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7 Vectors

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14 views17 pages

7 Vectors

Uploaded by

Stargazing
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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2-Vectors

Shivangi Chandel

Jindal School of Government and Public Policy

Course: Advanced Mathematical Tools

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 1 / 17


Vectors

1 Vector Space

2 Basis and Dimension

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 2 / 17


What do we mean by a Vector?

Suppose we study a number of firms by analyzing the following


parameters: a1 - number of workers, a2 - capital stock and a3 -
annual profit. Then each firm can be represented as a 3-tuple in the
form of a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ).
The ordering of numbers matters here i.e. (2,1,3) is not the same as
(1,3,2).
The set of all n-tuples (a1 , · · · , an ) of real numbers is denoted by Rn
and is called the n-dimensional Euclidean Space.
These ordered n-tuples are also called as vectors.

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 3 / 17


Comparing two vectors

Two vectors x and y in Rn are equal if xi = yi for all i = 1, 2, · · · n.


When is x > y? We compare the two vectors element by element and
say that x is greater than y if for all i, xi > yi . Analogously, we can
define x < y.
Unlike in the case of real numbers, for vectors when x > y does not
hold, this does not imply y ≥ x. Example anyone?
A vector 0 = (0, 0, · · · , 0) is called a Null Vector.
A vector x is called non-negative (which is denoted by x ≥ 0) if
xi ≥ 0 for all i. A vector x is called positive if xi > 0 for all i. We
denote this case by x > 0.

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 4 / 17


Algebraic Properties of Vectors

At some point, one would like to aggregate firm data and look at the
industry performance.
What algebraic properties on vectors can be naturally defined?
Addition/Subtraction of two n-vectors:

x ± y = (x1 ± y1 , x2 + y2 , · · · , xn + yn )
Multiplication of a vector by a real number λ:

λx = (λx1 , λx2 , · · · , λxn )


A number of properties follow immediately:

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 5 / 17


For vectors x, y, z, and scalars λ, µ:
1 x + y = y + x (commutativity of vector addition).
2 (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) (associativity of vector addition).
3 x + 0 = x (existence of additive identity).
4 x + (−x) = 0 (existence of additive inverse).
5 1x = x (scalar multiplicative identity).
6 λ(µx) = (λµ)x (associativity of scalar multiplication).
7 (λ + µ)x = λx + µx (vector distribution over scalar addition).
8 λ(x + y) = λx + λy (scalar distribution over vector addition).
The properties listed above may be taken as axioms for an abstract
algebraic system. Such systems are called vector spaces.

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 6 / 17


Vector Space

Definition 1.1
A vector space consists of the following:
a field F of scalars;
a set V of objects, called vectors; and
algebraic rules of vector addition (+ : V × V −→ V) and scalar
multiplication (· : F × V −→ V)
satisfying properties 1-8 as above.

Throughout the course, we will consider F = R.


n−dimensional Euclidean space or Rn is a vector space (over R)
(Check?).

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 7 / 17


Vectors

1 Vector Space

2 Basis and Dimension

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 8 / 17


Linear Combination of m vectors in Rn

Definition 2.1
A vector y ∈ Rn can be written as a linear combination of the set of
vectors x1 , x2 , · · · , xm in Rn if there are scalars λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λm such that

y = λ 1 x1 + λ 2 x2 + · · · + λ m xm .

For example in R2 , (2, 4) = 2(1, 0) + 4(0, 1) = 0.5(1, 2) + 0.5(3, 6).


Show that (1, 2, 4) is a linear combination of vectors (7, 1, 0),
(2, 0, 3), (1, 1, 1).
Alternatively, the set of all linear combinations of vectors
x1 , x2 , · · · , xm is called the span of {x1 , x2 , · · · , xm }, denoted as
L({x1 , x2 , · · · , xm }).

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 9 / 17


Notice that in the previous example, (1, 0) and (0, 1) can be linearly
combined to yield every other vector in R2 i.e.
L({(0, 1), (1, 0)}) = R2 .
The same cannot be said for vectors (1, 2) and (2, 4). (Why?)
Further, there are vector pairs other than (1, 0) and (0, 1) that can be
linearly combined to give very single vector in R2 . (give example?)
Lastly, why only pairs for R2 ? why not triplets or more?
To answer these questions we first need to understand the property
some sets of vectors (like {(1, 0), (0, 1)}) possess that others don’t.

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 10 / 17


Linear Independence of Vectors

Definition 2.2
A set of m vectors, x1 , x2 , · · · , xm in Rn is linearly dependent if there
exists scalars λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λm , not all zero, such that

λ1 x1 + λ2 x2 + · · · + λm xm = 0.

A set of vectors is called linearly independent if the vectors are not


linearly dependent.

That is, the vectors, x1 , x2 , · · · , xm in Rn are called linearly


independent if λ1 x1 + λ2 x2 + · · · + λm xm = 0 only when
λ1 = λ2 = · · · = λm = 0.

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 11 / 17


We can see that (1, 2) and (2, 4) are linearly dependent. Are (1, 2)
and (2, 3) linearly independent? Are the three vectors (1, 1), (1, 3)
and (3, 7) linearly independent?
The null vector is linearly dependent with all other vectors (why?).
A set containing a single vector is linearly independent (why?).
If one vector is removed from a set of linearly independent vectors,
the remaining set will also be linearly independent (why?).
If one vector is added to a set of linearly dependent vectors, the new
set will also be linearly dependent (why?).

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 12 / 17


Basis and dimension of V

Definition 2.3
Let V be a vector space. A basis for V is a linearly independent set of
vectors in V which spans the whole space V. The space V is
finite-dimensional if it has a finite basis with the dimension of V being
the number of vectors in the basis set.

For a set of vectors to form basis, we need both - spanning the whole
V and linear independence between the vectors.
However, 1) not all linearly independent sets span the complete vector
space. Example: Consider A = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1)}
2) A set that spans the vector space may not be linearly independent.
Example: Consider B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 7)}.
The next proposition can serve as a useful definition of a basis of V.

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 13 / 17


Proposition 2.1
A set of vectors {x1 , x2 , · · · , xm } in V forms a basis if and only if every
v ∈ V can be written uniquely in the form of

v = a1 x1 + · · · + am xm ,

where a1 , · · · , an ∈ R.

Proof.
To be discussed in class.

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 14 / 17


Some results

A vector space has a unique dimension but can have more than one
basis set (example?). In other words, any two bases of a
finite-dimensional vector space have the same length.
Suppose dimension of V is n, then n + 1 vectors in V are linearly
dependent i.e. Basis is the maximal linearly independent set (why?).
Any subset of linearly independent set is also linearly independent
(why?).
Any superset of linearly dependent set is also linearly dependent
(why?).

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 15 / 17


Subspace of V

Definition 2.4
Let V be a vector space over a field F . A subspace of V is a subset W of
V which is itself a vector space over F with operations of vector addition
and scalar multiplication on V. In other words, for each pair of vectors x
and y ∈ W, and each scalar α ∈ F , αx + y ∈ W.

If W is a subspace of V, then 0 ∈ W (why?).


What do subspaces of R2 , R3 look like?
Affine Subspaces: Let W be a subspace of V. For a v ∈ V, define
v + W = {v + w : w ∈ W}. Show that v + W is subspace of V iff
v ∈ W.
Can you visualize affine subspaces v + W for V = R2 ?

Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 16 / 17


Examples to practice
Let V and W be vector spaces. Then their Cartesian product V × W
is a vector space as well.
Let V = F(X , R) = {f : X −→ R} be the set of real valued functions
on a non-empty set X . Fix x0 ∈ X . Let S = {f : X −→ R|f (x0 ) = 0}.
Show that S is a vector subspace of F(X , R).
Write one basis and dimension for the set S ⊂ R3 where
S = {(x, y , z) ∈ R3 |2x + y − z = 0}.
What is the space spanned by the column vectors of matrix A? What
will be the space spanned by its row vectors?
 
1 2 0
0 1 1
A= 2 1 1

0 2 2

Show that if v and w are linearly independent vectors in V , then so


are v + w and v − w .
Shivangi Chandel (JSGP) Mathematics ADMT 3052 17 / 17

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