INTRODUCTION

What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can
be computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving the
data. The links connecting the nodes are known as communication channels.

Computer Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided

among several computers. Instead, a single computer handles an entire task;
each separate computer handles a subset.

Following are the advantages of Distributed processing:

o Security: It provides limited interaction that a user can have with the
entire system. For example, a bank allows the users to access their
own accounts through an ATM without allowing them to access the
bank's entire database.
o Faster problem solving: Multiple computers can solve the problem
faster than a single machine working alone.
o Security through redundancy: Multiple computers running the
same program at the same time can provide the security through
redundancy. For example, if four computers run the same program and
any computer has a hardware error, then other computers can override
it.

o Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other

through wires, optical fibres or optical links so that various devices can
interact with each other through a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various
devices.
o In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of
networks that vary from simple to complex level.

Components Of Computer Network:

Major components of a computer network are:
NIC(National interface card)
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device.
The network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link
layer protocol use this address to identify the system on the network so that
it transfers the data to the correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a
connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave
technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

Hub
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple
devices. When computer requests for information from a computer, it sends
the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the interconnected
computers.
Switches
Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to
transfer the data to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not
broadcast the message over the network, i.e., it sends the message to the
device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch sends the
message directly from source to the destination.

Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication
signals. There are three types of cables:

o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data

over 1Gbps or more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial
cable is more expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data
transmission speed.
o Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the
data using light beams. It provides high data transmission speed as
compared to other cables. It is more expensive as compared to other cables,
so it is installed at the government level.

Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly
used to connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple
computers.

Modem
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone
line. A modem is not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is
a separate part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.
Uses Of Computer Network
o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as
programs, printers, and data among the users on the network without the
requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client
model. A server is a central computer used to store the information and
maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the machines used to
access the information stored in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication
medium among the users. For example, a company contains more than one
computer has an email system which the employees use for daily
communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do
the business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their
business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the
internet.

Features Of Computer network

A list Of Computer network features is given below.

o Communication speed
o File sharing
o Back up and Roll back is easy
o Software and Hardware sharing
o Security
o Scalability
o Reliability
Communication speed
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient
manner. For example, we can do video conferencing, email messaging, etc.
over the internet. Therefore, the computer network is a great way to share
our knowledge and ideas.

File sharing
File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network.
Computer network provides us to share the files with each other.

Back up and Roll back is easy

Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located.
Therefore, it is easy to take the back up from the main server.

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design
of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.
Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are
allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network
Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked
together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources,
but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized
system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in
different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called
clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central
computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the
network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to
the server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to
initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can
back up the data easily.
 o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the
shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large
memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to
the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share
their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer

network is mainly of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)
o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the
Personal Area Network.
 o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is

developed by simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is
a low range network.

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Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by
using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a
person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a
person establishes a network connection and then creates a connection with
another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is
also known as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate
the devices such as printers, computer, television but they are not connected
to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet
and to a corporate network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic
area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,
OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a
large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite
links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:
o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44
offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by
the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical

area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can
connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through
which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore,
we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore,
the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast.
The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to
communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives
the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate
which in turn increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
 o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to
LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that
creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the
internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall
needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus
is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it
involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is
difficult.

Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or
computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are
configured by a local addressing scheme. This process is known
as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or
government computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet
protocol such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It
is used for information sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to
only those users who have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest level
of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one
connection to the external network.
2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol
such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An
intranet belongs to an organization which is only accessible by
the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is
to share the information and resources among the organization employees.
An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee
of the organization can communicate with another employee through email,
chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-
saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the
intranet. The information is distributed among the employees of the
organization and can only be accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be
connected to another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the
browser and distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a
reduction in the cost.

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology.

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a
network. There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology,
Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.
1) Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
 o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message
over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two
alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send
the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to

detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop
transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to
avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or
not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This
technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work
on "recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in
bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
 o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware
components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot
of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then
the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

 o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is
passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it
sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network
without bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is
not dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes.
Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star
topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to
inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are
connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator
has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are
automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own
cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are
cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to
the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet
100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all
the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount
of routing is required.

4) Tree topology
 o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to
provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes
difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main
bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes
difficult to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
 o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

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Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected

to all the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they communicate
frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such
as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology
 o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as
Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will
not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in
one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a
way that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the
network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design
of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the
Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as
these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
Transmission modes
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is
known as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and
transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode
is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in

one direction.
 o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the
data but cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications
require the two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the
business field as in sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard
can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to
display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between
devices.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can

transmit and receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
 o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one
direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any
error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one
party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and
first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound
which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also
can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the
transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has
to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in
both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving
in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite
direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
 o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.
When two people are communicating with each other by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of
the communication channel is divided into two parts.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex

mode

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex Full-duplex mode

comparison mode

Direction of In simplex mode, In half-duplex In full-duplex mode,

communicatio the mode, the the communication
n communication is communication is bidirectional.
unidirectional. is bidirectional,
but one at a
time.

Send/Receive A device can only Both the devices Both the devices can
send the data but can send and send and receive the
cannot receive it receive the data simultaneously.
or it can only data, but one at
receive the data a time.
but cannot send
it.

Performance The performance The The Full-duplex

of half-duplex performance of mode has better
mode is better full-duplex performance among
 than the simplex mode is better simplex and half-
mode. than the half- duplex mode as it
duplex mode. doubles the
utilization of the
capacity of the
communication
channel.

Example Examples of Example of half- Example of the Full-

Simplex mode are duplex is duplex mode is a
radio, keyboard, Walkie-Talkies. telephone network.
and monitor.

Types of Transmission Technology

Transmission is actually the process of sending and propagating analog or signals of
digital information. Transmission technology generally refers to physical layer protocol
duties like modulation, demodulation, line coding, and many more. It might also include
higher-level protocol duties such as digitizing analog signals, data compression, etc.
Types of Transmission Technology :
Transmission media is basically divided into two categories: Broadcast Networks, Point-
to-Point Networks. These are explained as following below.
1. Broadcast Networks :
Broadcast networks are also known as terrestrial networks. It is basically a group of radio
stations, television stations, or any other electronic media outlets that simply generate
agreement to air, or broadcast, content generally from a centralized source. Broadcasting
is simply a method of transferring messages to all the recipients simultaneously.
In this network, a message that is sent by a node is received by all the other nodes
connected to the network and share a common medium of communication. Broadcast
networks also avoid procedures of complex routing of switched network by simply
confirming and ensuring that each transmission of nodes is basically received by all the
other nodes in the network. This is the reason why the broadcast network has single
communications channel.
In this network, each receiving station just receives all signals that are sent by
transmitters. Even routing of signals is highly affected passively. These networks
generally have single communication that is shared by all machines present on the
network. Short messages also are known as packets that are sent by any of the machines
present are received by all of the others present over there. Some of the systems of
broadcast also support transmission to subset of machines also known as multicasting. It
just links, in contrast, communication channel that is basically shared by all of machines
in network.
Advantages of Broadcast Networks –
 In this network, packets are generally transmitted and received by all of computers.
 It allows multicasting in the network.
 It has no limit. Even events can also run as long as required.
 It ensures better utilization of all resources available.

Disadvantages of Broadcast Networks –

 It cannot accommodate huge number of devices.
 It doesn’t allow personalization of message.
2. Point-to-Point Networks :
Point-to-Point Networks or Point-to-Point Connection is type of private data connection
that is connecting securely two or more locations for private data services. It might also
be configured to usually carry voice, internet, and data services together all over same
point-to-point network. It simply refers to type of communication connection among two
endpoints or nodes of communication. It is connection among pairs of machines.
Transmission from point-to-point with one sender and receiver is commonly known as
unicasting.
This network is generally used for two locations that are required to securely send data
that is very sensitive and confidential among each of locations. A point-to-point or P2P
(Data Link) also gives or provides path from one point that is fixed to other point being
fixed. It is very closed network data transport service that does not travel through public
Internet. This network includes various connections among individual pairs of machine.
A packet present on these types of networks might be needed to go through intermediate
computers before they reach desired or destination computer. The packets also need to
follow multiple routes of different length sizes.
Therefore, routing algorithms are very essential and important in point-to-point
connection. This network is generally available in range of bandwidth speeds along with
point-to-point T1, point-to-point Ethernet, or many more.
Advantages of Point-to-Point Networks –
 It increases productivity.
 It generally uses leased lines so that speeds are guaranteed.
 It provides better security so that data can be transferred securely with confidence.

Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Networks –

 With this network, we can only connect two sites.
 It is very expensive for distant locations.
 Network Software

Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design,

implementation, and operation and monitoring of computer networks.
Traditional networks were hardware based with software embedded. With the
advent of Software – Defined Networking (SDN), software is separated from
the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the
computer network.

Functions of Network Software

 Helps to set up and install computer networks
 Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
 Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
 Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that
data
 Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from
data breaches, unauthorized access and attacks on a network
 Enables network virtualizations

SDN Framework
The Software Defined Networking framework has three layers as depicted in the
following diagram −
  APPLICATION LAYER − SDN applications reside in the Application Layer.
The applications convey their needs for resources and services to the
control layer through APIs.
 CONTROL LAYER − The Network Control Software, bundled into the
Network Operating System, lies in this layer. It provides an abstract view
of the underlying network infrastructure. It receives the requirements of
the SDN applications and relays them to the network components.
 INFRASTRUCTURE LAYER − Also called the Data Plane Layer, this layer
contains the actual network components. The network devices reside in
this layer that shows their network capabilities through the Control to
data-Plane Interface.

Design Issues for the Layers of Computer Networks

A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer
networks. Some of the main design issues are as follows −

Reliability
Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits
while data transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure that the
information transferred is not distorted.

Scalability
Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading
to congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the added
components, it may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should be
done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate such additions
and alterations.

Addressing
At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large
numbers of computers. So, a naming or addressing system should exist so that
each layer can identify the sender and receivers of each message.

Error Control
Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are
communicated. So, the layers need to agree upon common error detection and
error correction methods so as to protect data packets while they are
transferred.

Flow Control
If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at
which data is received by the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the
receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.

Resource Allocation
Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the
end users. The main design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to
processes. The allocation/deallocation should occur so that minimal interference
among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of the resources.

Statistical Multiplexing
It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being
transferred from the source to the destination. So, the data channel needs to be
multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.

Routing
There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing
involves choosing an optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and
time. There are several routing algorithms that are used in network systems.

Security
A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like
eavesdropping and surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be
adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access to data through
authentication and cryptography.
Difference between Connection-Oriented
and Connectionless Service
Data communication is a telecommunication network to send and
receive data between two or more computers over the same or
different network. There are two ways to establish a connection before
sending data from one device to another, that are Connection-
Oriented and Connectionless Service. Connection-oriented service
involves the creation and termination of the connection for sending the
data between two or more devices. In contrast, connectionless service
does not require establishing any connection and termination process
for transferring the data over a network.

Connection-Oriented Service
A connection-oriented service is a network service that was designed
and developed after the telephone system. A connection-oriented
service is used to create an end to end connection between the sender
and the receiver before transmitting the data over the same or different
networks. In connection-oriented service, packets are transmitted to
the receiver in the same order the sender has sent them. It uses a
handshake method that creates a connection between the user and
sender for transmitting the data over the network. Hence it is also
known as a reliable network service.
Suppose, a sender wants to send data to the receiver. Then, first, the
sender sends a request packet to a receiver in the form of
an SYN packet. After that, the receiver responds to the sender's
request with an (SYN-ACK) signal/packets. That represents the
confirmation is received by the receiver to start the communication
between the sender and the receiver. Now a sender can send the
message or data to the receiver.

Similarly, a receiver can respond or send the data to the sender in the
form of packets. After successfully exchanging or transmitting data, a
sender can terminate the connection by sending a signal to the
receiver. In this way, we can say that it is a reliable network service.

What is a TCP?
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol
that allows communication between two or more computer devices by
establishing connections in the same or different networks. It is the
most important protocol that uses internet protocol to transfer the
data from one end to another. Hence, it is sometimes referred to as
TCP/IP. It ensures that the connection is established and maintained
until the data packet is transferring between the sender and receiver is
complete.

Connectionless Service
A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter takes
along different route paths from the source to the destination address.
Connectionless service is used in the network system to transfer data
from one end to another end without creating any connection. So it
does not require establishing a connection before sending the data
from the sender to the receiver. It is not a reliable network service
because it does not guarantee the transfer of data packets to the
receiver, and data packets can be received in any order to the receiver.
Therefore we can say that the data packet does not follow
a defined path. In connectionless service, the transmitted data packet
is not received by the receiver due to network congestion, and the data
may be lost.
For example, a sender can directly send any data to the receiver
without establishing any connection because it is a connectionless
service. Data sent by the sender will be in the packet or data streams
containing the receiver's address. In connectionless service, the data
can be travelled and received in any order. However, it does not
guarantee to transfer of the packets to the right destination.

What is UDP?
The UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol that
allows communication between two or more devices without
establishing any connection. In this protocol, a sender sends the data
packets to the receiver that holds the destination address. A UDP does
not ensure to deliver the data packets to the correct destination, and it
does not generate any acknowledgment about the sender's data.
Similarly, it does not acknowledge the receiver about the data. Hence,
it is an unreliable protocol.
Connection-Oriented vs Connectionless Service

S. Comparison Connection-oriented Connection Less Service

No Parameter Service

1. Related It is designed and It is service based on the

System developed based on the postal system.
telephone system.

2. Definition It is used to create an It is used to transfer the

end to end connection data packets between
between the senders to senders to the receiver
the receiver before without creating any
transmitting the data connection.
over the same or
different network.

3. Virtual path It creates a virtual path It does not create any

between the sender and virtual connection or path
the receiver. between the sender and
the receiver.

4. Authenticatio It requires authentication It does not require

n before transmitting the authentication before
data packets to the transferring data packets.
receiver.

5. Data Packets All data packets are Not all data packets are
Path received in the same received in the same
order as those sent by order as those sent by
the sender. the sender.

6. Bandwidth It requires a higher It requires low bandwidth

Requirement bandwidth to transfer the to transfer the data
data packets. packets.

7. Data It is a more reliable It is not a reliable

 Reliability connection service connection service
because it guarantees because it does not
data packets transfer guarantee the transfer of
from one end to the data packets from one
other end with a end to another for
connection. establishing a connection.

8. Congestion There is no congestion as There may be congestion

it provides an end-to-end due to not providing an
connection between end-to-end connection
sender and receiver between the source and
during transmission of receiver to transmit of
data. data packets.

9. Examples Transmission Control User Datagram Protocol

Protocol (TCP) is an (UDP), Internet Protocol
example of a connection- (IP), and Internet Control
oriented service. Message Protocol (ICMP)
are examples of
connectionless service.

What is computer network? Write the

application of computer networks.
A computer network is a combination of devices (computers and
laptops) that are connected together for the purpose of data or
resource sharing.
The devices use general connection protocols beyond digital
interconnections to connect with more devices.

The sharing of data can occur through the

two feasible ways
1. Physical cable media, such as fiber-optical cable, twisted
pair etc.
 2. Wireless methods such as Wi-Fi, radio communication, and
microwave transmission.
An example of a network is the tern LAPLINK, which allows you to
copy files from one device to another device over a specific parallel
port to be considered a computer network. Another example
specified here is that we all may use it in our daily lives, i.e., the
internet.
Some various types of networks are LAN, MAN, WAN etc.

There are various types of networks that can

be used for different functions
 LAN: Local area networks are mainly used to connect personal
devices within a few kilometers of a limited area. These
networks are used in offices, companies, and factories to
exchange data and Information.
 MAN: Metropolitan area networks are used to connect the
devices over an entire city under the range of up to 50 km.
These networks are used in the telephone company network
and cable TV network.
 WAN: Wide Area Networks are used in the wide geological
range over a country and continent. These networks are used
in military services, mobile operators, railways, and airlines
reservations.

 PAN: Personal area networks appropriate to personal or

separate workspace under the range of 10 meters. These
networks are mostly used to connect tablets, smartphones,
and laptops.
 CAN: Campus area networks are used to connect limited
geographic areas. CAN interconnect multiple local area
networks (LAN) within Colleges, Universities, Corporates
buildings, etc.
Other networks are enterprise private networks, internet works
backbone networks, home area networks, and global area
networks.

Applications of computer networks

1. Resource Sharing
Resource sharing is an application of a computer network.
Resource sharing means you can share one Hardware and Software
among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks, Fax
Machines, etc. Computing devices. And Software includes Atom,
Oracle VM Virtual Box, Postman, Android Studio, etc.
2. Information Sharing
Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the
network, and it provides Search capabilities such as WWW. Over the
network, a single information can be shared among the many users
over the internet.
3. Communication
Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast,
electronic funds transfer system etc.

4. Entertainment Industry
In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely.
Some of the Entertainment industries are Video on demand,
Multiperson real-time simulation games, movie/TV programs, etc.
5. Access to Remote Databases
Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of the
various applications by the end-users. Some applications are
Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking, Home Banking, Automated
Newspaper, Automated Library etc.
6. Home applications
There are many common uses of the computer network are as
home applications. For example, you can consider user-to-user
communication, access to remote instruction, electronic commerce,
and entertainment. Another way is managing bank accounts,
transferring money to some other banks, paying bills electronically.
A computer network arranges a robust connection mechanism
between users.

7. Business applications
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the
purpose of resource sharing is that without moving to the physical
location of the resource, all the data, plans, and tools can be shared
to any network user. Most of the companies are doing business
electronically with other companies and with other clients worldwide
with the help of a computer network.
8. Mobile users
The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile
devices like notebook computers and PDAs (personal digital
assistants). Here mobile users/device means portable device. The
computer network is widely used in new-age technology like
smartwatches, wearable devices, tablets, online transactions,
purchasing or selling products online, etc.
9. Social media
Social media is also a great example of a computer network
application. It helps people to share and receive any information
related to political, ethical, and social issues.

Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks

Computer networks are dependent on protocols and standards which plays a
vital role, which enables communication between different devices and systems
with one another and share data seamlessly. Network protocol ensures that
different technologies and components of the network are compatible with one
another, reliable, and able to function together.

Overview of Protocol
In Order to make communication successful between devices , some rules and
procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the
system. Such rules and procedures are called as Protocols . Different types of
protocols are used for different types of communication.
In above diagrams Protocols are shown as set of rules . Such that
Communication between Sender and Receiver is not possible without Protocol.

Key Element of Protocol

 Syntax : syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that gets
exchanged between the devices. Syntax of message includes the type of
data, composition of message and sequencing of message. The starting 8
bits of data is considered as the address of the sender. The next 8 bits is
considered to be the address of the receiver. The remaining bits are
considered as the message itself.
 Semantics : Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It
provides rules and norms for understanding message or data element values
and actions.
 Timing : Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between
devices while transferring the data. Timing ensures at what time data should
be sent and how fast data can be sent. For example, If a sender sends
100 Mbps but the receiver can only handle 1 Mbps, the receiver will
overflow and lose data. Timing ensures preventing data loss,
collisions and other timing related issues.
 Sequence control : Sequence control ensures the proper ordering
of data packets. The main responsibility of sequence control is to
acknowledge the data while it get received, and the retransmission
of lost data. Through this mechanism the data is delivered in correct
order.
 Flow Control : Flow control regulates device data delivery. It limits
the sender’s data or asks the receiver if it’s ready for more. Flow
control prevents data congestion and loss.
 Error Control : Error control mechanisms detect and fix data
transmission faults. They include error detection codes, data resend,
 and error recovery. Error control detects and corrects noise,
interference, and other problems to maintain data integrity.
 Security : Network security safeguards data confidentiality,
integrity, and authenticity. which includes encryption,
authentication, access control, and other security procedures.
Network communication’s privacy and trustworthiness are protected
by security standards.
Standards
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed
for exchange of information among devices. It is important to follow
Standards which are created by various Standard Organization like
IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.
Types of Standards
Standards are of two types :
 De Facto Standard.
 De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By
Fact ” or “By Convention”.These are the standard s that have not
been approved by any Organization , but have been adopted as
Standards because of it’s widespread use. Also , sometimes these
standards are often established by Manufacturers.
For example : Apple and Google are two companies which
established their own rules on their products which are different . Also
they use some same standard rules for manufacturing for their
products.
De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law”
or “By Regulations”.Thus , these are the standards that have been
approved by officially recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc. These
are the standard which are important to follow if it is required or
needed.
For example : All the data communication standard protocols
like SMTP , TCP , IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same when
we needed them.
Types of Protocol
 Network Layer Protocols : Network layer protocols operate in the
network layer which is also known as the Layer 3 of the network
architecture. Network layer protocols are responsible for packet
routing, forwarding and addressing of data packets throughout the
network . IP and ICMP are the network layer protocols.
 Transport layer Protocols : Transport layer protocols works in
transport layer which provides end-to-end service ensuring data
transfer across apps on different devices. TCP and UDP are the most
popular transport layer protocols.
 Application Layer Protocol : Application layer protocol working in
the application layer of the network architecture provides
communication between applications running on different devices.
The application layer protocols enable cross-device communication.
They format, exchange, and interpret application data. HTTP, FTP,
and SMTP are examples.
 Wireless Protocols : Wireless protocols basically used in wireless
communication which enables data transfer through wireless
networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE protocols are examples.
 Routing Protocols : Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal
network pathways throughout the network for fastest data
transmission. Routers share information to develop and maintain
routing tables. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are examples.
 Security Protocols : security protocol protects data confidentiality,
integrity, and authenticity while transmission of data over the
network. They include SSL and TLS, encryption methods, and
authentication protocols for providing data security.
 Internet Protocols : IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet
protocol provides data communication through routing and
forwarding data packets from one device to another by unique
addressing scheme.
Protocol and Standard Compliance in
Network Security
Protocol and standard compliance protects data, resources, and
networks. Protocol and standard compliance are crucial to network
security for these reasons:
 Interoperability : Protocols and standards allow devices and
systems to communicate. These protocols ensure network
components can function together, avoiding risks and security gaps
produced by incompatible or unsupported systems.
 Security Baseline : Protocols and standards contain security
principles and best practices that help secure network
infrastructure. These protocols allow organizations to protect
sensitive data via encryption, authentication, and access controls.
 Vulnerability Management : Network security protocols and
standards help organizations find and fix vulnerabilities. Many
standards requires regular security assessments, vulnerability
 scanning, and penetration testing to discover network infrastructure
flaws. Organizations can prevent cyberattacks and address
vulnerabilities by following these compliance criteria.

Conclusion

Protocols and standards enable secure and efficient computer network

communication. They regulate data exchange, formatting, endpoints,
and reliable device communication.
These protocols and standards ensure network security and
performance. Complying can prevent data breaches and system
breakdowns.

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application
in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

 o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer
is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact
with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above
another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The
data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is
closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are
given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer
 o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer
of the receiver that is receiving.
 o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link
Control layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It
is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both
the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting
station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the
receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which
is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any
error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices

on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

 o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
 o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-
point connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over
the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol
divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment
travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in
different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not
send any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender
does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a
protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs

simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to
the destination not only from one computer to another computer but also
from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header
that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address.
The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one
computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.
 o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the
message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple
segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that
uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes
to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error
control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any
error.

5) Session Layer
 o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication
between two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting
the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission
of data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer
 o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information

in the form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different
computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer
handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent
format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another
form and sends the resulting message over the network.
 o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the
data, i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data
compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application

processes to access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation,
etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application

layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve
 the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global information about various
objects.

TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model
by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of
them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two

or more lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay.

Internet Layer

o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

 o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they
take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant

part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP

addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to
identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the
data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from
the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and
received securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP
datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP
datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit
(MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over
the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate
router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as
LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination
are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can
be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as
routers.

ARP Protocol
 Backward Skip 10sPlay VideoForward Skip 10s

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address
from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of
the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP
request and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP
address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply.
The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and
to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a
router is unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such
as disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP
protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is
reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination
device is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not
correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate
routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and
destination but not of the router that it is passed to.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol
and Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the
error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports
the error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the
application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the
address of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user
datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.
 o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is
active for the duration of the transmission.

o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the

damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be
received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to
be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units
known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number
which is required for reordering the frames to form an original
message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them
based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer
 o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application
cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact with
the communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in
application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to
access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of
plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has
the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps
from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol
that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This
protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify
the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use
the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name
to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a way
that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol
used for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
Following are the differences between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model −
OSI TCP/IP

OSI represents Open System TCP/IP model represents the Transmission

Interconnection. Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

OSI is a generic, protocol independent TCP/IP model depends on standard protocols

standard. It is acting as an interaction about which the computer network has
gateway between the network and the final- created. It is a connection protocol that
user. assigns the network of hosts over the
internet.

The OSI model was developed first, and then The protocols were created first and then
protocols were created to fit the network built the TCP/IP model.
architecture’s needs.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The OSI model represents defines It does not mention the services, interfaces,
administration, interfaces and conventions. and protocols.
It describes clearly which layer provides
services.

The protocols of the OSI model are better The TCP/IP model protocols are not hidden,
unseen and can be returned with another and we cannot fit a new protocol stack in it.
appropriate protocol quickly.

It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.

It provides both connection and It provides connectionless transmission in the

connectionless oriented transmission in the network layer and supports connecting and
network layer; however, only connection- connectionless-oriented transmission in the
oriented transmission in the transport layer. transport layer.

It uses a vertical approach. It uses a horizontal approach.

 OSI TCP/IP

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is
20 bytes.

Protocols are unknown in the OSI model and In TCP/IP, returning protocol is not difficult.
are returned while the technology modifies.
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