running a Program

It is important to note that a Dos Command represents a program. A command name is just like a
file name of any other program. To be able to run a program using Dos, first the operating has to
be loaded.

Loading the operating system is simply switching on the computer, it will open a program loaded
in ROM to check if the operating system is loaded in drive A or any other and load, other wise it
will load from the hard disk.
To run a program with filename extension COM, BAT, TXT, simply enter its filename without
the extension for example to a Basic Program simply enter BASIC.

Its filename is BASIC.COM.

When you want to execute a program that is not stored on a disk in the logged drive, the first
thing would be to change the logged drive to the disk containing the program.

For example, suppose you wanted to run a program with the filename MILO.EXE which is on the
disk in drive B:, and the logged drive is A:, to specify the drive on which Dos should look for the
program, proceed with the filename with the drive identified with no blank in between the colon
and the filename. B: MILO

4.6 File Management Commands

4.6.1 Changing the Logged Drive

To change the logged drive from the active one, simply enter the letter of the alphabet for the new
drive at the prompt of the active drive followed by the colons and then press Enter key.

For example, if the active drive is C:\>, simply type

A: at the prompt and press Enter. C: \ > A: \ > A:\> or A:\>

4.6.2 Determining the Contents of a Diskette

To determine the contents of your disk, Dos provides a program command DIR (Directory) The
files are usually listed one per line with their filenames, filename extension, size and If you have
many files than can be displayed on the screen, then Dos passes them so program.

There are two solutions to that program: that will display the files stored in your disk with the
exception of the hidden files. the date and time they were last saved.

fast over the screen that you cannot be able to read or identify a particular Activate Windows

(i) /P (Pause)

Switch To see the files with all the relevant information ie. filename, filename extension, size and
date and time, then /P switch does the work.

The files will be shown one screen at a time and tests the user to see the files with instructions to
"press any key to continue..." The format is DIR/P

(ii) /W (Wide)
Switch This command will display filenames and their extension only for the entire directory at
once.

They will be displayed in rows five files wide. The format is DIR/W .

 To see only a particular file on Disk Simply use the filename of that file as the argument, thus:
DIR B:FILENAME.TXT

In this case, Dos will display the particular information about that file or tell you that it is not on
disk.

 To see Direction with similar extensions.

If your files have the following extensions; BAS for Basic Programming files, DBS for Database
files, to see their directory of all the Basic programming files, enter: DIR*.BAS or DIR/P.BAS
or DIR/W*.BAS The asterisk is called a wild card. What it means is that you "substitute the
position with any characters." For instance in the command DIR*.BAS will list all the files with
the .BAS extension.

Directory of files with similar names and different extensions Suppose your filenames are the
same but have different extensions, all that you need to do is: DIR Same.*

All files called "Same" will be displayed. Suppose you decided to identify your files as Same 1,
Same 2 and so on, and therefore you wanted to only display a filename Same but with specific
extension DBF, you would enter: DIR Same*.DBF To see all same files you would enter: DIR
Same*.*

The asterisk wildcard is a many character wild card. It fills out a filename or extension from its
position to the end of the name in the above EXE file, the asterisk is the fifth, sixth, seventh and
eighth character if they exist in the filename beginning with SAME.

Another wild card used in the Dos command if? It is usually called a one character wild card.
When it appears in a command, you can substitute it with one character e.g. DIR ?AME*.DBF,
will substitute ? with any character as long as the next line i.e AME is part of that filename.

So if it is a command, like DIR SAME*??? Would be the same as DIRD SAME*.* when the
three questions marks in the former stand fir three character.

4.6.3 Changing Directories

Let us go back to the example we gave with root directory KENYA.

Suppose you wanted to make Hurlin hum your current directory, you simply need to enter to
command: CD C: NAIROBI HURLINGHAM. If you are already in C: as the logical drive, you
do not need to enter it again, simply type: CD.
If you wanted to move up one level of the directory i.e. to Nairobi, type: CD.. Suppose you were
to go straight to the root directory i.e. KENYA, all you need to type in at the prompt is: CD \ If
you want to see the sub directory of a current directory, type DIR. .

For e)sample if you have made Nakuru your current directory, to see sub directory like Milimani
simply enter the latter command!

4.6.4 Making Directories

Suppose you wanted to make a sub directory of your current directory Nakuru, what you need to
do is enter that command MD (Make Directory) and the name you intend to call the sub
directory, thus: MD LANGA If towards creating the directory named LANGA you want to work
in it, simply use the CD command to place yourself in it, thus: CD LANGA

4.6.5 Removing Directories

To remove a directory, first ensure that the directory to be removed is empty.

You can empty a directory by using DEL command after making back- up copies of the same. To
effect the command to remove a directory like NYALI, ensure you place yourself in MOMBASA
directory first, thus: CD MOMBASA RD NYALI

4.6.6 Copying a File

It is often necessary to make a copy of a file. All important files should always be copied so as to
guard our self against the loss of data.

Data loss often occurs if you accidentally erase a file, Power goes off before you save your files,
store data under an incorrect name, do physical damages to a diskette. When you copy a file to
protect against loss of data we say you are backing up a file.

The copy command requires 2 parameters/arguments to accomplish the task. It is a resident

command.

(i) The first argument is the name of the file to be copied.

(ii) The second argument is the filename for the copy. If the file is not on the logged drive, then
drive identification must be included.

4.6.6.1 Copying from the same Drive

Thus: Copy SAMEl.DBF ZAME2.DBF

The above command will copy file named SAME1 on the same drive and give it a new name
ZAME2.DBF. it is important to note that if you are copying within the same drive, then the new
file must have a different name.
4.6.6.2 Copying from one Drive to another

To copy a file from one drive to another giving it the same name. Enter: COPY SAMEl.DBF B:
New file name is not necessary on the target drive (B:) since it is the same as that of the source
drive.

4.6.6.3 Copying a range of Files.

To copy a range of files, we employ wildcards for example: Copy same*.*B will copy all files on
the logged drive that start with same onto the diskette in drive b: irrespective of filename
extension.

To copy the entire contents of drive A: to B, we can use the following command: COPY A:*.*B:
N/B: Ensure that the destination diskette is formatted before the operation is started since this
command COPY doesn't copy formatting information as does DISKCOPY command (4.7.4).

4.6.7 Renaming Files For the sake of clarity, the user can rename an old file with a new
name.

The command is RENAME or simply REN. The format of this resident DOS command is: At the
prompt of the logged drive containing the disk with the old filename type: RENAME
OLDNAME.TXT NEWNAME.TXT This DOS internal command will not allow you to change a
file name to one already existing in the diskette.

Notice the single space left between the arguments themselves and between Dos command and
the argument oldname.

The use of wildcard is important here as they could help rename a wide range of files, for
instance: RENAME SAME*.DBF SAME*.WPF This will change all the filename extensions of
all the SAME files to Word Processing Files (WPF).

To rename a file on a different drive, you would do this:

RENAME B: SAME.DBF ZAME.DBF to rename a file in B: 4.6.8 Deleting Files Two Dos
commands available for deleting files are DEL and ERASE.

The format is: DEL ZAME.DBF This will delete only a file named ZAME.

To delete the entire directory of ZAME (that is plus the subdirectories), enter: DEL *.* That is if
you are placed inside the directory ZAME.

4.6.9 To Display the Contents of a File

To be able to sim 1 dis la the contents of a file on the monitor.

The command type is provided. The format is: TYPE Filename.EXT Indicate the filename that is
plus extension if you intend to display the contents on the screen.

NB: You can press CTRL + S to stop the contents on the screen from passing too fast for you.

4.6.10 To print the Contents of a File

If you need a hard copy of the contents of a file, then enter the format below:

TYPE Filename.EXT>PRN

N/B: You could also use the command PRESS CTRL + P which will sent everything on the CRT
to the printer. To sto rintin re P a. ain.

4.7 Disk Management Commands

Under Disk Management commands, we will examine the following commands: Formatting a
Floppy Disk Inserting a Floppy Disk Copying disks p Adding Dos to a formatted disk

4.7.1 Formatting a Diskette

Formatting is a process of preparing new diskettes for data storage. The system command is
FOMART.

What formatting does: it organizes the disk so Dos can store data, keep track of them and retrieve
them from disk. It also ensures that there are no defective areas on the new disk.

If at all the defective areas are found, FORMAT will mark them so Dos does not store data in
them.

Formatting usually takes two ways: A disk can be formatted to include Dos or not.

Disks that include the operating system or Dos are called system disks or boot disk or command
disk and can be used to start the computer (or load the operating system).

Disks that do not have the operating system stored in them have more room to store data than the
former.

Procedure:

(i) To Format a non system or data disk Simply enter FORMAT followed by a drive
identification if the new disk is not to be in the logged drive i.e. FORMAT or FORMAT B: This
command will prompt Dos to load format program and display the following message: INSERT
NEW DISKETTE FOR DRIVE A: and strike any key when ready.
In the file case or INSERT NEW DISKETTE FOR DRIVE B: and strike any key when ready in
the second case.

Simply put the new diskette in the indicated drive and press any key. Dos will display:
Formatting ... After a few minutes, Dos repeats

Formatting Format Complete 362496 bytes total disk space 362496 bytes available on disk
Format another (Y/N)

To which you will answer "Y" or "N" press Y if you want to format another otherwise press N
key from the keyboard.

(ii) Formatting a disk so that it includes the systems.

Simply follow the above procedures with addition of letter S for system thus: FORMAT /S or
FORMAT/ S B:

The messages displayed are the same as the ones above with addition of the ones indicating that
system transferred and how much space it required.

A disk with the system includes some hidden files the names of which do not appear when you
look at the contents of the disk, and a file called COMAND.COM.

These files form the resident portion of Dos.

4.7.2 Adding Dos to a Formatted Diskette

Adding Dos to a formatted diskette is a two-step process:

(i) With the target diskette in B: and a system disk in the logged driver, copy the hidden files to
the diskette with the SYS command: SYS B: SYS is a non-resident program (or transmit) i.e. it is
not kept in RAM. It generates the following messages: SYSTEM TRANSFERRED

(ii) After the above process, copy COMMAND.COM from your system disk t the disk you are
modifying by entering COPY COMMAND.COM B:

NB: you can add Dos to any diskette as long as there is enough space to store the three files.

If a disk already has hidden files and you try to use SYS command to place them on the disk
anyway, you will get an error message indicting that there is no room on the disk for the system.

The only way to replace the hidden files once installed is only by formatting the disk again.

4.7.3 Labeling a Disk

A volume name is used to identify disks just as you identify them by writing identification
information on a label placed on the disk envelope.

The volume name however, is recorded on the disk itself and can be checked by the operating
system to ensure that the correct disk has been installed in the disk drive.

Volume label (11 characters; ENTER for None)? MY DISKETTE 362496 bytes total disk space
362496 bytes used by the system 321536 bytes available on disk Format another (Y/N)

A> NB: Always have some formatted disks with you because some application programs will not
give the leeway to format a disk while working on it.

4.7.4 Copying Disks

There is a utility called Disk copy that is often provided for in most versions of Ms-Dos and Pc-
Dos.

What this utility does is that it copies the entire contents of the source disk to the destination disk.

It also transfers the operating system and formats the destination document as well.

What this utility does not do is to check for errors in the destination disk and mark them so that
data is not stored in by the Dos.

While using the cw1i_slcopy command, care must always be taken to clearly identify which disk
contains data (i.e. the source disk) and which disk is empty (i.e. the destination disk).

If this is not done, then it is possible to wipe out everything on the source disk because you
inadvertently copied the contents of a blank disk to the data disk you intended to reproduce.

Procedure:

The format for DISKCOPY includes two parameters:

(a) Source Drive and

(b) Destination Drive.

To be able to execute the command, enter the following:

DISKCOPY A:B:

This command will copy the contents of the entire drive A: to the one in drive B:. NB:
Everything on the disk in B,:,,t the destination drive, will be destroyed by the operation. After the
command, Dos will prompt you to insert the disks.
You can as well specify DISKCOPY B:A: if you intend to copy from drive B: to drive A:.

This method is often effective for disks that are full otherwise we would use the command:
COPY A:*.*B: To copy all the files in drive A: with any extension to a disk in drive B.

this command as opposed to c_lisccopy, will always check for faulty areas on the destination
drive and mark them so that no data is kept in them.

4.8 Summary

✓ An Operating System is a set of program "housed" within the system software that
standardizes the way the computer's resources are made available for the user to applications
software.

✓ The functions of an operating system are the following: Memory management, In ut Out ut
management, Resource allocation, Error handling, Provision for user interface, hatUfri , File
management and Job control.

✓ Operating Systems could be single user of multi user. Ms-Dos commands can be divided into
File Management Commands and Disk Management Commands.

Some Dos commands are internal (or resident) and some are external (non-resident or transient)
which means they have to be logged first before they can be used.

✓ Examples of file management commands are: Deleting, copying and renaming files, viewing,
changing and creating directories.

Examples of Disk Management commands are: Copying disks, labeling disks and formatting
disks.

✓ Resident Dos commands include: DIR, COPY and DISKCOPY, RENAME.

✓ Non-resident Dos commands include: FORMAT, SYS.

4.9 Questions

1. Define the term Operating System.

2. State and discuss functions of an Operating System.

3. What are the two types of Operating Systems? Explain.

4. List commands under the following headings:

N(i) File management;

(ii) Disk management;

5. What is the syntax of a Dos command?

6. List some of the internal and external Dos commands that you know.

7. What will the following Dos commands do?

(i) COPY DATA 1 DATA 2

(ii) COPY DATA1 B:

(iii) MD DATA 3

(iv) RENAME OLDNAME.TXT NEWNAME.TXT

8. What is a Wildcard? Differentiate between Wildcard and Asterisk ) and (?).

9. Explain what the following Dos Commands will do:

(i) COPY DATA *.*A:

(ii) DISKCOPY A:B:

(iii) DEL DATA*.DBF

(iv) ERASE ?ATA*.*

(v) TYPE DATA*.*

(vi) TYPE DATA*.DBF>PRN

10. () What is formatting?

Why is it important

(ii) How would you format a Diskette?

How can you include an Operating System to a formatted diskette?

(iii) What are the two ways of Adding Dos to a formatted disk?

(iv) Write down the command for Adding Volume Label to Disk.

Computer Studies Notes Form 2

Chapter 1 Word Processors

This chapter introduces the student to what Word Processors are, and how they are used.

1.1 Definition of a Word Processor

1.2 Purpose of Word Processing

1.3 Using a Word Processor

1.4 Format and edit a document

1.5 Create and edit a table

1.6 Create and edit a mail merge document

1.7 Print a document

1.8 Insert and edit objects

1.1 Definition of a Word Processor

A Word Processor (WP) is an application or a program (software) that converts letters into
words, words into sentences, sentences into paragraph and paragraph into a document for
purposes of communication.

This process is known as Word Processing. There are several word processors available for users
in the work place and in schools.

Examples include: Ms-Word, Word Perfect, WonderWord, WordPro and so on.

1.2 Features of Word Processors

All word processors possess certain features that are unique to them.

The following are some of the features of WP.

1. Cursor - all WP possess a blinking cursor that shows the user where next to type. You can
only be able to type exactly at the position of the cursor. Once you type, the cursor then moves to
the next available space.

2. Formatting and Editing -Formatting is changing the appearance of text by selecting font
typeface or hand writing style), colour, alignment, indentation (moving text away from the
margins), bolding, changing size, underline, italic and making bulleted list.
Editing is correcting errors and ensuring clarity and accuracy like removing spelling and
grammar mistakes.

3. Spelling and grammar check - WPs have the ability to check the spelling and the grammar of
a document.

This can be set to indicate such mistakes by showing different colours on them. For example in
Ms-Word, spelling mistakes are underlined in red and grammar are underlined in green.

The user then has the chance to correct the mistakes either immediately or after completing the
task being done. Refer to section 1.5 for details.

4.Word Wrap- WPs have the ability to take an incomplete word to the next line automatically
without pressing the enter key.

This is known as word wrap.

5. Thesauras - this is a Greek word for storehouse. It stores synonyms and antonyms of different
words. The user of the WP has the option to obtain different words which mean the same or
opposite as the word to be changed.

6. Auto-correct - word which is frequently used with WP can be made to automatically be

corrected or be completed by WP in the process of typing, hence the name auto-correct. Refer to
section 1.4 for details.

7. Undo and redo - any action done by the user of the WP, can be undone by these two features.
If the user types some words which was not intended, one has the option to click undo button for
the action to be omitted or if one had deleted some word or sentence or paragraph by mistake,
one simply presses the redo button to have the same deleted items back to the right place.

8. Mail Merge - this is the ability of WP to create a common letter, e-mail or labels and add
different addresses or particulars to each letter for different people at the same time.

It has three main parts: creating main letter, creating addresses and merging the addresses to the
letter. Refer to section 1.7 for details.

9. Dictionary - WP has a dictionary where certain words can be added, to make them accepted
by WP such that it will not show the red colour symbolizing that it is a spelling mistake or a non
English word.

You can add nouns from a different language and WP will recognize them as part of the English
language. Depending on the default language used by the computer, certain words may not be
accepted though they are English words. You need to add such words to the dictionary of WP.
For example, British English will accept labour, but American will only accept labor and so on.

1.3 Purpose of a Word Processor

The purpose of a WP from the definition above is to create documents for purposes of
communication.

The essence of any word processing is to enable messages to be created for onward transmission
to the reader.

Such documents in the work place include letters, reports, circulars, emails, newsletters, memos
and so on. The documents can then be printed, or conveyed through other means such as e-mails,
or through facsimile (fax).

1.4 Using a Word Processing Package

1.4.1 Getting started

The first thing is to load the WP application you intend to use. The example that follows will
make use Microsoft Word (MS-Word) as a platform since most schools and organisations use the
same. The operating system under which the MS-Word is running is known as Windows Xp.

• To load the application to the following:

• Click Start button

• Go to All programs

• Click Microsoft office

• Click Microsoft office Word

Note: Your screen will probably not look exactly like the screen shown. In Word 2007, how a
window displays depends on the size of your window, the size of your monitor, and the
resolution to which your monitor is set.

Resolution determines how much information your computer monitor can display. If you use a
low resolution, less information fits on your screen, but the size of your text and images are
larger.

If you use a high resolution, more information fits on your screen, but the size of the text and
images are smaller. Also, Word 2007, Windows Vista, and Windows XP have settings that allow
you to change the color and style of your windows.

The Microsoft Office Button

In the upper-left corner of the Word 2007 window is the Microsoft Office button. When you click
the button, a menu appears.

You can use the menu to create a new file, open an existing file, save a file, and perform many
other tasks.

The Quick Access Toolbar

Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick Access toolbar
provides you with access to commands you frequently use.

By default Save, Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You can use Save to save
your file, Undo to rollback an action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have
rolled back.

The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. The Title bar displays the title of the document
on which you are currently working. Word names the first new document you open Documentl.
As you open additional new documents, Word names them sequentially. When you save your
document, you assign the document a new name.

 Document l - Microsoft Word

The Ribbon

You use commands to tell Microsoft Word what to do. In Microsoft Word 2007, you use the
Ribbon to issue commands.

The Ribbon is located near the top of the screen, below the Quick Access toolbar.

At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs; clicking a tab displays several related command groups.
Within each group are related command buttons. You click buttons to issue commands or to
access menus and dialog boxes.

You may also find a dialog box launcher in the bottom-right corner of a group. Clicking the
dialog box launcher gives you access to additional commands via a dialog box.
1. Click the View tab to choose it.
2. Click the check box next to Ruler in the Show/ Hide group. The ruler appears below the
Ribbon.

The Text Area

Just below the ruler is a large area called the text area. You type your document in the text area.

The blinking vertical line in the upper-left corner of the text area is the cursor.

It marks the insertion point.

As you type, your text displays at the cursor location. The horizontal line next to the cursor marks
the end of the document.

The Vertical and Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bars

The vertical and horizontal scroll bars enable you to move up, down, and across your window
simply by dragging the icon located on the scroll bar.
The vertical scroll bar is located along the right side of the screen. The horizontal scroll bar is
located just above the status bar.

To move up and down your document, click and drag the vertical scroll bar up and down. To
move back and forth across your document, click and drag the horizontal scroll bar back and
forth. You won't see a horizontal scroll bar if the width of your document fits on your screen.

The Status Bar

The Status bar appears at the very bottom of your window and provides such information as the
current page and the number of words in your document.

You can change what displays on the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar and selecting
the options you want from the Customize Status Bar menu.

You click a menu item to select it. You click it again to deselect it. A check mark next to an item
means it is selected.

Understanding Document Views

In Word 2007, you can display your document in one of five views: Draft, Web Layout, Print
Layout, Full Screen Reading, or Online Layout.

Draft View

Draft view is the most frequently used view. You use Draft view to quickly edit your document.

Web Layout

Web Layout view enables you to see your document as it would appear in a browser such as
Internet Explorer.

Print Layout

The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when it is printed.

Reading Layout

Reading Layout view formats your screen to make reading your document more comfortable.
Outline View

Outline view displays the document in outline form.

You can display headings without the text.

If you move a heading, the accompanying text moves with it.

You should use Draft view for these lessons. Before moving ahead, make sure you are in Draft
view:

1. Click the View tab.

2. Click Draft in the Document Views group. When the Draft option is selected it appears in a
contrasting color.

CLICK

During the lessons that follow, you will be asked to "click" items and to choose tabs. When asked
to click:

1. Point to the item.

2. Press your left mouse button once.

If you are asked to double-click an item:

1. Point to the item.

2. Quickly press your left mouse button twice.

If you are asked to right-click:

1. Point to the item.

2. Press your right mouse button.

If you are asked to choose a tab, click the tab.

Understanding Nonprinting Characters

Certain characters, called non printing characters, do not print and will not appear in your printed
document but do affect your document layout. You can elect to see these characters on the screen
as you type or you can elect to have them remain invisible. For these lessons, opt to see them
onscreen.

This table describes most of them:

1. Choose the Home tab.

2. Click the Show/Hide button s in the Paragraph group„ The Show/Hide button appears in a
contrasting color, when it is selected.

Create Sample Data and Select Text

If you type =rand ) in your Word document and then press Enter, Word creates three paragraphs.
You can use these paragraphs to practice what you learn. Throughout these lessons, you will be
asked to select text.
The following exercise teaches you how to create data and how to select data. You can select by
using the arrow keys or by clicking and dragging.

When using the arrow keys, use the up arrow to move up, the down arrow to move down, the left
arrow to move left, and the right arrow to move right. When using the mouse, press the left
mouse button and then drag in the direction you want to move.

Exercise 1

Create Sample Data 1. Type =rand°. 2. Press Enter. Three paragraphs appear in your document.

Select with the Shift and Arrow Keys

1. Place your cursor before the word "On" in the first paragraph.

2. Press and hold down the Shift key, which serves as an "anchor" showing where text you wish
to select begins or ends.

3. Press the right arrow key until the first line of text is highlighted.

4. Press the down arrow key until the first paragraph is highlighted.

5. Click anywhere outside the highlighted area to remove the highlighting.

Select with the Mouse

1. Place your cursor before the word "You" in the second paragraph.

2. Press and hold down the left mouse button.

3. Drag the mouse until you have highlighted the second paragraph.

4. Click anywhere outside the highlighted area to remove the highlighting.

Place the Cursor During the lessons, you will often be asked to place the cursor at a specific
location (the insertion point) on the screen.

You place the cursor by moving the cursor to the specified location and pressing the left mouse
button or by using the arrow keys to move to the specified location.

Exercise 2

The Arrow Keys 1.

Use the down arrow key to move down your document.

2. Use the right arrow key to move to the right.

3. Use the up arrow key to move up.

4. Use the left arrow key to move to the left.

Cursor

1. Move around you document by using you mouse and clicking in a variety of location.

2. Click in a location and type.

Note what happens.

Execute Commands With Keyboard Shortcuts

There are many methods you can use to accomplish tasks when using Word. Generally, you
choose an option by clicking the option on the Ribbon.

However, you can also use shortcut keys.

A key name followed by a plus and a letter means to hold down the key while pressing the letter.
For example, Ctrl+b means you should hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "b."

A shorthand notation of the above would read as follows: Press Ctrl+b.

Typists who are slowed down by using a mouse usually prefer using keys.

Start a New Paragraph When you type in Microsoft Word, you do not need to press a key to
move to a new line. To start a new paragraph, press the Enter key.

Exit Word

Typically, you save your work before exiting. The exit button is located in the extreme right
corner of your window.

Close and Save

1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.

2. Click Exit Word, which is in the bottom-right corner.

3. You will be prompted: "Do you want to save changes to Documentl?" To save your changes,
click Yes. Otherwise, click No. If you click Yes, the Save As dialog box appears.

4. Specify the correct folder in the Save In box.

5. Name your file by typing Lesson One.doc in the File Name field.Click Save. Word saves your
file as shown below.

Retrieving Document

Once the document has been saved, it exists in the computer. To open it, do the following:

1. Click the office button

2. Click open

3. On the open window, choose where you saved the document

4. Identify the document and click open

1.5 Editing and formatting a document

1.5.1 Editing a document

Selecting text For you to be able to edit and format a document, the text should first be
highlighted (selected).

This can be done by using the following methods:

1. One word- simply point the mouse and click or click and drag the mouse over it. You can also
double click the word.

2. A sentence- point the sentence and click if it is separated from the rest of the text, or click and
drag the mouse over the sentence.

3. A paragraph tri le click the ara roc h i.e click three times.

4. A whole document- place the cursor at the beginning of the document, hold the shift button
down and click the end of the document.

Moving a text means to relocate the text from its original place to another place.
This is done by using cut and paste method. One you select text, simply click on cut option from
the tool bar, or right click after selecting document on the pop-up menu as shown below.

Position the cursor where you want to move the text and click paste. For example, you can cut
and paste (move) one paragraph from one place to another.

The above is the pop-up menu that appears when you right click.

Copying text

Copying text means making its duplicate elsewhere. This is done by selecting text, then clicking
copy button from the tool bar or from the pop-up menu and pasting the text where you want it to
be.

Type, Backspace, and Delete

In Microsoft Word, you create documents by typing them. For example, if you want to create a
report, you open Microsoft Word and then begin typing.

You do not have to do anything when your text reaches the end of a line and you want to move to
a new line—Microsoft Word automatically moves your text to a new line.
If you want to start a new paragraph, press Enter.

Microsoft word creates a blank line to indicate the start of a new paragraph. To capitalize, hold
down the Shift key while typing the letter you want to capitalize. If you make a mistake, you can
delete what you typed and then type your correction. You can use the Backspace key to delete.

Each time you press the Backspace key, Microsoft Word deletes the character that precedes the
insertion point. The insertion point is the point at which your mouse pointer is located.

You can also delete text by using the Delete key.

First, you select the text you want to delete; then you press the Delete key.

Exercise 1

Type and Backspace

1. Type the following sentence: Alex has a very large house.

2. Delete the word "house."

Using either the arrow keys or the mouse, place the cursor between the period and the "e" in
"house."

3. Press the Backspace key until the word "house" is deleted.

4. Type boat. The sentence should now read: "Alex has a very large boat."

Delete

Delete the word "very" from the sentence you just typed.

1. Select the word "very." You can place the cursor before the "v" in the word "very," press and
hold down the Shift key, and then press the right arrow key until the word "very" is highlighted.

2. Press the Delete key.

The sentence should now read: "Alex has a large boat."

Insert and Over type

While creating your document, you may find you need to insert text—place new text between
existing text.

Suppose, you type the sentence, "Alex has a large boat."

After typing it, you decide you want to change the sentence to "Alex has a large blue boat." With
Microsoft Word, inserting a word, phrase, or even several paragraphs is easy.

Alternatively, you may want to overtype text—replace old text with new text. For example,
suppose you type the sentence, "Alex has a large blue boat."

After typing it, you decide you want to change the sentence to "Alex has a large gray boat." With
Microsoft Word, overtyping the word blue with the word gray is also easy.

Before you attempt to insert or overtype, you should check the mode you are in—Insert or
Overtype. yYo -ci. right-click the Status bar and then use the Customize Status Bar menu to place
the Insert Over pe button on the Status bar. You can then use the Insert/Overtype button to switch
between Insert and Overtype mode. When you are in Insert mode, you can insert text.

When you are in Overtype mode, you can overtype text. By default, Microsoft Word is in the
Insert mode.

Exercise 2

Placing the Insert/Overtype button on the Status bar 1. Right-click the Status bar.

The Customize Status Bar menu appears.

2. Click Overtype. The Insert/Overtype button appears on the Status bar.

3. If the word Insert appears on the Status bar, you are in Insert mode.

4. If the word Overtype appears on the Status bar, click the word Overtype and it will change to
Insert, thereby changing Word to Insert mode.

Insert

Make sure you are in Insert mode before proceeding. You are going to insert the word "blue"
between the words "large" and "boat."

1. Place the cursor after the space between the words "large" and "boat."

2. Type the word blue.

3. Press the spacebar to add a space.

4. The sentence should now read: "Alex has a large blue boat."

Overtype

You can type over the current text (replace the current text with new text) in the Overtype mode.
Do the following to change to the Overtype mode.

• Click "Insert" on the Status bar.

The word Insert changes to Overtype.

Change the word "blue" to "gray."

1. Place the cursor before the letter "b" in "blue."

2. Type the word gray.

3. The sentence should now read: "Alex has a large gray boat."

Note: You can overtype text without changing to Overtype mode by selecting the text you want
to overtype and then typing.

The following window appears:

Inside the Find what box, type a word or a sentence you intend to find to be replaced by another
word or sentence.

Example: Type the name Alex inside Find what box Once you have typed the word, click the
Replace tab, the following window appears:

Inside the Replace box, type the word you intend to replace Alex with. Then click replace if it is
one word, or Replace All. The word or words will then be simultaneously replaced.

.5.3 Proof Reading

Microsoft word 2007, as mentioned earlier has the ability to identify spelling and grammar errors
and correct them.
It is always a good practice to proof read your documents before sending them for printing for an
examination.

Under this section we will look at spelling and grammar, the use of thesaurus, auto-correct and
the use of undo and re-do buttons.

Spelling and grammar check The keyboard shortcut F7 takes you straight to spelling and
grammar check window shown below. You can also click Review menu and then choose spelling
and grammar.

Home Insert Page Layout

Steps to use: Once the word with a spelling or a sentence with grammar problem is shown inside
the Not in Dictionary box, look at the suggestions given in the suggestions box and click Change
if it one word or change All if they are many word with the same spelling mistakes.

You can decline to change it or them by clicking Ignore or Ignore All respectively.

Please note that on the spelling and Grammar window, the English language being used is shown.

For instance the current one is English (U.S).

You can vary this by choosing the arrow on Dictionary language as shown above.

Steps to use: Once the word with a spelling or a sentence with grammar problem is shown inside
the Not in Dictionary box, look at the suggestions given in the suggestions box and click Change
if it one word or change All if they are many word with the same spelling mistakes.

You can decline to change it or them by clicking Ignore or Ignore AP respectively. Please note
that on the spelling and Grammar window, the English language being used is shown. For
instance the current one is English (U.S).

You can vary this by choosing the arrow on Dictionary language as shown above.
Thesaurus This is the feature which will enable you to get alternative words which have the same
meaning (synonyms) as a word you intend to change.

It also provides words with opposite meanings (antonyms).

Steps to use Select the word to search a different meaning for under thesaurus.

Alternatively, select the word then right click on it, then; the following pop-up menu will appear.
Choose synonyms, then thesaurus as shown below.
Auto-correct

This feature is used to automatically replace either frequently misspelled words or long words
that you do not intend to type completely because they consume time to type.

These words must be included in the autocorrect dictionary if this feature is to be activated.

Example

Words such as miscellaneous are often long and tedious to write. You may also decide that
gyerytir_ne you write a misspelled word more as moer, it should automatically be corrected to
more. This is how to set up the autocorrect feature.

Steps

Select the word to autocorrect e.g moer above Right click on it.
The following menu appears
When you click the Autocorrect the following window appears:

Note the word moer inside the replace box, the cursor is blinking inside the with box. Simply
type the word more inside the replace box. Once you type the word more, the Add button will be
activated. Once you click on it, the both words will be added to the dictionary as shown below.
The following window now shows that both words are added to the dictionary as shown below.

This process is the same for long words like miscellaneous. Simply enter a short form under
autocorrect e.g. misc. Once entered, it will always correct it to the full word immediately you
press space bar from the keyboard.
The undo icon is used to clear what has recently been done and which you do not intend to have
as part of the text. However, if you do realize later that you have cleared a word, a sentence and
so on by mistake, you can use re-do to bring it back to be part of your text.

1.5.4 Formatting a document 1.5.4.1

Text Formatting

The aim of formatting text is to make it more reader friendly by bolding, italicizing, changing
fonts and font types, changing cases and so on.

The first step as has been mentioned elsewhere in this topic is to select the text first.

One the selection has been done one has the option of using either the shortcut commands on the
shortcut tool bar or clicking Font and accessing the commands from there.
The action is performed immediately you click the either B /or U after selecting the word or
sentence and so on.

If you click the arrow under Font, the window below will open. The menu found in this window
contains the shortcut commands above.

The bold (B), Italic (/) commands are found under Font style.

The underline (U) is found under underline style. Under font, you find the different fonts i.e the
different 'hand writing' styles.

There is also size box which contains the different sizes of the Fonts and the Font colour box,
contains the different colours you could apply to the fonts chosen.
Change case
Capital letters, small letters and so on are known as cases in WP. In this section we are looking at
the different cases that are provided for. To access the different cases, click Aa on shortcut tool
bar as shown below:

There are five different cases that you can change your sentence to. To apply the different cases,
simply select your sentence and click the case you desire to change your text to.

1. Sentence case - this is where the first letter in a sentence is capital and the rest are small.
Example is: Sentence case. Note that the first letter is capital and the rest are small

2. Lower case are small letters. Example: lowercase, Note that there is no capital letters.

3. Uppercase are capital letters.

Example is: UPPERCASE, note that they are all CAPITAL letters.

4. Capitalize Each Word- when you apply this case, each word in the sentence is made to start
with a capital letter. Example is Capitalize Each Word.<p? S. tOGGLE cASE - this is where
the first letter in a word is small and the rest are capital. The example is as shown in the
toggle case above. </p?

Drop caps
There are two types of drop caps as shown above: Dropped and In margin. The former is
dropped by a some lines, whereas the latter stands on a separate margin from the main text.

Hint: To remove the drop cap, simply select the drop cap and click none above to remove it.

Superscript and Subscript

Superscript is a character which appears superimposed above a text, whereas subscript
appears beneath a text. Example:

1.5.5 Paragraph formatting

Formatting alignment on paragraph includes alignment, indentation, spacing, applying
section breaks, inserting bullets and numbering, page and section breaks among others. All
these are found under paragraph menu in Microsoft Word 2007.

Alignment

To align text means to position it to the left, centre, right or justified.

Highlight the text to align, then click the following icons respectively.

Hint: When you click the arrow on paragraph above, you obtain t me menu under
alignment box.

Exercise: Click the paragraph arrow and identify the alignments within the para

window.
Indentation

To indent means to move away from the margins. You can indent text to the left by placing
your cursor at the beginning of text, then click decrease indent shown

Or You could indent to the right by clicking on increase indent as shown below.

Hint: On paragraph window above, under indentation, you perform the alignment by
specifying under left or right box, in terms of centimeters cm or any other unit of
measurement defaulted on your computer.

Exercise

Change the left alignment to 3cm and check the position of your cursor on screen. You can
be guided by the ruler on your screen.
Spacing

This is the space between one sentence and another, vertically. To apply spacing, select the
text, click on line spacing below and choose the line spacing you wish to apply.

Exercise:

Identify the line spacing box under paragraph window. You can also add spacing before
and after paragraph by clicking on Add space before paragraph or Add Space after
Paragraph above.

What this does is, from the word where you want to add space before, there will be a space
on top of that word, and space after paragraph will create space after the word selected.

Example

Observe keenly the changes that this original text will have after applying Add space before
and after paragraph commands.

Explanation

The text highlighted in green is selected and Add space before paragraph option used. Note
the space on top of the word spacing that is highlighted with red colour.
Sample task Change the left alignment to 3cm and check the position of your cursor on
screen.

You can be guided by the ruler on your screen. Spacing This is the space between one
sentence and another, vertically.

a) Add space before paragraph

Exercise Change the left alignment to 3cm and check the position of your cursor on screen.
You can be guided by the ruler on your screen. Ong Pace created before the word

This is the space between one sentence and another, vertically.

b) Add space after paragraph

- this will create space after the word spacing as shown above.

Exercise: By going to the paragraph menu, specify the space through up and down arrows
shown below.

Bullets and numbering

Bullets and numbering are classified as list.

They typically used to list items in some order. The bullets are basically symbols and the
numbering can be alphabets, decimal numbers (1-10) or roman numerals L i-x).

Under this listing, you also find multi level list, basically used where you have a main point
broken down into sub-points.

Bullets Highlight the list to apply bullets to and then click bullets of your choice. The bullets
will be applied to your list.

To remove the bullets, simply highlight the text and click none above.

Numbering

Highlight the list to apply numbering to and then click numbering of your choice. The
numbers will be applied to your list.
Exercise

Explore the multilevel list by applying to a list.

Page and Section breaks

Page break divides a page by inserting a new one from the point of the cursor. Section
breaks inserts a new section form the point of the cursor. There are different pages.and
section breaks as shown below.

To apply a break, simply place your cursor at the start point and click breaks above on
page layout, then choose page or section break.
1.5.6 Page formatting

Page Setup menu incorporates page layout menu which has the commands necessary to
format a page.

These include margins, orientation, page size, columns, text direction, tabs and so on. This
is shown below:

Page layout

A page layout in Ms-word 2007 involves the margins orientation, paper size and columns.

Setting the margins To set your own margins, click the arrow on margins. Once the setup
window opens, insert left, right, top and bottom margins.

Hint: to change measurement units from inches to cm, click office button and click word
options. The following window will open. On measurement units, change to cm.
Changing orientation

On page setup window above, change the orientation of your page by choosing either
portrait (vertical orientation) or landscape (horizontal orientation).

Paper size

On page setup window above, change the paper size by first clicking the paper tab as shown
below.
The window below opens. Choose your paper size as desired, by clicking the arrow on A5
below

Setting Columns

To set columns, do the following:

Click Page Layout menu

Click columns Choose the desired columns from the list shown.

Hint: You can also choose more columns if you want to put a specific gap between your
columns.

Exercise: Click on more columns and choose 3 columns, then apply 1.25cm gap between
your columns.

Headers and Footers

Header is a running head or text that appears on top of every page.

Footer on the other hand is text which appears below every page on your document.

Setting headers and Footers

Microsoft word 2007 has placed this command under Insert menu.

• Click insert menu.

Click header or footer.

• Choose the appropriate layout and type the text to appear on them.

• Once you complete writing on your header, double click anywhere on the text to return to
normal page.

You can also click on Close Header and Footer Close

Hint: If you double click on the header band once you have written your header, note the
way the shortcut tool bar changes with new commands written header and footer Design

Exercise: Use the window below to answer the questions given.

1. Set your header and then click the Different first page box and write down your finding.

2. Do the same for different Odd and Even Pages

3. Try the use of Header from top and Footer from bottom by changing the numbers shown
in the box.

Write down your findings.

Inserting Page numbers

Click insert menu, choose page number and choose where you want your page numbers to
appear.
Exercise

1. Click on Format Page Numbers option and choose the number format of your choice.

2. Remove the page numbers you have placed on your document. Write the steps you have
followed to do this.

1.5.8 Creating and Editing a Table

Creating tables in Ms-word 2007 is easy. Simply place the cursor where you want the table
to go. On insert menu, click table.

By highlighting over the rows and columns, you are choosing the number of rows and
columns you wish to have on your table.

Observe the following and record you think the author is doing by clicking on the table
menu and the insertion taking place.
Hint: the author have chosen a 4x4 table from the table menu above and the same has been
placed below as a table.

Exercise Editing tables

Tables can be resized, new columns/rows inserted, rows/columns can be merged and they
can also be split.

- Resizing rows/columns

The easier way of expanding your rows is to place the cursor within a row and press enter.

Hint: Alternatively, select the row to expand and right click. A pop-up window will appear,
choose table properties then click the row tab. The window below will appear. On size,
specify height.
Resizing columns

Place the cursor on the boundaries of the column you intend to expand. A double headed
pointer as shown below will appear. Columns are resized by moving the double headed
pointer in the direction you want to expand the table. This is illustrated below.

Inserting rows and columns

To insert a row or a column, simply select the row or column. Right click on it and click
insert, then choose row/column and the position of insertion desired
Deleting rows/columns

• Highlight the row/column to delete.

• Right click on it

• On the pop-up menu, click either delete rows or delete columns depending on what you
selected to delete.

Merging rows/columns

• Highlight the row/column to merge

• Right click on the same

• On the pop-up window click merge cells.

• The cells will be merged.

Entering data in a table Simply place your cursor in the cell you wish to enter data and type
the usual way.

Exercise Type inside a cell and then change the text direction vertically.

Hint: Simply highlight the cell containing text and right click. Choose text direction from
pop-up window.

Formatting Tables

Formatting a table is to make it appealing to the reader. You can put borders and shading
on it to enhance the contents.

Steps: Highlight the entire table or row/column as desired.

Right click and choose borders and shading from the pop-up menu.

When you click on borders and shading, the following window pops-up.
To apply the borders

• Highlight where to apply border,

• Click a setting e.g. Box, grid

• Choose the style you want,

• Choose colour

• Choose width to apply to the borders

• On Apply to box, click where to apply the border

Exercise

Create a table of 4 rows and 5 columns

Apply the grid borders to the table

Apply colour of your desire Apply appropriate width.

Exercise

Using shading tab, apply shading on the first row of the table in on the exercise above.
Make sure to choose, the style, the colour and where to apply the shading.

Split cells

Click in a cell, or select multiple cells that you want to split.

Under Table Tools, on the Layout tab, in the Merge group, click Split Cells.

Hint: Once you highlight the table tools will appear on top of the menus.
Table conversions

Ms-Word 2007 allows you to convert contents of a table into text and likewise convert text
into a table.

This feature is used to convert the selected text into a table, splitting the text into columns at
each comma period, or other characters you specify.

For example the sentence above beginning with the word this feature... is separated by three
commas, hence making them four sentences.

To convert the sentence into columns, select the text, then click insert menu and choose
table.

On the drop down box, choose convert text to table.

The following will be the result:

Converting table to text
Highlight the table to convert to text. On table tools,

Sort the contents of a table

In Print Layout view, move the pointer over the table until the table move handle appears.
Click the table move handle to select the table that you want to sort.

Under Table Tools, on the Layout tab, in the Data group, click Sort. In the Sort dialog box,
select the options that you want.
Sort a single column in a table

Select the column that you want to sort. Under Table Tools, on the Layout tab, in the Data
group, click Sort.

Under M list has click Header row or No header row. Click Options. Under Sort options,
select the Sort column only check box. Click OK.

Sort by more than one word or field inside a table column

- To sort the data in a table that is based on the contents of a column that includes more
than one word, you must first use characters to separate the data — including data in the
header row. For example, if the cells in a column contain both last and first names, you can
use commas to separate the names.

- Select the column that you want to sort. Under Table Tools, on the Layout tab, in the Data
group, click Sort.

- Under My list has, click Header row or No header row. Click Options.
- Under Separate fields at, click the type of character that separates the words or fields that
you want to sort, and then click OK. Under Sort by, in the Using list, select which word or
field you want to sort by.

- In the first Then by list, enter the column that contains the data that you want to sort by,
and then in the Using list, select which word or field you want to sort by.

- If you want to sort by an additional column, repeat this step in the second Then by list.
Click OK.

Arithmetic Calculations

- Once you have a set of data in a table as shown below, Ms-word provides you with an
option to enter a formula and perform calculation on the data present.

- To insert a formula in the cell under profit, simply place your cursor where the answer
should be, and go to Table tools menu.

- On layout, click formula (fix) as shown below.

- The formula appears for you [=sum(above)] and the word above indicates the items to be
added.

- If the formula is not the one you intended to have, simply go paste function, and choose
the right function.

- Click ok to perform calculation.

On Number format, choose the format you want e.g. 0.00 to mean two decimal places for
the answer.
Updating your answer

Hint: if you change any number within the cells, the answer will not be updated
automatically.

Simply go to the cell containing the answer, right click and choose update.

The answer will then be updated for you. Exercise From the table above, show how the
author obtained the answer 133 for the profit under the item beans.

1.6 Creating and Updating a Mail Merge document

Mail merge is a key feature of Ms-word. It is a process which allows the user to create a
main letter (envelope, email or labels) and merge it with data source (list of addresses) to
produce personalized letters.

This is normally applicable in situations where you need to produce many letters for
different people, yet having some aspects of that letter being standard.

Example

You can use mail merge to produce letters for students in a school who obviously have
different addresses and different school fees balances.

Steps of mail merge Mail merge is a three step process which involves the following:

1. Creating a main letter or envelope or labels

2. Creating or importing a data source (also known as recipient's list)

3. Merging the main document with the data source.

1. Creating Main document

The main document being a letter usually has certain features which are common for
everyone and others which are unique to the individual.

Such a letter will often take the following format:

Accountant

The above is a sample letter. The fields marked by <>, means they are all unique and will
be filled by details from the data source or recipients list.

To create the above letter, open a new Ms-word document and start typing it as it is. Once
you have typed the letter, do the following: Click Mailings,
Click step by step Mail Merge Wizard

On your right hand side, mail merge options appear as shown below.
Once the option of select recipients is opened, you have the option to choose the options as
shown below.
In the customize Address List that appears, ensure that the fieldnames are renamed
according to the letter above.
You can rename the existing ones by clicking rename, or Add, if you simply want a fresh
list as per your letter and then use the option delete to delete all the other field names that
do not fit your requirements.

Once completed click ok.

The complete list is shown below. I have chosen to rename the field names and afterwards
delete what I do not need.

This is done repeatedly until all the fields are changed. The final results look like this.
Enter data once the window appears. Some two records have been entered already. Once
you complete the process of entering data, then click Ok. The Save As window will appear.
Save the data source.

Observe the left side of the window and see the edit recipient list is activated as shown
below.
When you click on edit recipient list, the following window will be displayed showing your
data source.
The next step is inserting merge fields to the letter.

On the tool bar, you will notice that the insert merge field is now activated ready for use.
Please note that the fieldnames we created are existing when you click the insert merge field
as shown above.

L The next step is click and insert each of these fieldnames in their respective areas within
the letter, the idea is to highlightin the letter, and choose prefix from the insert merge field
to substitute.

The former fieldnames were just holding those places temporarily.

This is how the letter will look like with the new field names.
Accountant

Hint: Make sure you format the letter properly by creating enough spaces between
fieldnames.

Exercise

Can you spot the difference between this letter and the one before?

Final step

The final step is merging. Simply click finish & merge

Finish Merge
1. Choose Edit individual Documents option. The following window will appear. Choose
your option.

For the purpose of this exercise, I will choose All radio button.

The results will a merged document of two letters as per the data source.
Accountant

Note: Since we did not merge the field for , nothing has come in that field. Apart from
choosing the edit individual documents, you can also decide to:

2. Choose print documents option which enables you to print the documents and post as
hard copies or
3. you can choose send email messages, in which case, the merged documents will be sent as
email messages. When this happens, the individual person to whom the letter was written
receives only an email copy of that document.

Exercise

Click the option of send as email messages and write down the steps used till the documents
are sent.

1.8 Printing Documents

Printing provides you with hard copy of what you see on the screen.

The printed documents form an age old way to keep documents for future reference.

1.8.1 Printer setup

To setup a printer using windows )cp do the following:

• Click start

• Click Printers and faxes or go to control panel and click printers and faxes

• Click Add a printer on the printers and faxes window

• On Add a printer wizard, click next and follow the instructions to finish
NB: All printers currently require that you install the printer drivers (software) first,
before you set it up. Often the instructions given above are used when the printer drivers
are presently in your computer.

Once your printer is installed, you can preview your documents before printing to ensure
the document output is as required.

Print preview

Click office button

Click print, then, print preview

When you click print preview, you will decide on whether to go ahead and print or make
modifications appropriately. Such changes are explained below.

The print options available for you include changing margins, paper orientation, size and so
on.

Printer selection

When you click on print, there are choices that you can make before you print the
document.
On print window, under printer, the defaulted printer is the one that pops under name. If it
is not the one you intend to use, click on the arrow and choose another print.

On page range, you can choose to print All pages, current page which means where the
cursor is currently placed or you can take the third option, pages, where you specify the
range of pages to print such as 1, 3, 5-13.

This means, it will print page 1, skip page 2, print page 3, skip page 4, and print pages from
5 to 13.

The last option on print is to choose the number of copies you want to print of each page.
Under number of copies, type the number of copies you want for each page.
Finally click ok to print the document.

1.9 Inserting Graphics

In Ms-word, there are 3 types of graphics provided. These are drawing, pictures and charts.

You can insert any of these graphics by either drawing or importing them from file,
internet or Clip Art. On insert menu, under illustrations, you can insert picture, Clip Art,
shapes, SmartArt and Chart

General instructions on insertion

1. Place the cursor where you want to place your graphic.

2. Click on the illustration of your choice, and choose the specific graphic under the
illustration.

Drawing Shapes

In case of the shapes, choose the shape and stretch the shape in the direction you want. For
example, to draw a shape, click insert, then shapes, choose your shape from the drop down
menu and follow these instructions.

To draw the rectangle, click on it and place the cursor (now a plus sign) to the place you
wish to draw the rectangle).

Stick on the left mouse button and stretch the place sign to form the rectangular shape as
shown below
To resize a shape, use the dots or rectangles around the shape.

When stretching it in a particular direction, make sure that you have double pointed
arrows move the whole table, ensure you have a four headed arrow, stick the mouse and
move in the direction desired. Using text box If you wi to write inside a shape, click text box
shown above.

It provides with the space and the cursor to use for typing.

Exercise

Use shapes to draw an organisation structure of your school.

Type the names of under each shape.

Then stretch in that direction to expand.

Chapter 2

Spreadsheets

This chapter introduces the student to what Spreadsheets are, the components, application
areas and the practical usage.
2.0 Definition of Spreadsheets

2.1 Components of a spreadsheet

2.2 Application areas of spreadsheets

2.3 create and edit a Spreadsheet

2.4 explain different cell data types

2.5 Apply cell referencing

2.6 Apply functions and formulae

2.7 Apply data management skills

2.8 Apply charting and graphing skills

2.9 Print worksheet and graph

2.0 Definition of Spreadsheets

A spreadsheet is a grid that organizes data into columns and rows. Spreadsheets make it
easy to display information, and people can insert formulas to work with the data.

The columns are marked by letters and the rows are marked by numbers.

For example column A, B, C beyond letter 26 i.e Z, the columns are marked as AA, AB
etcetera. The intersection of a row and a column is often known as a cell.

Each cell has a name known a cell reference.

Each cell is named by the column and the row in which the cell falls under. For example,
Cell A3 means that it is on column A and row 3.

The cell where the cursor is placed operations is known as an Active cell.
2.1 Components of a Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is made up of three key components. These are: worksheet, database and
graphs.

2.1.1 Worksheet

A spreadsheet is made up of many worksheets as shown above in the sheet tab.

The total sum of all the worksheets, make up a workbook different sets of information. You
can add as many worksheets as you wish in a workbook.

2.1.2 Database

A spreadsheet can hold many records properly ordered in a given format.

These records are about particular people or things which make Such records are related
and could be placed together in one worksheet to mean a file of an entity. The figure above
is a workbook. Each of these worksheets may hold up the records, classified under specified
fields. This is a database.

2.1.3 Graphs

A spreadsheet provides a pictorial representation of data in the form of a graph.

This is a key feature of a spreadsheet.

Whereas words describe analysed data, graphs provide a quick way to visualize the same
output.

2.2. Application areas of a spreadsheet

Spreadsheets are often used in the following application areas:

a) Statistical data analysis

b) Accounting

c) Data management

d) Forecasting(what if analysis)

e) Scientific application

2.2.1 Statistical Analysis

2.2.2 Accounting

2.2.3 Data management

2.2.4 Forecasting (what if analysis)

2.2.5 Scientific application

2.3 Creating a worksheet/workbook

2.3.1 Getting started For purposes of this syllabus we shall use Microsoft Office Excel (MS-
Excel).

 Go to start button
 Click Microsoft Office Excel
 The worksheet below will open

2.3.2 Worksheet layout The following worksheet loads when you click on MS-Excel.

The parts of this worksheet has been explained above, section 2.0. The menus will be
explained as we move along.

The office button, operations button such as exit, minimize, maximize and restore remain
the same as in Ms-Word.
2.3.3 Running the program -actical Learning:

Starting Microsoft Excel ) start Microsoft Excel, from the Taskbar, click :art -> (All)
Programs -> Microsoft Office -> Microsoft Office Excel
The Office Button Introduction

Then Microsoft Excel opens, it displays an interface divided I. various sections.

The top section displays a long bar also called the title bar. 76:3' The title bar starts on the
left side with the Office Button you position the mouse on it, a tool tip would appear:
The Options of the Office Button

Then clicked (with the mouse's left button), the Office Button displays a menu:
perform the routine Windows operations of a re including creating a new document,
opening ar saving a document, etc. We will see these regular application, existing file, or
ations in future

As you can see, the menu of the Office button allows you to lessons.

If you right-click the office button, you would get a short menu:
We will come back to the options on this menu.

The Quick Access Toolbar

Introduction

On the right side of the Office Button, there is the Quick Access Toolbar Like a normal
toolbar, the Quick Access displays some buttons.

You can right-click the Quick Access toolbar. A menu would appear:

If you want to hide the Quick Access toolbar, you can right-click it and click Remove Quick
Access Toolbar.

To know what a button is used for, you can position the mouse on. A tool tip would appear.

Once you identify the button you want, you can click it.

Adding a Button to the Quick Access Toolbar By default, the Quick Access toolbar is
equipped with three buttons: Save, Undo, and Redo.
If you want to add more buttons or more options, you can right-click the Quick Access
toolbar and click Customize Quick Access Toolbar...

This would display the Excel Options dialog box:

To add a button to the Quick Access toolbar, on the left list of Add, click an option and
click Add.

After making the selections, click OK.

To remove a button from the Quick Access toolbar, right-click it on the Quick Access
toolbar and click Remove From Quick Access Toolbar.

The Quick Access Button On the right side of the Quick Access toolbar, there is the
Customize button with a down-pointing arrow.

If you click or right-click this button, a menu would appear:

The role of this button is to manage some aspects of the top section of Microsoft Excel, such
as deciding what buttons to display on the Quick Access toolbar.

For example, instead of using the Customize Quick Access Toolbar menu item as we saw
previously, you can click an option from that menu and its corresponding button would be
added to the Quick Access toolbar.

If the options on the menu are no click either Customize Quick Access Toolbar or More
Commands...

This would open the Excel Options dialog box.

The main or middle area of the top section displays the name of the application: Microsoft
Excel.

You can right-click the title bar to display a menu that is managed by the operating system.
On the right side of the title bar, there are three system buttons that allow you to minimize,
maximize, restore, or close Microsoft Access.

Under the title bar, there is another bar with a Help button on the right side.

The Ribbon Introduction

Under the title bar, Microsoft Excel displays a long bar called the Ribbon

Minimizing the Ribbon

By default, the Ribbon displays completely in the top section of Microsoft Excel under the
title bar.

One option is to show it the way the main menu appeared in previous versions of Microsoft
Excel.

To do this:

• Right-click the Office Button, the Quick Access toolbar, or the Ribbon itself, and click
Minimize the Ribbon

• Click or right-click the button on the right side of the Quick Access toolbar:

:
This would display the Ribbon like a main menu:

To show the whole Ribbon again:

. Right-click the Office Button, the Quick Access toolbar, or one of the Ribbon menu items,
and click Minimize the Ribbon to remove the check mark on it
• Click or right-click the button on the right side of the Quick Access toolbar and click
Minimize the Ribbon to remove the check mark on it

• Double-click one of the menu items of the Ribbon Changing the Location of the Ribbon By
default, the Quick Access toolbar displays on the title bar and the Ribbon displays under it.

If you want, you can switch their locations.

To do that, right-click the Office Button, the Quick Access toolbar, or the Ribbon, and click
Show Quick Access Toolbar Below the Ribbon:

To put them back to the default locations, right-click the Office Button, the Quick Access
toolbar, or the Ribbon, and click Show Quick Access Toolbar Above the Ribbon.

The Tabs of the Ribbon The ribbon is a type of property sheet made of various property
pages.

Each page is represented with a tab. To access a tab:

• You can click its label or button, such as Home or Create

• You can press Alt or F10. This would display the access key of each

It your mouse has a wheel, you can position the mouse anywhere on the ribbon, and role the
wheel. If you role the wheel down, the next tab on the right side would be selected.
If you role the wheel up, the previous tab on the left would be selected.

You can keep rolling the wheel until the desired tab is selected To identify each tab of the
Ribbon, we will refer to them by their names.

The Sections of a Tab

Each tab of the ribbon is divided in various sections, each delimited by visible borders of
vertical lines on the left and right.

Each section displays a title in its bottom side.

In our lessons, we will refer to each section by that title.

For example, if the title displays Font, we will call that section, "The Font Section".

Some sections of the Ribbon display a button .

If you see such a button, you can click it.

This would open a dialog box or a window.

The Buttons of the Ribbon Since there are various buttons and sometimes they are
unpredictable, to know what a particular button is used for, you can position your mouse
on it.

A small box would appear to let you know what that particular button is used for; that
small box is called a tool tip:

You can also use context sensitive help in some cases to get information about an item.
You can add a button from a section of the Ribbon to the Quick Access toolbar.

To do that, right-click the button on the Ribbon and click Add to Quick Access Toolbar:

Remember that, to remove a button from the Quick Access toolbar, right-click it on the
Quick Access toolbar and click Remove From Quick Access Toolbar.

The More Buttons of the Ribbon In some sections of the Ribbon, on the lower-right section,
there is a button:
That button is used to display an intermediary dialog box for some action. We will see
various examples as we move on.

When Microsoft Excel is occupying a big area or the whole area of the monitor, most
buttons of the Ribbon appear with text.

Sometimes you may need to use only part of the screen.

That is, you may need to narrow the Microsoft Excel interface.

If you do, some of the buttons may display part of their appearance and some would display
only an icon.

Consider the difference in the following three screenshots:

In this case, when you need to access an object, you can still click it or click its arrow. If the
item is supposed to have many objects, a new window may appear and display those
objects: From this:
The Name Box Under the Ribbon, there is a white box displayi Al (it may not display Al...),
that small box is Box:

The Insert Function Button On the right side of the Name box, there is a gray box with an
fx button.

That fx button is called the Insert Function button.

The Formula Bar On the right side of the Insert Function button is a long empty white box
or section called the Formula Bar:

You can hide or show the Formula Bar anytime. To do this, on the Ribbon, click View.

In the Show/Hide section:

• To hide the Formula Bar, remove the check mark on the Formula Bar check box

• To show the Formula Bar, check the Formula Bar check box The Column Headers Under
the Name Box and the Formula bar. you see the column headers.

The columns are labeled A, B, C, etc:

There are 255 of columns. The Row Headers On the left side of the main window, there are
small boxes called row headers.

Each row header is labeled with a number, starting at 1 on top, then 2, and so on:
The Cells The main area of Microsoft Excel is made of cells.

A cell is the intersection of a column and a row:

A cell is identified by its name and every cell in as a name.

By default,Microsoft Excel appends the name of a row to the name of a column to identify a
cell.

Therefore, the top-left cell is named Al. You can check the name of the cell in the Name
Box. Practical Learning: Using Cells

1. Click anywhere in the work area and type A (It doesn't matter where you click and type)

2. Click another part of the worksheet and type 42XL 3. Click again another place on the
worksheet type and press Enter
Fundamentals

The Scroll Bars

On the right side of the cells area, there is a vertical scroll bar that allows you to scroll up
and down in case your document cannot display everything at a time:

In the lower right section of the main window, there is a horizontal scroll bar that allows
you to scroll left and right if your worksheet has more items than can be displayed all at
once:

Sometimes the horizontal scroll bar will appear too long or too narrow for you.

If you want, you can narrow or enlarge it.

To do this, click and drag the button on the left side of the horizontal scroll bar:
The Sheet Tabs

On the left side of the horizontal scrollbar, there are the worksheet tabs:

By default, Microsoft Excel provides three worksheets to start with. You can work with any
of them and switch to another at any time by clicking its tab. The Navigation Buttons On
the left side of the worksheet tabs; there are four navigation buttons:

If you happen to use a lot of worksheets or the worksheet names Are using too much space,
which would result in some worksheets being hidden under the horizontal scroll bar, you
can use the navigation buttons to move from one worksheet to another.

The Status Bar Under the navigation buttons and the worksheet tabs, the Status Bar
provides a lot of information about the job that is going on.

Microsoft Excel File Operations

A Microsoft Excel file gets saved like any traditional Windows file.

To save a file:

• You can press Ctrl + S

• On the Quick Access Toolbar, you can click the Save button
• You can click the Office Button and click Save Two issues are important.

Whenever you decide to save a file for the first time, you need to provide a file name and a
location.

The file name helps the computer identify that particular file and register it.

A file name can consist of up to 255 characters, you can Include spaces and dashes in a
name.

Although there are many characters you can use in a name (such as exclamation points,
etc), try to avoid fancy names.

Give your file a name that is easily recognizable, a little explicit. For example such names as
Time Sheets, Employee's Time Sheets, GlobalEX First Invoice are explicit enough.

Like any file of the Microsoft Windows operating systems, a Microsoft Excel file has an
extension, which is .xls but you don't have to type it in the name.

The second important piece of information you should pay attention to when saving your
file is the location.

The location is the drive and/or the folder where the file will be saved.

By default, Microsoft Excel saves its files in the My Documents folder.

You can change that in the Save As dialog box.

Just click the arrow of the Save In combo box and select the folder you want.

Microsoft Excel allows you to save its files in a type of your choice. To save a file in another
format:

• Press F12 or Shift + F12

• You can click the Office Button and position the mouse on Save As and select the desired
option:
• On the Quick Access Toolbar, you can click the Save button .

Then, in the Save As dialog box, click the arrow of the Save As Type combo box and select a
format of your choice There are other things you can do in the Save As dialog box:

Practical Learning: Saving a File

1. To save the current document, on the Quick Access Toolbar,

2. click the Save button ,A

3. Type Fundamentals

4. Click the Save button

Saving under a Different Name and New Folder

You can save a file under a different name or in another location, this gives you the ability
to work on a copy of the file while the original is intact.

There are two primary techniques you can use to get a file in two names or the same file in
two locations. When the file is not being used by any application, in Windows Explorer (or
in My Computer, or in My Network Places, locate the file, right-click it and choose Copy.

To save the file in a different name, right-click in the same folder and choose Paste. The
new file will be named Copy Of... You can keep that name or rename the new file with a
different name (recommended).

To save the file in a different location, right-click in the appropriate folder and click Paste;
in this case, the file will keep its name.

In Microsoft Excel, you can use the Save As dialog box to save a file in the original is intact.

There are two primary techniques you can use to get a file in two names or the same file in
two locations.

When the file is not being used by any application, in Windows Explorer (or in My
Computer, or in My Network Places, locate the file, right-click it and choose Copy.

To save the file in a different name, right-click in the same folder and choose Paste.

The new file will be named Copy Of... You can keep that name or rename the new file with
a different name (recommended).

To save the file in a different location, right-click in the appropriate folder and click Paste;
in this case, the file will keep its name.

In Microsoft Excel, you can use the Save As dialog box to save a file in a different name or
save the file with the same name (or a different name) in another folder.

The Save As dialog box also allows you to create a new folder while you are saving your file
(you can even use this technique to create a folder from the application even if you are not
saving it; all you have to do is create the folder, click OK to register the folder, and click
Cancel on the Save As dialog box).

Practical Learning: Save a File With Different Settings

1. To save this file using a different name, click the Office Button, position the mouse on
Save As, and click Excel 97-2003 Workbook

2. Change the name of the file to Employment Application

3. On the toolbar of the Save As dialog box, click the

4. Create New Folder button (if you have a hard time finding it, press Alt + 5

5. Type My Workbooks and press Enter.

The My Files folder should now display in the Save In combo box.

If you clicked Cancel or pressed Esc now to dismiss the Save As dialog box, the computer
would still keep the folder

6. After making sure that the My Files folder displays in the Save In combo box, click the
Save button

Opening a File

The files you use could be created by you or someone else.

They could be residing on your computer, on another medium, or on a network.

Once one of them is accessible, you can open it in your application.

You can open a document either by double-clicking its icon in Windows Explorer, in My
Computer, from the Find Files Or Folders window, in My Network Places, or by locating it
in the Open dialog box.

To access the open dialog box, on the main menu, click File -> Open... You can also click the
Open button on the Standard toolbar.

A shortcut to call the Open dialog box is Ctrl + 0. 2.4 Cell Data Types The data that you
enter in a cell can take any of the following for types: Labels- these are data which are in
text form.

For example titles on top of the columns or at the start of each row.

Values- these are the result from a calculation.

They are often in the form of numbers, currencies, dates and so on.

Formulae- these are data that uses operators such as +,-,/,*, Brackets.
Functions- these are the cell data types which contains the Formulae which the spreadsheet
has memorized and is available in the library

available in the library.

A function usually contains an equal sign(=),function name such as sum, average, maximum
and so on, values to be used with the function. Example of a function in a cell would be:
=sum(A2:A4).

2.4 Cell referencing

2.4.1 Cell Addressing

A cell must have a cell address. The name of the cell. The Cells are addressed using column
letter and row number.

For example cell A3, means a cell positioned on column A and row 3. Microsoft Excel, just
like any other spreadsheets, work with cell references instead of values.

This is because the references provide an easy way to amend contents of a cell instead of the
values.

Example of use of a cell reference:

The first uses cell references to add the two numbers.

When this happens, you can easily change the contents of any of the two cells, and
immediately the answer will change to correspond with the change you have made.

In the second formula, even if you change the content of the formula, the answer will not
change at all
2.4.2 Absolute Referencing

A cell whose contents need to remain constant Throughout the calculation period is
referred to as Absolute reference.

It is usually denoted by a dollar sign thus, $B$2, this can be done simply by highlighting the
cell reference and then pressing F4 on the Keyboard to add the dollar signs.

Computer Studies Notes Form 3

1. Definition of Terms and Stages of Data Collection

Definition of terms and Stages of data collection

________________________________________

1. a) Data

Data is defined as a collection of raw facts (figures, letters, special symbols or a combination of
both) that convey little meaning by themselves. example: in a statement like James, John and
Caro

• what about them?

• why

• how

We actually don't know anything about these three people thus it does not have much meaning to
us until its fully processed for us to understand

b) Information

Information is defined as data has undergone processing and is meaningful to the user when
he/she needs it.

The statement simply indicates that information is not just a by-product of data processing, but it
must have certain qualities for it to qualify to be a resource to the organization.

Thus the qualities of timeliness, correctness and relevancy must be observed for it to be good
information. example:James, John and Caro were awarded certificates for being the cleanest
students in our school.

this statement now satisfies our curiosity because it has been attached much more meaning useful
to us but we need also to when.

This statement can therefore be regarded as information

c) Data Processing

Data processing can be regarded as the act of collecting data, manipulating it to get information
through (input, Processing and output) and finally distributing it to the relevant organs for use.

Data Processing Cycle

Data Processing Platform

Data processing cycle are the stages (phases) through which data moves before it becomes
information.

These stages include:

1. Data collection

2. Data input
3. Processing

4. Output

Stages of data processing cycle

i) Data Collection

Data collection is the act of collecting data from its point of origin to the computer in a form
suitable for processing

Stages of Data Collection

Data collection is procedural, thus it attracts the following stages

A) Data Creation

Data creation is the process of capturing data from the source location using data capturing
methods like:(scanning, digital camera, touch screen, voice input etc).

B) Data Transmission

This is a term used to refer to the transfer of data from the point of collection (source) to the point
where processing is to be done (data processing department) this is possible through computer-to-
computer communication, physically by post office or via courier services if the source is away
from the data processing department.

C) Data Preparation

Data preparation is the term used to describe the process by which data is prepared and made
ready for entry in the computer for processing.

ii) Data input

This is the process where the collected data is converted from human readable form into machine
readable form (binary form)

To ensure quick and error free data the following features should be considered:

• Validation - this is the counter checking whether what is on the input document is exactly what
is entered into the computer

• Media Conversion - this is the act of converting data from different storage medium e.g from a
flash disk to a hard disk

• Sorting - Data should be arranged in a predefined order before being processed

iii) Processing

This is the manipulation of input data into a more meaningful output that can be regarded as
being meaningful to the user.

Processing involves arithmetic, sorting and logical operations

iv) Output

This is the final activity in data processing cycle where the expected output (information) is
displayed.

This information is then distributed to places (information dissemination) where its needed to
influence decision making process.

Information dissemination may include: electronic presentations over radio or television,

distribution of hard copies, broadcasting messages over the internet or mobile phones.

________________________________________

Questions 1. Define the following terms

a) Data Processing

b) Data processing cycle.

c) Data

d) Information

2. using an illustration, describe the four primary stages of the data processing cycle

3. Outline the stages of data collection

4. List the three feature involved during data input stage to minimize errors

5. What is the essence of output stage?

2. Description of errors in data processing

Description of errors in data processing

1. Introduction:

Computers make errors because people program them to make those errors.

Thus the acronym GIGO - Garbage in Garbage out- errors can be described as:

1) Transcription errors

2) Computation errors and

3) Algorithm errors

1) Transcription errors

Transcription errors occur during data entry. These errors include:

i) Misreading errors

ii) Transposition errors

i) Misreading errors

These errors are caused by incorrect reading of the source document by the user and hence
entering wrong values e.g. a user may enter 5 instead of S or 0 instead of o and so forth.

ii) Transposition errors

These are errors that occur due to incorrect arrangement of characters. like putting characters in
the wrong order. e.g. the user may enter 369 instead of 396.

However these errors can be avoided by using modern data capture devices like the bar code
reader, optical character reader, digital cameras, scanners, configuring the right data-types in the
database e.t.c.

2) Computation errors

These are errors that occur when an arithmetic operation does not produce the expected results
. They include:

overflow, underflow, truncation and rounding errors

a> Overflow

These are errors that occur from a calculation which appear too large to be stored in the allocated
memory space. e.g. if a byte is represented by 8 bits, an overflow will occur if the result of a
calculation gives a 9-bit number.

b> Underflow

Underflow (or "floating point underflow", or just "underflow") is a condition in a computer

program where the result of a calculation is a smaller number than the computer can actually
store in memory.

Arithmetic underflow can occur when the true result of a floating point operation is smaller in
magnitude (that is, closer to zero) than the smallest value representable as a normal floating point
number in the target datatype.

Underflow can in part be regarded as negative overflow of the exponent of the floating point
value.

For example, if the exponent part can represent values from −127 to 127, then a result with
absolute value less than 2−127 may cause underflow.

c> Truncation

Truncation errors result from having real numbers that have a long fractional part which cannot
fit in the allocated memory space.

The computer would truncate or cut off the extra characters from the fractional part For example,
a number like 0.784969 can be truncated to four digits to become 0.784.

The resulting number is not rounded off.

d> Rounding

Rounding errors results from raising or lowering a digit in a real number to the required rounded
number.

For example, to round off 30.666 to one decimal place, we raise the first digit after the decimal
point if its successor is more than 5.

In this case, the successor is 6 therefore 30.666 rounded up to one decimal place is 30.7. If the
successor is below 5, e.g. 30.635, we round down the number to 30.6.
3) Algorithm errors

An algorithm is a set of procedural steps followed to solve a given problem. Algorithms are used
as design tools when writing programs.

Wrongly designed programs would result in a program that runs but gives erroneous output.

Such errors that result from wrong algorithm design are referred to as algorithm or logical errors.

Data Integrity

Data integrity refers to the correctness and completeness of data entered in a computer or
received from the information system.

Integrity is measured in accuracy, timeliness and relevancy of data

A> Accuracy

This is how close an approximation is to an actual value. example: in a number like 34.247545,
34.2475 is more accurate than than 34.2 this is because the deviation on the former is much lesser
than the latter.

B> Timeliness

This is the relative accuracy of data in respect to the current state of affairs for which it is needed.
Information should be available on time for decision making.

For example: In a data base to prepare worker's salaries, information on the presence of workers
over the month should be processed on time before salary arrears are released every month.

C> Relevancy

Data entered into the computer must be relevant in order to get the expected output.

it must meet pertinent needs at hand and must meet the requirements of the processing cycle.

Way to minimize data integrity threats

1. Backup data on secondary storage devices or on online storage stores like Dropbox and Google
Drive

2. Control access to data by enforcing security measures

3. Design user interfaces that minimize chances of invalid data entry

4. Using error detection and correction software when transmitting data

5. Using devices that directly capture data from the source such as bar code readers, digital
cameras, optical character reader e.t.c.

Quiz

1. Define the following terms a) data processing b) data processing cycle

2. Using an illustration, describe the four primary stages of the data processing cycle

3. outline the stages of data collection

4. you may have come across the term garbage in garbage out (GIGO). what is its relevance to
errors in data processing.

5. explain the two types of transcription errors

6. state three types of computational errors

7. a) define the term data integrity

b) give three factors that determine the integrity of data

C) state at least five ways of minimizing threats to data integrity.

3. Data Processing Methods

posted Jun 26, 2014, 7:08 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated Feb 8, 2016, 4:52 PM ]

Data Processing Methods

Introduction:

There are three types of data processing methods namely:

1. Manual data processing

2. Mechanical data processing

3. Electronic Data Processing

Manual data processing

A paper and pen are used to process in manual data processing example:

Most schools in Kenya process their data manually especially while admitting form 1s.
As the students report, they are given a form to fill, these forms are filed by the school secretary
and stored in the file cabinet- that is, if the school has 450 students, the school secretary will have
those 450 files to handle thus retrieve, store, manipulate and update information which is a
tedious job.

therefore manual data processing can also be defined as the physical entering and organization of
data

Mechanical data processing

In mechanical data processing, data is processed with different mechanical devices.

This can include typewriters and calculators

Electronic Data Processing

Electronic Data Processing (EDP) can refer to the use of automated methods to process
commercial data.

This means that, data processing, retrieval, storage, manipulation, sorting and part of analysis is
done through automated methods using devices like computers.

Computer Files

A file can be defined as a collection of related records that give a complete set of information
about a certain item or entity.

A computer file is a resource for storing information, which is available to a computer program
and is usually based on some kind of durable storage.

Advantages of computerized/electronic filing system

1. Ease of access.

2. Speed of access.

3. Increased search facilities.

4. Capability to store huge amounts of information in a small space.

5. Portability - a pen drive or disc enables you to transport enormous amounts of data easily and
discreetly.

6. Access to data can be monitored and/or restricted. thus enhancing data security

7. Its easier to update and modify information

8. Enhances data integrity and reduces duplication

Disadvantages of computerized/electronic filing system

1. Electrical/Electronic failure can cause temporary suspension of business or permanent loss of

data.

2. Portability - copied information can be easily hidden on a disc or pen drive.

3. Data is not always secured by correct monitoring of access.

4. Information can be permanently deleted in error.

5. Hacking can release information that is data protected.

6. Cost of installing system.

Elements of a Computer File

A computer file is made up of three elements namely:

1. Characters

2. Fields

3. Records

Characters

A character refers to a letter, number or symbol that can be entered, stored and output by a
computer.

This is the smallest element in a computer file.

Fields

A field is a single character or a collection of characters that represent a single entity Example:

Records

A record is a collection of related fields that represent a single entity.

Classification of Computer files

Computer files are classified as:

1. Logical files

2. Physical files

Logical Files

This is computer file viewed in terms of what data items it contains and details of what
processing operations may be performed on the data items.

It does not have implementation specific information like field and data types, size and file types.

Physical Files

This is a computer file viewed in terms of how data is stored on a storage media and how the
processing operations are made possible.

They have specific details such as characters per field and data type for each field.

Questions

1. State the three types of data processing methods

2. Define a computer file and state three advantages and three disadvantages of computer files

3. Define: (i) Character (ii) field (iii) record

4. Explain the two classifications of computer files

5. Distinguish between a manual file and a computer file

6. List at least three equipments used during mechanical data processing methods for processing

7. Why is a computer file described as 'durable'?

3. Types of Computer Processing Files

Types of Computer Processing Files

There are various types of files used for storing data needed for processing, reference or backup.
However the main common files include:

Master files, Transaction, Reference, Backup, Report and sort file.

Master File
A master file refers to a collection of records pertaining to one of the main subjects of an
information system, such as customers, employees, products and vendors.

Transaction (movement) file

This is a collection of transaction records.

The data in transaction files is used to update the master files, which contain the data about the
subjects of the organization (customers, employees, vendors, etc.).

Reference File

This file is normally used for reference or look-up purposes. Look up information is that
information which is stored in a separate file but is required during processing.

Backup File

A backup file is used to hold copies (backups) of data or information from the computers fixed
storage (hard disk)

Report File

A report file is used to store relatively permanent records extracted from the master file or
generated after processing.

Sort File

A sort file stores data which is arranged in a particular order

Questions

A. State uses of the following files:

1. Sort file

2. master file

3. reference file

4. report file

5. transaction file

6. backup file

B. Of the above files, which file can be used:

i. In a supermarket to fetch the price of a commodity from the master file

ii. In a supermarket to update the master file

iii. In a bank to extract and store some important records from the master file

iv. In a bank to arrange records of customers according to their bank deposits

v. By the government to a keep copy of listed employees in the master file who are about to retire
in one year time

5. File Organization Methods

File Organization Methods

1. Introduction

File organization refers to the way data is stored in a file.

File organization is very important because it determines the method of access, efficiency,
flexibility and storage devices to be used.

There are four methods of organizing files on a storage media namely:

Sequential, random, serial and indexed- sequential

Sequential

• A sequentially organized file consists of records arranged in the sequence in which they are
written to the file (the first record written is the first record in the file, the second record written is
the second record in the file, and so on).

As a result, records can be added only at the end of the file.

Attempting to add records at some place other than the end of the file will result in the file begin
truncated at the end of the record just written.

• Sequential files are usually read sequentially, starting with the first record in the file.

Sequential files with a fixed-length record type that are stored on disk can also be accessed by
relative record number (direct access).

• Records in sequential files can be read or written only sequentially.

• After you have placed a record into a sequential file, you cannot shorten, lengthen, or delete the
record. However, you can update (REWRITE) a record if the length does not change. New
records are added at the end of the file.

• If the order in which you keep records in a file is not important, sequential organization is a
good choice whether there are many records or only a few. Sequential output is also useful for
printing reports.

Advantages

1. Sorting makes it easier to access records

Disadvantages

1. Sorting does not remove the need to access other records as the search looks for a particular
record

2. Sequential records cannot support modern technologies that require fast access to stored
records

3. The requirement that all records be of the same size is sometimes difficult to enforce

Random

• In random file organisation, records are stored in random order within the file.

Though there is no sequencing to the placement of the records, there is however, a pre-defined
relationship between the key of the record and its location within the file.

In other words, the value of the record key is mapped by an established function to the address
within the file where it resides.

Therefore, any record within the file can be directly accessed through the mapping function in
roughly the same amount of time.

The location of the record within the file therefore is not a factor in the access time of the record.

As such, random files are also known in some literature as direct access files.

• This method is normally used by optical disks like compact disks

Advantages

1. Quick retrieval of records

2. The records can be of different sizes

Serial

• Serial file organization is the simplest file organization method. In serial files, records are
entered in the order of their creation.

As such, the file is unordered, and is at best in chronological order.

Serial files are primarily used as transaction files in which the transactions are recorded in the
order that they occur.

• This type of access is normally used by magnetic tapes

Advantages

1. It is simple

Disadvantages

1. It is cumbersome to access because you have to access all preceding records before retrieving
the one being searched

2. Wastage of space on medium in form of inter- record gap

3. It cannot support modern high speed requirements for quick records access Indexed-
Sequential

• indexed file contains records ordered by a record key. Each record contains a field that contains
the record key.

The record key uniquely identifies the record and determines the sequence in which it is accessed
with respect to other records.

A record key for a record might be, for example, an employee number or an invoice number.

• An indexed file can also use alternate indexes, that is, record keys that let you access the file
using a different logical arrangement of the records.

For example, you could access the file through employee department rather than through
employee number.

1. a) this is listing raw data into a meaningful format called information

n6. Electronic Data Processing Modes

Electronic Data Processing Modes

Computers are programmed to process data in different ways.

Just like humans they can process shortest job first-SJF, First Come First Serve-FCFS or they can
just Round Robin giving a time span, important/emergency jobs first-real time.

Computers can also multitask or multi-programming etc. Examples of processing modes are:

1. Online Processing

2. Real-Time processing

3. Distributed Processing

4. Time-Sharing

5. Batch Processing

6. Multitasking

7. Interactive Processing

Online Processing

• In this processing mode, data is processed immediately it is received.

• Example: When booking a seat on an airline, the seat is booked immediately.

This is to avoid problems of double-booking.

other example of online processing is when playing computer games online

Real-Time Processing

• In real time processing the computer processes the incoming data as soon as it occurs, up-dates
the transaction file and gives an immediate response that would affect the events as they happen.

• There is no much difference with online processing however with real-time processing, the
outcome of the processing is required immediately to influence decision making and not
necessarily through online means but can be within a machine.

• Example: in nuclear power stations, a certain level of temperature is required to be maintained

for effective disintegration of atoms.

If the temperatures are not controlled, the system may cause an emergency situation- like in
increase or decrease in slight temperature fluctuations, therefore computers are used to control
the air conditioning systems at the plant because they are programmed to provide instant answers
upon a slight change in temperature has occurred- that is what we call real-time processing

• Another example: is the use of humidifiers and dehumidifiers in the computer lab, when there is
a lot of humidity, computers turn on the dehumidifiers and vice versa

Distributed data processing

• These points to dividing (distributing) processing tasks to two or more computers that are
located on physically separate sites but connected by data transmission media; there may be a
central computer that receives input from the remote computers (terminals), processes the data
and updates the master file.

If required, the output can be communicated back to the remote terminals.

• Example: When you withdraw money from a bank, your records are transacted and updated in
the main server computer which will also update client computers across the bank branches
divide.

Time-Sharing

• Just as the name suggests, time-sharing refers to many terminals connected to a central
computer and given access to the central processing unit apparently at the same time this sounds
like ‘round robin’.

Each user is allocated a time slice of the CPU in sequence.

• The amount of time allocated to each user is controlled by a multi-user operating system.

If a user’s task is not completed during the allocated time slice, he/she is allocated another time
slice later in a round robin manner.

Batch Processing

• In batch processing, data is accumulated as a group (batch) over a specified period of time e.g.
daily, weekly or monthly.

• The batch is processed at once. E.g. in a payroll processing system, employees details
concerning number of hours worked, rate of pay, and other details are collected for a period of
time, say one month.

These details are then used to process the payment for the duration worked.

other areas where batch processing can be applied include:

• Processing bank cheques

• Printing of bank statements

• Updating of a stock database

Multiprocessing

• Multiprocessing refers to the processing of more than one task apparently at the same time.

This is possible in computers like mainframes and network servers.

• A computer may contain more than one independent central processing unit which works
together in a coordinated way.

At a given time, the processors may execute instructions from two or more programs or from
different parts of one program simultaneously.

Multi-programming

• Also referred to as multitasking- refers to a type of processing where more than one program
are processed apparently at the same time by a single central processing unit.

• Unlike multiprocessing, in multitasking, the computer has only one CPU. The computer
allocates each program a time slice and decides what order they will be executed.

Interactive Processing

• There is a continuous dialogue between the user and the computer.

• As the program executes, it keeps on prompting the use to provide input or respond to prompts
displayed on the screen

Advantages of electronic processing

1. Quick processing especially where all required data is available

2. Availability of data and information digitally

3. Distance between entities that are processing data is made non-significant

4. Support for information sharing and collaboration on a wider scale.

Disadvantages of electronic information processing

1. Security of data can be compromised during storage or while in transit on networks if

appropriate measures are not taken
2. Lack of legal frameworks in many countries that should support electronic processing
activities

3. Lack of ICT skills among many knowledge workers to support electronic data processing.

Topical Questions

1. What similarity is there between:

i> Online processing and real-time processing

ii> Multiprocessing and multi-programming

2. What differences are there between:

i. Online processing and real-time processing

ii. Multiprocessing and multi-programming

3. SHULE Secondary school Board of Governors has asked you to help them find a computer
processing mode that they will introduce to enroll form one students each year that will allow
them to confirm admissions, pay school fees without necessarily having to travel physically to the
school.

Which processing mode would you recommend and why 4. Of the processing modes, which
mode is effective for filling questionnaires online and why?

b) this are a set of stages that data passes through in order to be transformed into information

c) These are raw facts which do not have much meaning to the user

d) Processed data which has much meaning and can be used in decision making 2.

3. i) data collection

ii) input

iii) processing

iv) output

4. a) media conversion

b) input validation

c) sorting
5. Display of expected results (information) that can be used in decision making

Data representation in a computer

Data Representation refers to the methods used internally to represent information stored in a
computer. Computers store lots of different types of information:

Text (this refers to letters, numbers and symbols)

Graphics (such as pictures, drawings and clipart)

Sound (voice data)

Instructions (computer commands)

At least, these all seem different to us. However, ALL types of information stored in a computer
are stored internally in the same simple format: a sequence of 0's and 1's.

How can a sequence of 0's and 1's represent things as diverse as your photograph, your favorite
song, a recent movie, and your term paper?

It sounds complicated. However you should understand that computers don’t understand our
natural languages like Kiswahili, English or Kalenjin.

They have their own language called machine language. That means, what you type or speak into
the computer is converted into a language that computers are able to understand.

In digital computers, the user input is first converted and transmitted as electrical pulses that can
be represented by two distinct states ON and OFF or ‘1’ and ‘0’ respectively.

The sequence of ‘1’ and ‘0’ forms electrical signals that the computer can understand; the figure
below shows the difference between a discrete signal (digital) and a continuous (analogue) signal

A digital signal refers to an electrical signal that is converted into a pattern of bits. Unlike an
analogue signal, which is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities, a digital
signal has a discrete value at each sampling point.
The precision of the signal is determined by how many samples are recorded per unit of time.

Parameters used with signals

AMPLITUDE (A) this is the maximum displacement that the waveform of an electrical signal
can attain

FREQUENCY (f) this is the number of cycles made by the electrical signal in one second. Its
measured in hertz (Hz) 1 cycle per second

Periodic time (T) periodic time is the reciprical of frequency i.e T=1/f When a digital signal is to
be sent over analogue telephone lines e.g email, it has to be converted to analogue signal .

this is possible with the use of a device called the Modem derived from the words Modulation
and Demodulation. Modulation stands for converting a digital signal to analogue and
demodulation refers to converting an analogue signal to digital

Concepts of data representation in digital computers

Data and instructions cannot be entered and processed directly into computers using human
language.

Any type of data, be it numbers, letters, special symbols, sounds or pictures must first be
converted into machine readable form.

Due to this reason, it is important to understand how a computer together with its peripheral
devices handle data in its electronic circuits.

On magnetic media and in optical devices.

Data epresentation in digital circuits

In digital circuits, when the circuit is ‘on’, its interpreted as a ‘1’ and when ‘off’ its interpreted as
a ‘0’.

These ‘1s’ and ‘0s’ is what computers understand and its refered to as binary language.

Data representation in magnetic media

The presence of a magnetic field in one directionon magnet media is interpreted as ‘1’, while the
field in the opposite direction is interpreted as ‘0’.

Magnetic technology is mostly used on storage devices which are coated with special magnetic
materials such as iron oxide.
Data is written on the media by arranging the magnetic dipoles of some iron oxide particles to
face in the same directionand some others in the opposite direction.

Data representation on optical media

In optical devices, the presence of light is interpreted as ‘1’ while its absence is integrated as ‘0’.

Optical devices use this technology to read or store data.

Take an example of a CD-ROM.

If the shiny surface is placed under a powerful microscope, the surface can be observed to have
very tiny holes called pits.

The areas that do not have pits are called land.

Land reflects laser light that hits on the surface but bits don’t reflect.

The reflected pattern of light from the rotating disk falls on a receiving photoelectric detector that
transforms the patterns into digital form.

Reasons for use of binary system in computers

Binary systems are:

Reliable

Occupy less space

Use less energy

Bits, bytes, nibble and word

Bits: a bit can be defined as a binary digit which can either be 0 or 1. It is the basic unit of data or
information in digital computers.

Byte: a group of bits (often 8) used to represent a character is called a byte.

A byte is used to measure the memory of a computer

A nibble: half a byte, which is usually a grouping of 4 bits Word: two or more bytes make a
word

Word length: measure of the number of bits in each word

Example: let 11110000 represent a binary figure

There are 8 bits in the figure. Count

These 8 figures make up a byte

1111 or 0000 is a nibble this is because they are 4 of the 8 figures thus half

11110000 and 11110000 are two figures thus a word

11110000 and 11110000 make a word that has 16 bits thus word length

Questions

1. Why is the binary number system used in data representation?

2. Explain the following terminologies as used with data representation:

(a) Word

(b) Nibble

(c) Byte

(d) Bit

(e) Word length

3. Define the following words

(a) Amplitude

(b) Frequency

(c) Periodic time

4. Explain the role of a modem in communication

(a) Using illustration, explain how data is represented:

(b) In electronic circuits

(c) On magnetic media

(d) On CD-ROM

1. Introduction- Elementary Programming Principles

Elementary Programming Principles

Introduction

programming is the art of designing computer programs. When designing these programs, there
are a number of procedural steps that need to be observed and laid down.

Previously, systems used to operate by plugging and unplugging wires on the switch board which
was more of a physical adventure than automated.

However, with programming devices, systems got automated due to software advancements and
creations and that is how digital technology came into being courtesy of programming.

Computer Programming

Computers work by running a set of instructions called Programs (software or codes).

Programming involves creation of computer programs to solve a particular task.

When creating computer programs, one is likely to use programming languages which create a
platform to create programs.

A programming language is a special set of symbols that can be translated into machine readable
form by the computer when arranged in a particular sequence or order.

Each language has a special sequence or order of writing characters usually referred to as syntax.

Brief History of Programming Languages

Evolution of programming languages

- Years 50: Creation of high-level languages (closer to humans).

- Years 60: Expansion of specialized languages. Forth. Simula I. Lisp, Cobol. Trying
unsuccessfully to impose general languages:Algol, PL / 1.

- Years 70: Duel between structured programming with Pascal and efficiency of C language.
Basic generalized on personal computers from 1977, until the late 80s.

- Years 80: Experimentating other ways including objects. ML. Smalltalk.

On computers, we now use C, Pascal, Basic compiled.

- Years 90: Generalization of object-oriented programming with the performance of

microcomputers.
Java, Perl, Python languages in addition to microphones.

- 2000s: Internet Programming (and future innovations, see end of text).

- Years 2010: Concurrency and asynchronicity. JavaScript and Go languages among others help
to create online fluid applications.

First language

Ada Lovelace and Babbage and its nephew were writing programs for the project of "difference
engine", and then the "analytical engine".

In 1945, the German K. Zuse, inventor of the Z3 computer would have defined an evolved
language for this engine (with arrays and records).

Few documents of the epoch about this language exist.

Follow this web address to learn more about evolution of programming languages:

http://www.scriptol.com/programming/history.php

Description of terms used in Programming

Source Program

This is the program code that the programmer enters in the program editor window that is not yet
translated into machine readable form.

The source program is usually created using a particular programming language like Pascal, C,
C++, Visual Basic, Java e.t.c.

Object Code

This is program code that is in machine readable form.

A source code that is not in machine readable form must be translated into object code.

Translators

This refers to language processors such as assemblers, interpreters and compilers that convert the
source program into object code.

Assemblers

An assembler translates assembly language into machine language that the computer can
understand and execute.
Interpreter

An interpreter translates the source program line-by-line, allowing the CPU to execute one line
before translating the next.

The translated line is not stored in the computer memory.

It means that every time, the program is needed for execution, it has to be translated.

This method of translating programs was very common in early computers that did not have
enough memory to store the object code as a file that can be executed later.

Compiler

A compiler translates the entire source program into object code.

The object code file can be made into full executable program by carrying out another process
known as linking which joins object code to all the other files that are needed for the execution of
the program.

After the linking process, an executable file (application file) is generated.

This file is stored on a storage media such as a disk with a name that has a unique extension
(.EXE).

Differences between interpreters and compilers

Interpreters Compilers

1. Translates the source program one statement at a time Translates the entire source code at once
before execution

2. Translates the program each time it is run hence slower than compiling Compiled program
(object code) can be saved on a storage media and run as required, hence executes faster than
interpreted programs

3. Interpreted object code takes less memory compared to compiled program Compiled programs
require more memory as the object file are larger.

2. Levels of Programming Languages- Low Level Languages

1. Levels of Programming languages

Programming languages are categorized into two levels namely:

1. Low- Level Languages

2. High-Level Languages

Low- Level Languages

A low-level programming language is a programming language that provides little or no

abstraction from a computer's instruction set architecture.

Generally this refers to either machine code or assembly language.

The word "low" refers to the small or nonexistent amount of abstraction between the language
and machine language; because of this, low-level languages are sometimes described as being
"close to the hardware".

Low-level languages can be converted to machine code without using a compiler or interpreter,
and the resulting code runs directly on the processor.

A program written in a low-level language can be made to run very quickly, and with a very
small memory footprint; an equivalent program in a high-level language will be more
heavyweight.

Low-level languages are simple, but are considered difficult to use, due to the numerous technical
details which must be remembered.

There are two languages used in low level languages namely:

a) Machine language (First generation language)

b) Assembly Language (Second generation language)

Machine language (First generation language)

Sometimes referred to as machine code or object code, machine language is a collection of binary
digits or bits that the computer reads and interprets.

Machine language is the only language a computer is capable of understanding.

 Instructions are written using binary logic

 They require many lines of logic to accomplish a task
 This very code is hard for humans to understand unless he/she is equipped with special
knowledge in machine level programming
 Different CPUs have different machine codes this is in reference to the coding schemes we
learned earlier like ASCII and EBCDIC
 These programs are easy to execute by the CPU but hard to understand by humans

Advantage Machine Language:

The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no translation
program is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages Machine Language:

1. It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know details of
hardware to write program.

2. The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which results in program
errors.

3. It is difficult to debug the program.

Example:

Machine Instruction Machine Operation

00000000 Stop Program

00000001 Turn bulb fully on

00000010 Turn bulb fully off

00000100 Dim bulb by 10%

00001000 Brighten bulb by 10%

00010000 If bulb is fully on, skip over next instruction

00100000 If bulb is fully off, skip over next instruction

01000000 Go to start of program (address 0)

Assembly Language

Sometimes referred to as assembly or ASL, assembly language is a low-level programming

language used to interface with computer hardware.

 They were developed to overcome the difficulties of understanding and using machine
languages
 It attempted to make computer languages readable
 This language allowed programmers to write programs as a set of symbolic operation codes
called Mnemonics- this is a shortened two or three letter words.
 Programs written in assembly language require an assembler in order convert them into
machine language that the computer can understand.
 Assembly language is machine dependent- this means, a program written for one computer
cannot be used on another.

The following disadvantages are observed with the assembly languages.

1. It is time consuming for an assembler to write and then test the program.

2. Assembly language programs are not portable.

3. It is necessary to remember the registers of CPU and mnemonic instructions by the

programmer.

4. Several mnemonic instructions are needed to write in assembly language than a single line in
high-level language. Thus, assembly language programs are longer than the high language
programs.

Example:

MOV r0, #0C ;load base address of string into r0

LOAD: MOV r1,(r0) ;load contents into r1

CALL PRINT ; call a print routine to print the character in r1

INC r0 ;point to next character

JMP LOAD ;load next character

________________________________________

1. High level languages

• These languages are close to human languages such that humans can read and understand easily
than low level languages

• These languages are machine independent this means that they are not subject to hardware
models and configurations

• These languages are classified into five groups namely:

I. Third generation languages (3GLs)

II. Fourth Generation Languages (4GLS)

III. Fifth generation Languages (5GLs)

IV. Object Oriented Languages (OOPs)

V. Web scripting Languages

Third generation languages (3GLs)

• These languages are also called procedural or structured languages; this means that these are
languages that make it possible to break a program into components called modules each
performing a particular task.

This is referred to as structured programming

• In structured programming

i. Large programs can be broken down into smaller sub programs each performing a single task

ii. Use of a few simple control structures in problem solving. These control structures include
sequence, selection and iteration

• Structured programming languages are flexible, easier to read and modify

Examples:

Pascal: was initially developed for teaching structured languages

Fortran: (FORmulaTRANslator) this language was developed for mathematicians, scientists and
engineers. It involves writing programs with mathematical expressions.

COBOL: (common business oriented language); this language was developed to solve business
problems e.g. developing data processing applications such as computer – based inventory
control systems.

Basic: (Beginners All- Purpose Symbolic Instructional Code); this language was developed to
initially enable students learn programming.

This is a simple general purpose language used for developing business and educational
applications.

This was the first high level language that was available for microcomputer users.

C: This is a programming language mainly used for developing system software such as the
operating system.

It is one of the most popular and powerful high – level languages in the business world because
of its ability to provide the programmer with powerful features of low level languages and at the
same time easily understandable as a high level language.
ADA: this is a language named after the first lady programmer.

Ada Lovelace. Ada is suitable for developing military, industrial and real-time systems

Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

Fourth generation languages make programming an even easier task than the third generation
language because they present the programmer with more programming tools which include:

Command buttons, forms, textboxes, Combo boxes etc.

Here, selects graphical objects on the screen called controls then uses them to create designs on a
base form.

The programmer may also use an application generator works behind the scenes to generate the
necessary code, hence the programmer is freed from tedious work of writing the code.

Examples of fourth generation languages

Visual Basic, Delphi Pascal and Visual COBOL

Fifth Generation Languages (5 GLs)

These languages are designed to depict human-like intelligence.

With these languages, the programmer only worries about what problem needs to be solved and
what conditions need to be met without worrying about how to implement an algorithm to solve
them.

Examples:

PROLOG, Mercury, Lisp and OCCAM

Object-Oriented Programming Languages (OOPs)

The concept behind OOPs is to look at a program as having various objects interacting to make
up a whole.

Each object has specific data values that are unique to it (called state) and a set of the things it
can accomplish called (functions or behavior).

This process of having data and functions that operate on the data within an object is called
encapsulation.

Several objects can then be linked to form a complete program.

Examples:

C++, Java and SmallTalk

Web Scripting Languages

The World Wide Web has thrown up a number of new scripting languages specifically designed
for web page design.

It has also seen an upsurge in popularity of some older languages originally designed for other
purposes but which happen to be well-suited for web applications.

The following identifies some of the major scripting languages associated with Web page design:

Examples:

• HTML (HyperText Markup Language). All web pages are written using HTML (although some
of the scripting languages listed below may also be used to provide more versatility).

HTML is not really a programing language.

It is essentially a set of tags which can be embedded within Ascii text to control how the text
should be displayed when viewed in a web browser.

• DHTML (Dynmaic HTML). DHTML is not a language at all. Rather it is a name applied to
various technologies (e.g. Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), Document Object Model (DOM) and
scripting languages such as JavaScript) used to supplement HTML to provide web pages with
dynamic content.

DHTML does not depend upon plug-ins and should in theory run on any HTML 4 compatible
browser. Processing is client-side.

• JavaScript. Although it shares some similarities with Java, JavaScript is not a subset of Java.
Java and JavaScript were developed independently.

JavaScript (originally called LiveScript) is a scripting language developed by Netscape for

enhancing web pages.

It was probably renamed JavaScript to cash in on the popularity of Java.

This has unfortunately resulted in a lot of confusion as Java may also be used to enhance
webpages. JavaScript is primarily used for client-side processing.

• JScript is a Microsoft version of JavaScript. JScript is generally used for client-side processing,
but it may also be used for server-side processing.
Active Server Pages, for example, may be set-up to run JScript rather than VBScript.

• VBScript is a subset of Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). VBScript is an interpreter

language, whereas VB can be compiled.

VBScript is often used for server-side scripting and is the default language for Active Server
Pages (ASP).

It may also be used fot client-side scripting (although it is currently only supported by Internet
Explorer).

• Perl (Practical Extraction and Report Language) is a powerful text processing language
developed by Larry Wall.

It originated on Unix platforms, but interpreters are now available for Windows and Macintosh.

Scripts can be easily ported between platforms.

Although CGI scripts can be written in other languages (e.g. C or Visual Basic), Perl is often the
language of choice for CGI (Common Gateway Interface) scripts.

Although useful for web applications, Perl is an extremely versatile language and may also be
used for a multitude of non-web related purposes.

• PerlScript is a subset of Perl. It may be used for ActiveX and Active Server Pages.

• Tcl (Tool Command Language) - sometimes pronounced tickle - was developed by John
Ousterhout.

Like Perl it may be used for CGI scripting or for writing applications.

It may be also used to write client-side scripts which run on the user's browser.

• PHP was created in 1994 by RasmusLerdorf to add dynamic content to an HTML page.

PHP initially stood for 'Personal Home Page', but now it is generally translated as 'PHP Hypertext
Preprocessor'.

The PHP code is embedded within the HTML code between special tags. When the page is
accessed the server processes the PHP code and then sends the output from the script as HTML
code to the client.

• CFML (ColdFusion Markup Language) is a tag-based scripting language developed by Allaire

(now merged with Macromedia) as part of the ColdFusion system for dynamic web page creation
and database access.
The CFML commands are embedded in HTML files. The results of database queries are
converted into HTML by the server.

• Ajax is an abbreviation for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML.

It is not a language as such, but a group of interrelated client-side web development techniques
used to create interactive web applications.

Advantages and disadvantages of low-level and high level languages

Advantages of low level languages

• The CPU understands machine language directly without translation

• The processor executes them faster because complex instructions already broken down into
smaller simpler ones

• Low level languages are stable and hardly crash or break down once written

Disadvantages of low level languages

• They are difficult and cumbersome to use and learn

• They require highly trained experts both to develop and maintain programs

• Removing errors (debugging) In a low level language programs is difficult

• Low level programs are machine dependent i.e. they are not transferable from one hardware or
software platform to another.

Thus, they are not portable

Advantages of high level languages

• High level languages are portable i.e. they are transferable from one computer to another

• They are user friendly and easy to use and learn

• Are more flexible. Thus, enhancing creativity and increasing productivity

• Are easier to debug (correct errors)

Disadvantages of high level languages

• Due to large volume of code involved when generating, these programs are slower in processing
• They have to be interpreted or compiled to machine readable form before the computer can
execute them.

• They require large computer memory to run it

Topical questions

1. Define the term computer program

2. What is programming?

3. State three advantages of high level languages over low level languages

4. List four examples of high level languages and for each, state its most appropriate application
area

5. Why is an executable file unique when compared to any other file?

6. Differentiate between a compiler and an interpreter. Why did early computers work well with
interpreters?

7. List the various examples of programming languages per generation

8. Write the following in full:

A) HTML

B) OOP

9. Distinguish between source program and object code in programming

10. State one advantage of machinery language over the other languages

11. Define the term encapsulation as used in object oriented programming languages

12. Distinguish between:

a) Low level and high level languages

b) Assembly and machine languages

c) Third generation and forth generation languages

d) Object Oriented Languages and Web Scripting Languages

13. Explore necessary advantages and disadvantages of low level and high level languages stating
two examples of each.

Program Development 1. Program Development

Introduction

Development of programs is the art of preparing and designing necessary structures to come up
with computer instructions that can be used to accomplish a task in the computer.

There are six procedural steps involved in program development namely:

1> Problem recognition

2> Problem definition

3> Program design

4> Program coding

5> Program testing and debugging

6> Implementation and maintenance

There should be some kind of uniformity and relevance in execution from one stage to another
and in every stage, documentation is necessary.

The diagram below elaborates this.

Problem Recognition

• This is the understanding and interpretation of a particular problem.

To understand these problems, you need to highlight key words like: what needs to be computed,
saved, compared, sorted, input etc.

• To understand these problems, the programmer should:

A> Talk to users in order to assess their situations

B> Understand problems that need solutions

C> Siege an opportunity to develop the new system

D> Study the new directive given by the management requiring a change in the status quo

E> Make a formal presentation of the system being designed

Problem Definition

• This is also referred to as problem analysis.

• Here the programmer tries to determine or define the likely input, processing activities and the
expected output using the keyword outlined at the problem recognition stage.

• Finally, the boundaries of the expected program will have been established. In case several
methods are identified that can be used to solve the same problem, then the best alternative
should be chosen.

Program design

• This is the actual processing of the program or problem solving logic called the algorithm.

• An algorithm refers to a definite number of logical steps that a program follows in order to
solve a problem.

It is the programmer who will usually come up with the algorithm after carefully analyzing the
requirements specifications.

• Most programs are not holistic, rather monolithic which means they are made up of several
units called modules which work together to form the whole.

• In modular programming, each module performs a specific task.

This approach makes a program flexible, easier to read and carry out error correction.
• This stage enables the programmer to come up with models of the expected program.

The models show the flow of events and data throughout the entire program from the time data is
input to the time the program gives out expected information.

Program Coding

• This is the art of converting a program design into an equivalent program.

• This is possible by coding the program with the use of a specific programming language like:
Java, Pascal, C++, Visual basic etc.

• To code these programs, one needs a translator which converts source program into object code
like assemblers, interpreters and compilers

Program testing and debugging

• This stage involves removing errors from the program (debugging) and execution to test its
integrity.

• There are two possible errors to debug:

1> Syntax error

These are errors that originate from improper use of language syntax (grammar, spelling, spacing,
punctuation and skipping syntax) syntax- is the set of rules that defines the combinations of
symbols that are considered to be a correctly structured document or fragment in that language.

For example: in most programming languages, declaration lines end with a semi-colon, failure to
insert a semi-colon can result into a syntax error

Consider this PHP code:

echo "My first PHP script!";

If words like “echo” is misspelled like “icho” or “?” is missing at the start line or end line or
quotations are missing in the statement “My first PHP script!" can lead to syntax error

2> Logical errors

 They are not detectable by the translator.

The program runs but gives wrong output or halts during execution

Example: consider the PHP code above

The user may mistakenly alter the statement i.e. instead of typing echo "My first PHP script!"
he/she types echo "My second PHP script!"

The code will execute but the output will be wrong.

Therefore, logical errors are done due to entry of logical parameters

Methods of error detection

- There are several methods of testing the program for errors.

These include:

1> Desk checking (dry-run)

This involves going through the program while still on paper before entering it in the program
editor.

This helps the programmer to detect the most obvious syntax and logical errors

2> Using debugging utilities

This involves entering the program in the program editor and trying to run debugging utilities to
correct syntax errors

3> Using test data

The programmer enters various data variations and extremes including data with errors to test
whether the system will grind to halt

Implementation and maintenance

Implementation

- This is the actual delivery and installation of the new program to be ready for use.

Review and maintenance

Proper training and post implementation support of users will always reduce the chances of
having those entering invalid data that can crash the program.

Program documentation

• This is writing of formal support materials explaining how the program was developed

• Documentation can be used by users, installed by operators and modified by programmers

• All stages of the program development should be documented in order to help during future
modification of the program.

• Documentation is either internal or external

• Internal documentation: is written as program comments that cannot be executed by the

program editor. They help programmers to understand the source code

• External documentation: refers to reference materials such as user manuals printed as booklets.
User manuals are common examples of external documentation.

• There are three target groups of external documentation namely:

1. User oriented documentation: these type enables the user to learn how to use the program as
quickly as possible and with little help from the program developer

2. Operator oriented documentation: it is meant for computer operators such as the technical staff.
It helps them to install and maintain the program

3. Programmer oriented documentation: it is a detailed documentation written for skilled

programmers.

This documentation provides necessary technical information to help in future modification of

the program.

In this type of documentation, all stages of the program development should be documented
because:

• There may come a need to revise or modify the program

• Other programmers may think of ways of improving your program.

Summary (modern):

Six Steps of PDLC

Step Procedure Description

1 Analyze the problem

Precisely define the problem to be solved, and write program specifications – descriptions of the
program’s inputs, processing, outputs, and user interface.

2 Design the program

Develop a detailed logic plan using a tool such as pseudo code, flowcharts, object structure
diagrams, or event diagrams to group the program’s activities into modules; devise a method of
solution or algorithm for each module; and test the solution algorithms.

3 Code the program

Translate the design into an application using a programming language or application

development tool by creating the user interface and writing code; include internal documentation
– comments and remarks within the code that explain the purpose of code statements.

4 Test and debug the program

Test the program, finding and correcting errors (debugging) until it is error free and contains
enough safeguards to ensure the desired results.

5 Formalize the solution

Review and, if necessary, revise internal documentation; formalize and complete end-user
(external) documentation

6 Maintain the program

Provide education and support to end users; correct any unanticipated errors that emerge and
identify user-requested modifications (enhancements).

Once errors or enhancements are identified, the program development life cycle begins again at
Step 1.

Trial Questions

1. Give one advantage of compiling a program rather than interpreting it

2. Outline at least six stages of program development in their respective order

3. Highlight two disadvantages of monolithic programs

4. State two advantages of modular programming

5. In what stage of the development does program documentation justify your answer

6. Differentiate between a flowchart and pseudo code

7. What is a program bug?

8. Explain why it is important to test a program before implementing it.

5. Development of Algorithm- pseudocodes

Development of Algorithm

1. Development of algorithms

Development of algorithms can be defined as logical steps that a program follows in order to
solve a problem.

Various tools are used to depict algorithms.

They include:

- Decision trees

- Decision tables

- Flowcharts and

- Pseudo codes

Pseudo codes A pseudo code is a set of statements written in a human readable language but
expressing the processing logic of a program.

- Pseudo codes are not executable by the computer

Guidelines for designing a good pseudo code

To design a good pseudocode, proceed as follows

1. The statement must be short, clear and readable

2. The statements must not have more than one meaning i.e. should be unambiguous

3. The pseudo code lines should be clearly outlined and indented clearly

4. A pseudo code should show clearly the start and stop of executable statements and the control
structures (to be discussed later in the section)

5. The input, output and processing statements should be clearly stated, using keywords such as

Several keywords are often used to indicate common input, output, and processing
operations.

Input: READ, OBTAIN, GET

Output: PRINT, DISPLAY, SHOW

Compute: COMPUTE, CALCULATE, DETERMINE

Initialize: SET, INIT

Add one: INCREMENT, BUMP

Example:

Write a pseudo code that can be used to prompt the user to enter the diameter of a circle which
will be used to calculate the perimeter and area of the circle

Answers

Start

PRINT “enter diameter parameter”

READ D

PERIMETER = 22/7*D

AREA = 22/7*D/2*D/2

PRINT PERIMETER

PRINT AREA

Stop

Trial Questions

1. Write a pseudo code that can be used to prompt the user to enter two numbers, calculate the
sum and average of the two numbers and then display the output on the screen

2. Write a structured algorithm that would prompt the user to enter the length and width of a
rectangle, calculate the area and perimeter then display the result

3. Write a pseudo code for a program that can be used to classify people according to the age
limit. If a person is more than 20 years; output “adult” else output “young person” 4. What
factors do you consider when designing a good pseudo code

5. What is the importance of writing algorithms

5.1-FlowChart
Flow Charts

Flow charts are used to represent any well defined sequence of activities. they are used to convey
in diagrammatic form, the logic, processing operations and flow of control required of a
computer program

1. Uses Of Flowcharts

Flowcharts are used by programmers to:

1. To plan the structure of a program before it is written

2. To describe the structure of a program after it has been written

Flowchart Symbols

Flowchart symbols are combined with short text clues which are a form of shorthand understood
by programmers. Below is a list of symbols:

Symbol Meaning
Guidelines for Drawing a Flowchart
1. there should be only one entry/starting point and one exit point of the program algorithm -
except for decisions and connectors

2. Use the correct symbol at each stage in the flowchart

3. The logical flow should be clearly shown using arrows.

4. Use connectors to reduce the number of flow-lines

5. Add notes if necessary, but don't clutter the diagram

6. Lines should ideally be vertical or horizontal

6. Program Control Structures

Program Control Structures Introduction:

program control structures are blocks of statements that determine how statements are to be
executed, in structured programming languages, there are three control structures namely;
sequence, selection and iteration (looping)

Subpage Listing

• 1. Sequence

• 2. Selection

 Selection Examples
 Selection Questions

• Iteration (Looping)

 The FOR Loop Examples

 The FOR Loop Questions

Review Questions

1. Sequence

posted Jan 6, 2015, 11:59 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated Jan 6, 2015, 12:19 PM ]

Sequence

In this structure, the computer reads instructions from a program file starting from the first top
line and proceeding downwards one -by -one to the end.
This is called sequential programming execution i.e.

In sequential program execution, the computer perform tasks that are arranged sequentially one
after another.

Just like in a school system, a std5 student must first pass ECD, std 1 - 4 before std 5 in that
sequence.

2. Selection
posted Jan 6, 2015, 12:36 PM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated May 6, 2015, 11:07 AM ]

Selection

In selection control, execution of statements depends on a condition which is either a true or false

There are four types of selection controls. Namely:

1. IF.....THEN

2. IF.....THEN.....ELSE

3. NESTED IF

4. CASE SECTION

IF....THEN

The IF....THEN selection is used if only one option is available. All other options are ignored

Format:

IF THEN

Statements;

ENDIF

Flowchart Sample

IF....THEN....ELSE

This type of selection is suitable where there are two available options

General Format

IF THEN

Statements;

ELSE

Statements;

EndIF
Flowchart Sample

Nested IF Selection

This type of selection is used where two or more options have to be considered to make a
selection.

General Format

IF THEN

statements

ELSE

IF THEN

statements

ELSE

IF THEN
Statements

ELSE

Statements

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDIF

Flowchart Sample

CASE Construct

This is an alternative to the Nested IF especially where there are several options to choose from.

Its preferred because it reduces the many lines of code.

However, the boolean expression for the case selection can only be expressed using integers and
alphabetic characters only.

The General format should be

CASE integer OF or

CASE Char OF

Example:

Case x of

label 1: statement 1

label 2: statement 2

label 3: statement 3

label n: statement n-1

lse

statement

Endcase
Iteration (Looping)

Iteration (Looping)

1. Introduction

Iteration is also referred to as looping or repetition. Its designed to execute the same block of
code again and again until a certain condition is fulfilled.

The three main looping controls are:-

1. The WHILE Loop

2. The REPEAT....UNTIL Loop

3. The FOR Loop

The WHILE Loop

The "WHILE" loop is used if a condition has to be met before the statements within the loop are
executed.

General Format

WHILE condition DO

statement

ENDWHILE
The REPEAT....UNTIL loop

The REPEAT....UNTIL loop allows the statements within it to be executed at least once since the
condition is tested at the end of the loop.

General Format

REPEAT

statements

UNTIL
The FOR Loop

The FOR loop is used in circumstances where the execution of the chosen statements has to be
repeated a predetermined number of times.

General Format

//pseudocode for 'FOR" loop that counts from the lower limit

FOR loop variable = lower limit to upper limit DO

statements

ENDFOR

//pseudocode for a 'FOR' loop that counts from the upper limit down to lower limit

FOR loop variable = upper limit DOWN TO lower limit DO statements;

ENDFOR

System Development

1. What is a system?

posted May 2, 2015, 8:35 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated May 2, 2015, 8:38 AM ]

What is a system?

A system is a set of organized components which interact in a given environment and within a
specified boundary to achieve collective goals and objectives that are emergent Example of a
system is a computer system. i.e.
2. Description of a System

posted May 2, 2015, 8:56 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated May 2, 2015, 8:56 AM ]

A system can either be described as either:

1. Soft System or

2. Hard System

Soft System

A system is described as soft because of the following characteristics:

1. Boundaries keep on changing

2. Goals and Objectives usually conflict due to human factors like attitudes and preferences

3. Exact measures of performance cannot be clearly captured Hard Systems

A system is said to be hard because of the following characteristics:

1. Goals and objectives can clearly be defined

2. Outcomes of the systems processes are predictable and can be modeled accurately 3.
Characteristics of Systems

posted May 2, 2015, 9:44 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated May 2, 2015, 9:55 AM ]

All systems have some similar characteristics as illustrated below:

1. Holistic thinking

A system is considered as a whole because many entities will work together to make a complex
whole

example:

a human body is a complex whole made up of small entities like cells, chromosomes, enzymes,
water, bones etc.

2. Subsystems

A system is made up of different components (subsystems)

example:

a human body system is made up of other sub-systems like; circulatory system, digestive system,
neural systems etc.

3. Boundary and Environment

Each system has a space (boundary) within which the components operate.

A system has two types of entities namely: internal and external entities.

An internal entity operates from within the system boundary like the liver of a human body
however, external entities operate from outside the boundary but are part of the system i.e. Food
and Air in a human body

4. Purpose

The purpose of each system is to perform a particular task or achieve a goal.

Example:

The purpose of a human body system is to support life

5. Process

A system has the obligation to transform or process data from one state to another Example:

In a human digestive system, food as transformed into nutrients like proteins and vitamins while
the remaining is discharged as waste

6. System Entropy

The word entropy means decay. Systems decay over time.

example:

A human body eventually dies after a period of time when subsystems cannot support it anymore

7. Inputs and Outputs

A system communicates with environment by receiving inputs and giving outputs

example:

In a human body system, it takes food as an input and gives output through excretory process

8: Open VS Closed Systems

A system can be described as either open or closed. An open system receives input and gives
output while a closed system does not.

9. Control

A system adapts to changes in the environment in order to give the expected output or to perform
to the expected level.

This is possible through the feedback which can be used to influence inputs

example:

If a human body is ill, the brain system sends a feedback (pain) this feedback will influence the
person to seek medical care.

4. Information System

• An Information System is a man-made system that facilitates an organization’s operational

functions and supports management decision making by providing information that managers can
use to plan and control the activities of the firm.
• is the collection of technical and human resources that provide the storage, computing,
distribution, and communication for the information required by all or some part of an enterprise.

• Management Information System (MIS) is a planned system of collecting, storing, and

disseminating data in the form of information needed to carry out the functions of management.

Purpose of information Systems

1. Supporting information processing ~ by enhancing tasks such as data collection, processing

and communication

2. Helping in decision making ~ by collecting operational data, analyzing it and generating

reports that can be used to support the decision making processing

3. Enable sharing of information

Why develop new information systems?

1. New opportunities ~ a chance to improve quality of internal processes and services delivery in
the organisation

2. Problems ~ Need to solve problems at hand

3. Directives ~ Change in policy or rules buy the company or Government

Role of a System analyst

A systems analyst is an IT professional who specializes in analyzing, designing and

implementing information systems.

System analysts assess the suitability of information systems in terms of their intended outcomes
and liaise with end users, software vendors and programmers in order to achieve these outcomes.

1. Examine existing IT systems and business models;

2. Analyses systems requirements;

3. Implement, configure and test feasible solutions.

4. Liaise and report to internal and external clients and stakeholders, including colleagues and
developers.

5. Is involved throughout the development process. The analyst acts as liaison between the client
and the developers.
6. Conduct a cost analysis and agree the time frame to implement the proposed solution. They
specify and shape the system requirements and operations, the user interface and output and
present the proposal to the client.

7. Is the overall project manager of the information system being implemented

5. Theories of Development

Subpage Listing

• 1. Introduction on theories of system development

• 2. Stages of system Development

1. Introduction on theories of system development

The aim of all these theories and methods is to identify business requirements and to develop
information systems that effectively meet them

Some of these theories include:

1. Traditional approach

2. Rapid Application Development (RAD)

3. The structured approach

1. Traditional Approach

It relies mostly on the skills and experience of individual staff members carrying out the project.
There are no formal procedures followed and therefore the success of the system is dependent on
individual effort.

In this approach, the manual system is replaced with a computerised one without change in
overall structure of the former system, hence the weaknesses of the former system are not
addressed and are carried forward to the new system.

2. Rapid Application Development (RAD)

RAD is also known as prototyping. A prototype is a sample used to test a concept or a process
this is a concept that products can be developed faster and of higher quality through:

• Gathering requirements using workshops or focus groups

• Prototyping and early, reiterative user testing of design

• The re-use of software components

• A rigidly paced schedule that defers design improvements to the next product version

• Less formality in reviews and other team communication

Advantages of the RAD model:

1. Reduced development time.

2. Increases re-usability of components

3. Quick initial reviews occur

4. Encourages customer feedback

5. Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.

Disadvantages of RAD model:

1. Depends on strong team and individual performances for identifying business requirements.

2. Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD

3. Requires highly skilled developers/designers.

4. High dependency on modeling skills

5. Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of modeling and automated code generation is very
high.

3. The Structured Approach

Structured approach involves a set of stages that should be followed when developing a system.
Each stage is documented in specifying the activities that should be carried out.

2. Stages of system Development

There are seven stages in system development lifecycle namely:

Problem recognition and definition

In this phase, the system analyst seeks answers to these two questions

1. Is the proposed system worthy pursuing?

2. Is the proposed project worthy looking at?

• Problem definition is performed by the senior members of the team with inputs from the
customer, the sales department, market surveys and domain experts in the industry.

This information is then used to plan the basic project approach and to conduct product feasibility
study in the economical, operational, and technical areas.

The scope of the project, constraints, budget and schedule is defined here
• Problem definition is also called problem analysis; its the process of identifying the problem
and finding out any constraints that may limit the solution

• A feasibility study (preliminary investigation) is conducted at this stage; Feasibility study is an

evaluation and analysis of the potential of a proposed project.

It is based on extensive investigation and research to support the process of decision making.

 Operational feasibility; establishes the extent to which the users are comfortable or happy with
the proposed or new system
 Schedule feasibility; establishes whether the development of the proposed system will be
accomplished within the available time
 Technical feasibility; establishes whether the technology available is sufficient or can be
upgraded for the new system. It also seeks to find out whether the staff have relevant technical
skills to develop and use the new system

 Economic feasibility; establishes whether developing the new system is cost effective by
analyzing all the costs and benefits of the proposed system. • After feasibility study has been
conducted, a documentation is prepared to cover all the activities that took place.

Introduction

Introduction to Networking and Data Communication

Welcome!

Computers communicate to one another; however they should be interconnected (networked) in

order for communication to take place.

The best example where computers communicate to one another is through Internet or usage of
mobile phones.

A number of procedures and elements are needed in order for communication to take place. In
this tutorial, we are going to learn the following topics:

1. Definition of terms used in networking

2. Types of computer networks

3. Purpose and demerits of networking

4. Elements of networking

5. Network topologies and

6. Network security
At the end of this topic therefore, you should accomplish the tasks listed above and be able to
attempt assessments to clarify you understanding on logic

1.2 Definition of Terms Used in Networking

Definition of Terms Used in Networking

Network A network is the infrastructure that supports electronic data exchange.Either, it can be
defined as a collection of independent entities that are arranged to exchange data or resources

Computer Network

A computer network therefore can be defined as a collection of computers linked together using
transmission media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing.

Transmission Media

This is any physical or non-physical link between two or more computers and in which a signal
can be made to flow from source to destination.

These shared resources include:- application programs, printers, fax machines, modems, storage
devices etc.
Data Communication

Data communication is a process of transmitting data signals from one point to another through
the network.

Data Signal

A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. data signal can
either be digital or analogue

Modulation

This is a process by which the characteristics of electrical signals are transformed to represent
information.

Types of modulation include AM, FM, and PAM.i.e converting digital signal to analogue

Demodulation

This is a process of returning a modulated signal to its original form.

Modems perform demodulation by taking an analog signal and returning it to its original (digital)
form.

Multiplexing

This is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium

Demultiplexing

This is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end Bandwidth

This is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at lany one time
Baseband Signal

This is a digital signal that is generated and applied tot he transmission medium directly without
modulation

Broadband Transmission

An analogue signal is sent over the transmission medium using a particular frequency

Attenuation

This is a decrease in magnitude and energy as a signal progressively moves along a transmission
medium
Repeater

A Physical Layer device which restores, amplifies, re-clocks or otherwise improves a network
signal that it receives on one of its ports and transmits the improved signal without buffering or
interpreting it.

Modes of data communication

Simplex

This is communication in only one direction e.g. radio broadcasting

Half Duplex

Refers to communication in both directions but one direction at a time e.g. using a walkie talkie

Full Duplex

This is communication that occurs in both directions simultaneously

1.3 Computer Network and Types

Computer Network

1. A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers

to exchange data.

Types of computer networks

There are different types of networks. Namely: Personal Area Network (PAN), Local Area
Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), Wide Area Network (WAN) and
Internetwork
Note: KCSE Syllabus limits types of networks as LAN, MAN and WAN (students should stick
with the syllabus)
Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network or simply PAN, is smallest network which is very personal to a user.

This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity
range up to 10 meters.

PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones,
wireless printers and TV remotes for example.

Piconet is an example Bluetooth enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8
devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.
Local Area Network

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative system is
generally termed as Local Area Network. Usually, Local Area Network covers an organization’s
offices, schools, college/universities etc.

Number of systems may vary from as least as two to as much as 16 million.

LAN provides a useful way of sharing resources between end users.

Resources like Printers, File Servers, Scanners and internet is easy sharable among computers.
Metropolitan Area Network

MAN, generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV network.

It can be in form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM or FDDI.

Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs.

This service enables its users to expand their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help
an organization to connect all of its offices in a City.

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN is works in between Local
Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or Internet.
Wide Area Network

As name suggests, this network covers a wide area which may span across provinces and even a
whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network.

These networks provides connectivity to MANs and LANs.

Internetwork
A network of networks is called internetwork, or simply Internet. It is the largest network in
existence on this planet. Internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to LANs
and Home networks.

Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information worldwide.

It uses www, ftp, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge level, internet works on
Client-Server model.

Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics.

To inter-connect various continents, fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine
communication cable.

Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and is
accessible by some client software known as Web Browsers.

When a user requests a page using some web browser located on some Web Server anywhere in
the world, the Web Server responds with the proper HTML page. The communication delay is
very low.

Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life.

Some of them are:

• Web sites

• E-mail

• Instant Messaging

• Blogging

• Social Media

• Marketing

• Networking

• Resource Sharing

• Audio and Video Streaming

1.4 Purpose and Limitations of Networking

Purpose and Limitations of Networking

1. Purpose of Networking

Computer networking has various purposes which include:

resource sharing, remote communication, distributed processing facilities, cost effectiveness and
reliability.

Resource Sharing

Anything available on the same network environment is referred to as a resource this include:
printers, fax machines, data/information, modems, files etc.

Resource sharing is the idea of computers sharing resources in a common network.

For example: in a computer lab, all computers can be able to share the same printer or scanner.

Also information can be shared in all computers

Remote Communication

Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication
devices located at different locations.

A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a
remote client while the computer being accessed is called a remote host.
Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as
radio waves, microwave and satellite

Distributed Processing Facilities

Distributed data processing is a computer-networking method in which multiple computers across

different locations share computer-processing capability.

This is in contrast to a single, centralized server managing and providing processing capability to
all connected systems.

Computers that comprise the distributed data-processing network are located at different
locations but interconnected by means of wireless or satellite links.

Files reside on the user's computer rather than on a central computer.

Branch offices in a large organization have their own servers that store data, information and
other resources required for the daily operations.

This servers would periodically update the central computer.

Advantages of Distributed Processing

1. The failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals
(reliability)

2. processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage (improved performance and reduced
time wasting)

3. Relatively cheap -Distributed data processing considerably lowers the cost of data sharing and
networking across an organization by comprising several minicomputers that cost significantly
less than mainframe machines.

4. The system is flexible in sharing of processing activities also in terms of increasing or

decreasing processing power.

For example, adding more nodes or computers to the network increases processing power and
overall system capability, while reducing computers from the network decreases processing
power.

Cost Effectiveness

Even though the initial cost is higher, the savings experienced and the value added to service
delivery make them a ready choose for enterprising managers.
Networks greatly increase the efficient use of scarce resources thus saving operational costs
Reliability

A computer network is reliable because:

1. Data can be transferred with minimum error from source to destination

2. In case one computer breaks down, a user can still access data and information from other
computers on the same network.

Advantages of Computer Networking

1. Easy Communication

It is very easy to communicate through a network.

People can communicate efficiently using a network with a group of people.

They can enjoy the benefit of emails, instant messaging, telephony, video conferencing, chat
rooms, etc.

2. Ability to Share Files, Data and Information

This is one of the major advantages of networking computers.

People can find and share information and data because of networking.

This is beneficial for large organizations to maintain their data in an organized manner and
facilitate access for desired people.

3. Sharing of Resources

Another important advantage of networking is the ability to share hardware/software.

For an example, a printer can be shared among the users in a network so that there’s no need to
have individual printers for each and every computer in the company.

This will significantly reduce the cost of purchasing hardware.

4. Speed

Sharing and transferring files within networks is very rapid, depending on the type of network.

This will save time while maintaining the integrity of files.

Limitations (Disadvantages) of Networking

Security Issues Data and information is more prone to illegal access than where there is no
networking.

Computer crimes like tapping of information is common

High Initial Costs

Initial costs of acquiring network resources like hardware and software is high Moral and
Cultural Effects

Large networks like the internet have chat rooms and messaging services that enable underage
children to meet peers and adults on the net some of whom may have bad intentions. e.g access to
drugs information and pornographic contents

Spread of Terrorism and Drug Trafficking

The easy flow of information keeps even those who are on the wrong side of the law
communicating easily.

Terrorists and drug traffickers use information networks for their business communications

Over - Reliance on networks

All businesses these days is dependent on computer networks. And if a network fails, businesses
will halt to a standstill and bring enormous losses.

Bandwidth Issues

In a network there are users who consume a lot more bandwidth than others. Because of this
some other people may experience difficulties.

summary Advantages and disadvantages of networks

Advantages

• Sharing devices such as printers saves money.

• Site (software) licences are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone licences.

• Files can easily be shared between users.

• Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.

• Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.

• Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.
Disadvantages

• Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.

• Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager usually
needs to be employed.

• If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible.

Email might still work if it is on a separate server.

The computers can still be used but are isolated.

• Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.

• There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks.

Security procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.