Topic 4.1 and 4.

2 is finished / B1 is (almost) finished

● Make pairs - preferably with someone who is taking the same course (i.e.
DP1/DP2, SL/HL).
● Take a piece of A3 paper and a pen and create a mind map for this topic.
● Try and recall as many of the sub topics and related information as possible
without looking at books/internet.
C2 Motor Learning

DP SEHS SL
 C2.1.1 Learning, including motor learning, is
a relatively permanent change in behaviour
brought about by experience, whereas
performance is a temporary occurrence,
fluctuating over time.

C2.1 Motor learning C2.1.2 The psychological refractory period is

the time in which response to a second
processes stimulus is significantly slowed because a
first stimulus is still being processed.

C2.1.3 Transfer of learning refers to the

influence of previous experience performing
a skill on the learning of a new skill.
DP1 SEHS SL/HL Linking Questions:

● A.3.1—To what extent do the training

programmes developed by coaches
reflect the stages of learning?
● Tool 2, B.2.3—How can video
technology be used to monitor or
influence progress in acquiring a skill?
 ● Define the term skill.
● Describe the different types of skill.
● Outline the different approaches to
classifying motor skills.
5.1 The ● Compare skill profiles for contrasting
sports.
characteristics and ● Outline ability.
classification of skill ● Distinguish between Fleishman’s
physical proficiency abilities (physical
factors) and perceptual motor abilities
(psychomotor factors).
DP2 SEHS ● Define the term technique.
● State the relationship between ability,
skill and technique.
● Discuss the differences between a
skilled and a novice performer.
Lesson starter

● Work in groups of 2-3.

● Decide together on a definition for the words (5-10 mins):
○ Skill
○ Ability
○ Technique
● After your group has decided on the definitions for all three words, write them
on the board.
 ‘Motor skill is an ability to solve
one or another motor problem’
Bernstein, 1996
Skill

‘A task that has a specific goal to

achieve.’
‘Skill consists in the ability to
Magill, 1998
bring about some end result with
maximum certainty and minimum
outlay of energy, or of time and
energy’
Guthrie, 1952 ‘Skill is the consistent
production of goal-oriented
movements, which are learned
and specific to the task.’
McMorris, 2004
Characteristics of skill
● Goal/outcome orientated – they have an end result e.g.
serving a tennis ball.
● They meet the performance goal with maximum certainty – if
done ‘skilfully’ a lay up will score a basket consistently.
● Meet the goal with minimum outlay of energy – they are
efficient, such as correct freestyle technique
● Learned through practice – require experience, repetition and
feedback to improve
To think about….

Think of five skills you perform every day

 Define the term skill
The term skill can be used to describe a specific …………... or the level of
………………… of an individual.
Skill infers that the …………….. has been ………… and therefore has a
pre-determined goal or ………….
It is not an action that a person can just …………… do, neither is it moving
for the sake of moving e.g tapping your foot while waiting for the tram is
not a skill!

Missing words: outcome; naturally; learned; action; movement; performance

 Define the term skill

The term skill can be used to describe a specific action or the level of
performance of an individual.
Skill infers that the movement has been learned and therefore has a
pre-determined goal or outcome.
It is not an action that a person can just naturally do, neither is it moving
for the sake of moving e.g tapping your foot while waiting for the tram is
not a skill!
 Types of Skill
Motor
Emphasis on movement with little thinking involved

Cognitive
Thinking skills. Sometimes separate but always required in team sports too i.e. rules, tactics –
quarterback

Perceptual
Uses the senses to consider and ‘read’ situations to enable them to make a decision

Perceptual - motor
Interpretation of environmental factors/stimuli and sensory info to then make a decision and act on it
(without substantial pause/time to think)
Types of skill
Copy the following table into your notebook and fill it in:

Type of Skill Description Sporting Example

Cognitive

Motor

Perceptual

Perceptual-Motor
 Types of skill

Type of Description Sporting Example

Skill

Cognitive Skills involving thinking Planning your next shot

in a game of pool.

Motor Basic movement patterns, with little thinking, which have been Performing a squat in
practiced to produce controlled movement. the gym

Perceptual Using the senses to consider and ‘read’ situations to enable an Reading the lie of the
individual to make a decision. green in golf before
making a put.

Perceptual- These skills involve the interpretation of environmental stimuli Dribbling past defenders
Motor and are the motor response to this information. They are in football.
important when the performer has to adapt to the environment.
Outline Ability

Ability refers to a general trait or capacity of the individual

that is related to the performance and performance
potential of a variety of skills or tasks.

A skill is something we learn, an ability is something we are born

with.
Define the term ‘technique’

Technique is a ‘way of doing’. In the performance of a

specific sports skill it is defined as the ‘way in which
that sports skill is performed’.

Skill = ability + selection of the correct technique.

 ● Define the term skill.
● Describe the different types of skill.
● Outline the different approaches to
classifying motor skills.
5.1 The ● Compare skill profiles for contrasting
sports.
characteristics and ● Outline ability.
classification of skill ● Distinguish between Fleishman’s
physical proficiency abilities (physical
factors) and perceptual motor abilities
(psychomotor factors).
DP2 SEHS ● Define the term technique.
● State the relationship between ability,
skill and technique.
● Discuss the differences between a
skilled and a novice performer.
 ● Define the term skill.
● Describe the different types of skill.
● Outline the different approaches to
classifying motor skills.
5.1 The ● Compare skill profiles for contrasting
sports.
characteristics and ● Outline ability.
classification of skill ● Distinguish between Fleishman’s
physical proficiency abilities (physical
factors) and perceptual motor abilities
(psychomotor factors).
DP2 SEHS ● Define the term technique.
● State the relationship between ability,
skill and technique.
● Discuss the differences between a
skilled and a novice performer.
Fleishman’s
taxonomy of abilities

Fleishman identified a number of

abilities and divided them into two
categories:

Physical proficiency: Abilities to do

with movements/strength of the
body.

Perceptual-Motor: A combination of
how we perceive our environment
and react to it.
Task

In pairs, think of a few skills that you use regularly, then:

● Write down the different components of that skill

● Which of Fleishman’s abilities would be required in order to perform that skill
well?

(10 minutes)
 ● Define the term skill.
● Describe the different types of skill.
● Outline the different approaches to
classifying motor skills.
5.1 The ● Compare skill profiles for contrasting
sports.
characteristics and ● Outline ability.
classification of skill ● Distinguish between Fleishman’s
physical proficiency abilities (physical
factors) and perceptual motor abilities
(psychomotor factors).
DP2 SEHS ● Define the term technique.
● State the relationship between ability,
skill and technique.
● Discuss the differences between a
skilled and a novice performer.
The difference between skilled and novice performers

● Consistency
● Accuracy
● Fluency
● Efficiency
Sinking a putt - professional vs. amateur

Professional golfer: Amateur golfer:

● Consistently in the same ● Inconsistent
region ● Accuracy is low
● Accuracy is high ● Sometimes can be successful
Learning and Performance

Performance: ‘A temporary occurrence fluctuating from time to time: something

which is transitory.’

Learning: The process of acquiring consistency through training and practice.

‘A relatively permanent change in performance resulting from practice or past

experience.’

Kerr (1982)
Factors that influence rate of learning

The biggest requirement to learn a new skill is motivation.

But sometimes, no matter how motivated you are, if you are not physically prepared
for the demands of the task:

1. Not physically fit enough: Physical training is necessary

E.g. cardio-respiratory fitness, co-ordination, strength

2. Not physically mature: Need to wait until physically mature enough to acquire
skill

E.g. A baby that is not yet physically developed enough to crawl.

Stephen Curry in the 2022 NBA finals
Watch the video of clips from the 2022 NBA finals
and make notes on the:

● Consistency
● Accuracy
● Fluency
● Efficiency

of Steph Curry’s performance.

Basketball: Professional vs. non-professional

Skill Steph Curry You

Making a shot

Dribbling

Making a throw

Catching
Basketball: Professional vs. non-professional

Skill Steph Curry Novice

Making a shot Always on target, Almost Sometime successful, but

always successful inconsistent and not always
accurate

Dribbling Appears effortless, fluent Far from fluent, lack of

and controlled coordination, appears
difficult, more energy
expended

Making a throw Always accurate, fast and Not efficient, not always
efficient accurate

Catching Always successful, Sometimes not accurate,

effortless inconsistent, not efficient
How can we play basketball like Steph Curry

Most importantly:

● Ability

Then,

● Fitness - health and performance related

● Motivation
● Coaching to learn the correct techniques and when to use them
● Practice, practice and more practice!
Transfer of learning

Positive Transfer: When the practice of one task benefits the performance of
another.

Negative Transfer: When the practice of one task has an inhibiting effect on
another.

Zero effect: Practice of one task has no effect on another.

Transfer of learning
Type of Transfer Example

skill to skill Throwing a ball to throwing a javelin

practice to Using a ball thrower to practice tennis shots

performance

abilities to skills Increasing dynamic strength in order to start races better

bilateral A soccer player learning to kick with their weaker foot

stage to stage Playing three-on-three basketball to a full game

principles to skills Learning how angular momentum can be used to control speed
in a spin to performing a tuck jump in gymnastics.
 ● Define the term skill.
● Describe the different types of skill.
● Outline the different approaches to
classifying motor skills.
5.1 The ● Compare skill profiles for contrasting
sports.
characteristics and ● Outline ability.
classification of skill ● Distinguish between Fleishman’s
physical proficiency abilities (physical
factors) and perceptual motor abilities
(psychomotor factors).
DP2 SEHS ● Define the term technique.
● State the relationship between ability,
skill and technique.
● Discuss the differences between a
skilled and a novice performer.
 ● Describe a simple model of information processing.
● Describe Welford’s model of information processing.
● Outline the components associated with sensory input.
● Explain the signal-detection process.
● Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term

5.2 Information sensory store, short-term memory and long-term

memory
Processing ● Discuss the relationship between selective attention
and memory
● Compare different methods of memory improvement.
● Define the term response time.
● Outline factors that determine response time.
● Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory
period (PRP).
● Describe a motor programme.
● Compare motor programmes from both open- and
closed loop perspectives.
● Outline the role of feedback in information-processing
models.
● Outline the role of feedback with the learning process.
Conceptual Learning

Essential Understanding:

Processing information supports the acquisition and performance of skill.

Inquiry Question:

How does information processing help in the acquisition and performance of skill?
Performing skills in sport
Performing skills in sport is often done in a complex environment.

For example, in a football match there are:

● 22 players
● 1 referee
● The ball
● The goals
● The line markings

The player has to take all this into account before he decides what
to do. How humans can do this has puzzled psychologists for many
years.
Information Processing

We can compare information processing in humans to the way a computer works.

● There is an input of information

● The information is processed
● There is an output of information

With humans, we take in information using our senses, decision making takes place in
our brain and the output (or response) is carried out by our muscles.
The Black Box Model of Information Processing

Central Nervous
Input - System Output -
Also Also
known as known as
display or the
stimulus response
(stimuli
for most
sports)
Feedback

First model of information processing - psychologists did not know what happened in the
central nervous system.
Example - receiving a serve in tennis
Input:
● The player has to take into account
○ The speed of the serve
○ Any spin on the ball
○ Direction of the ball
○ Wind speed of the ball
○ Where they are standing on the court
CNS:
● Player decides on the shot to take
Output:
● The shot taken by the player
Feedback:
● This will affect decision making for future
shots
Exercise

Think of a sporting example to explain information processing using the Black Box
Model.

What will be the:

● Input
● Output
● Feedback

For your example?

 ● Describe a simple model of information processing.
● Describe Welford’s model of information processing.
● Outline the components associated with sensory input.
● Explain the signal-detection process.
● Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term

5.2 Information sensory store, short-term memory and long-term

memory
Processing ● Discuss the relationship between selective attention
and memory
● Compare different methods of memory improvement.
● Define the term response time.
● Outline factors that determine response time.
● Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory
period (PRP).
● Describe a motor programme.
● Compare motor programmes from both open- and
closed loop perspectives.
● Outline the role of feedback in information-processing
models.
● Outline the role of feedback with the learning process.
 Welford’s Model of Information Processing
Short Term Long Term
Memory Memory

Input Output
Efferent
Sensation Perception Decision
Organisation

Feedback
Welford was the first psychologist to try to explain what went on in the black box
Sensation

● Exteroceptors – Sense organs that respond to stimuli from outside the body. The
main exteroceptors involved in sensation with regard to sport are vision and
audition (hearing).
● Interoceptors – Sensory nerve receptors providing information from within the
body. Examples are blood pressure, blood pH, oxygen levels etc.
● Proprioceptors – ‘Sense of self’
○ In the limbs, the proprioceptors are sensors that provide information about
joint angle, muscle length and muscle tension which is integrated to give
information about the position of the limb in space
Perception

Perception occurs in three stages:

● Detecting that the stimulus has occurred. e.g. you detect that you have the ball,
there are defenders in front of you, and one teammate to the left of you.
● Comparing that to a similar situation in your memory.
● Recognising when you have been in this situation before. e.g. you recognise that
you have been in this situation before and were able to successfully pass to a
teammate on your left. This helps with your decision making.
Effectors

Once the decision has been made, the brain sends a message to the effectors
(muscles) via the efferent organisation (neurons).

This is seen as the response or output.

Feedback

You observe the outcome and judge whether this was successful or not.

This information is stored in the memory and will help with decision making the next
time you are in this situation.

E.g. You passed the ball to the left, but the kick was not forceful enough and one of the
defenders managed to intercept the ball. Next time you know that you need to kick
the ball harder, so that is reaches your teammate.
Make a video
In groups of 2-3, choose one of the sporting examples of information processing
explained using Welford’s model and make a video to explain it to the rest of the class.

Marks given for… Possible marks

Video ready to be presented on 27th November 2

All group members appear in video 2

All elements of Welford’s model discussed 6

All elements of Welford’s model explained correctly 6

Creativity of video 4
 ● Describe a simple model of information processing.
● Describe Welford’s model of information processing.
● Outline the components associated with sensory input.
● Explain the signal-detection process.
● Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term

5.2 Information sensory store, short-term memory and long-term

memory
Processing ● Discuss the relationship between selective attention
and memory
● Compare different methods of memory improvement.
● Define the term response time.
● Outline factors that determine response time.
● Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory
period (PRP).
● Describe a motor programme.
● Compare motor programmes from both open- and
closed loop perspectives.
● Outline the role of feedback in information-processing
models.
● Outline the role of feedback with the learning process.
Signal detection theory

Imagine you are facing Rafael Nadal

in the US open and he is about to
serve.

Make a list of all the pieces of Divide all these pieces of information in to two
information your senses will be columns:
receiving at that moment. ● Essential information for returning the
serve
● Non-essential information for returning the
serve
Signal detection theory

Hopefully you saw with the last exercise that at any moment, we receive a lot of
information via our senses.

It’s important that we are able to tune out all the non-essential information or ‘noise’
and only detect the essential information or ‘signal’.

Noise does not have to be actual noise and there can be more than one signal, for
example noise could also be the feel of clothing on your skin.
How do we detect signals?

There are two factors that determine whether we detect a signal or not:

● The intensity of the signal: How easy the signal is to detect.

○ Example: Players in different teams wear different coloured shirts, so that
they are easily recognisable by their teammates.
● The efficiency of the sense organs: This can also be improved by previous
experience, a familiar signal is easier to detect than an unfamiliar one.
○ Example: If you have driven a car many times before, you will be more likely
to pick up signals such as traffic lights.
The detection-comparison-recognition (DCR)
process
Signal detection is also referred to as the detection-comparison-recognition (DCR) process.

● Detection is the process of the registering of the stimulus, by the

sense organ.
● Comparison is the process of referring the stimulus to the
memory, to compare it to previously stored stimuli.
● Recognition is the process of finding a corresponding stimuli in
the memory.
Videos - Daniil and Yeva
Videos - Lasta, Juliette, Sarah
Videos - Fedir and Abdullah and Kamili
Videos - Matteo, Brandon, Amelia
Videos - Valeriia
Videos - Noemi and Linda
Memory

‘Capacity that permits organisms to benefit from their past experiences’ Tulving
(1985)
Tell your partner about:
● Your proudest sporting moment.
● What you had for dinner last Wednesday.

Which of these did you recall most easily?

For which could you give the most detail?

Memory

Go to the following link and test your memory:

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stm0.html
 ● Describe a simple model of information processing.
● Describe Welford’s model of information processing.
● Outline the components associated with sensory input.
● Explain the signal-detection process.
● Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term

5.2 Information sensory store, short-term memory and long-term

memory
Processing ● Discuss the relationship between selective attention
and memory
● Compare different methods of memory improvement.
● Define the term response time.
● Outline factors that determine response time.
● Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory
period (PRP).
● Describe a motor programme.
● Compare motor programmes from both open- and
closed loop perspectives.
● Outline the role of feedback in information-processing
models.
● Outline the role of feedback with the learning process.
 Limited capacity in
Memory the STM (7 ± 2 bits Capacity of the
of information) LTM is not limited.

Sensory Short Term Long Term

Stimuli Information Memory Memory
Store (SIS) (STM) (LTM)

All Information that is

Transfer to the
information is rehearsed (attended to
LTM depends on
held in the SIS physically or mentally)
rehearsal.
(most is lost enters the STM. 90% of this
after 0.5s) information is lost after 10s.
Selective Attention

● Short term memory has a limited capacity.

● Some psychologists believe it is only possible to focus on one piece of
information at a time.
● Other psychologists believe it is possible to focus on more than one piece of
information if the tasks are different, for example running with the ball and
deciding when to throw - these two tasks use different parts of the brain and so
can be done at the same time.
● To overcome this limited capacity, we focus on only the relevant information,
and ignore the rest.
 We can also make decisions on which information to
process before it enters the STM, for example, when
attacking in football, you are looking out for the

Selective attention positions of defenders - past experience allows the

athlete to know which stimuli they should be
looking out for.

Limited
Stimuli Short Term Selective
Capacity
Memory Filter
System

Selected stimuli are

Selected Stimulus
In the selective attention model proposed by compared to information
Broadbent (1956) all information enters the stored in the LTM, this
STM, but we only attend to selected stimuli, allows us to make a
the rest are filtered out. decision on which action
to take.
Long Term Memory
Relationship between memory and selective
attention
Retention and retrieval of information from LTM is influenced by:
• rehearsal - the more a memory is rehearsed, the more likely it is that it will be
remembered
• meaningfulness - the more meaningful a memory is, the more likely it is to be
remembered
• speed of learning - the quicker a process is learned, the more likely it is to be remembered
• over-learning - the more a skill is practised, even when perfected, the better it will be
remembered
All of the processes discussed so far involve information, that appears to be stored in some way
within the Central Nervous System.
Selective Attention

Selective attention can be improved by:

• Lots of relevant practice
• Increasing intensity of stimulus
• Use of language associated with or appropriate to the performer in
order to motivate and arouse
• Use of past experience/transfer to help explanations
• Direct attention
Aiding Memory

What techniques do you know/use already to help you remember information?

● Chunking
● Practice
● Association
● Explain to someone else
● Organisation
● Clarity
● Brevity
● Action words
 ● Describe a simple model of information processing.
● Describe Welford’s model of information processing.
● Outline the components associated with sensory input.
● Explain the signal-detection process.
● Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term

5.2 Information sensory store, short-term memory and long-term

memory
Processing ● Discuss the relationship between selective attention
and memory
● Compare different methods of memory improvement.
● Define the term response time.
● Outline factors that determine response time.
● Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory
period (PRP).
● Describe a motor programme.
● Compare motor programmes from both open- and
closed loop perspectives.
● Outline the role of feedback in information-processing
models.
● Outline the role of feedback with the learning process.
Response Time

Response time = Reaction time + movement time

Reaction time is the time from the

onset of the stimulus to the beginning
of the overt response.

Movement time is the time taken to

complete the motor aspect of the
response.
Reaction Time
Factors affecting response time

● Age: Increase throughout childhood, but declines throughout adulthood

● Number of Choices: The more choices there are, the longer the response time.
○ For simple reaction time (one stimulus, one reaction) the reaction time is
typically 170-200 msec.
○ For every doubling of the number of stimulus-response couplings there is
an increase of about 150 msec response time.
The psychological refractory period
Welford did an experiment:

1. He recorded the time taken to respond

to one stimulus.
2. He then repeated this but introduced a
second stimulus before the first
response was completed.

He found that we can’t start to process the

second stimulus until we have finished the
response to the first.
He called the extra time taken to respond to
the second stimulus the psychological
refractory period.
The psychological refractory period in sport

Athletes often use this to trick their opponents and

buy themselves more time to make a move.

For example, in football, the attacker feints that they

are going to move one way with the ball and then
moves off in the other direction.

The defender is still responding to the first stimulus

(the direction they thought the attacker would
move) and has to finish this response before they can
change the direction to follow the attacker.
Who has the fastest response time?

With a partner, carry out the ruler drop experiment. Repeat 10 times each and record
your results in the shared google sheets document.

Convert the distance the ruler fell to the response time using the following formula:

t = response time (in seconds)

t = √2d/9.8 d = distance the ruler fell (in metres)
Who has the fastest response time?

Write down the answers to the following questions and submit to me by Friday.
1. What was the fastest response time?
2. What was the slowest response time?
3. What was the average for the class?
4. Why was the ruler not caught instantaneously?
5. What improves response time?
6. What do you think would have been the effect on your response time if your partner
had faked they were going to drop the ruler, before actually dropping it? Explain your
answer.
7. What were the sources of uncertainty in this experiment?
8. How could you have improved upon them?
 ● Describe a simple model of information processing.
● Describe Welford’s model of information processing.
● Outline the components associated with sensory input.
● Explain the signal-detection process.
● Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term

5.2 Information sensory store, short-term memory and long-term

memory
Processing ● Discuss the relationship between selective attention
and memory
● Compare different methods of memory improvement.
● Define the term response time.
● Outline factors that determine response time.
● Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory
period (PRP).
● Describe a motor programme.
● Compare motor programmes from both open- and
closed loop perspectives.
● Outline the role of feedback in information-processing
models.
● Outline the role of feedback with the learning process.
Motor Programme

Watch the video, explaining what a motor programme is and open- and closed-loop
theory:
Motor programme

Executive Program: Whole motor programme, the complete skill.

Subroutine: The coachable parts that make up the motor programme.

Activity: Watch the video explaining how to do

a round-off in gymnastics.

Make a list of all the subroutines in a round-off.

Motor Programme

Coordination of Subroutines:
When a specific action is required, the memory process retrieves the stored
programme and transmits the motor commands via nerve impulses to the
relevant muscles allowing movement to occur.

If this skill is learned then the reaction time to produce the skill is very short.
Comparing Motor Programmes
Open Loops:

- Open loops - Performance of a skill without feedback.

- E.g. Swinging at a 160 kph fast ball in baseball.
- No alteration of movement is possible. Since the stimuli is too fast for the feedback/adjustment to
occur.
5.2.12 - Comparing Motor Programmes

Closed Loops:

- Involved the process of feedback.

- Slower skills can be altered during their execution.

1. Control is internal (proprioceptors detect and correct errors).

2. Perceptual trace - memory for the feel of successful past experience/movements.

E.g. ball hitting the top of the net in tennis causes a change in trajectory.
5.2.13 - Compare Motor Programmes
Compare Motor Programmes
Feedback

Activity: Use the internet to look up descriptions of the types of feedback listed on
the worksheet and come up with a sporting example.
Think about the effects of positive and negative feedback.
● Should coaches avoid giving negative feedback?
● Is there such a thing as too much positive feedback? How would this affect a
person’s learning?
● How important do you think feedback is for learning a new skill?