GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF STAINLESS STEEL BRIDGES

Table of Contents
1. Introduc�on 8

2. Grades and Proper�es of Stainless Steel 10

3. Durability of Stainless Steel 23

4. Basis of Design 27

5. Cross Sec�on Design 30

6. Member Design 34
General Design Considera�ons
Analysis of Structures
Design of Tension Members
Design of Compression Members
Design of Trusses or Open-Web Girders
Design of Beams and Plate Girders
Members subjected to Combined Forces
7. Connec�ons 91

8. Fire Safety 107

9. Fa�gue 108

10. Fabrica�on Aspects 124

11. Worked out Example 127

12. Life Cycle Cos�ng 173

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1. INTRODUCTION

Indian Stainless Steel Development Associa�on (ISSDA) is a non-profit organiza�on, founded

in 1989 by leading Stainless Steel manufacturers to promote the usage of Stainless Steel in
India.
The primary aim of the Indian Stainless Steel Development Associa�on (ISSDA) is to promote
and advance the stainless steel industry in India by

• Advocacy & Policy Engagement: We advocate for interests of stainless steel industry
by engaging with policymakers, regulatory bodies and government authori�es to
provide input on policies, standards and regula�ons related to the stainless steel
industry.

• Promo�on: The associa�on ac�vely promotes the use of stainless steel across
different sectors and industries. We conduct awareness campaigns, seminars,
workshops and educa�onal ini�a�ves to inform businesses, engineers, architects and
public about the benefit of stainless steel.

• R&D Ini�a�ves: We support research and development ini�a�ves related to stainless

steel. It collaborates with research ins�tu�ons, universi�es and industry experts to
drive innova�on in stainless steel technology, applica�ons and processes.

• Quality Standards: ISSDA plays a significant role in establishing and maintaining quality
standards foe stainless steel products. We assist in developing tes�ng and cer�fica�on
procedures to ensure that stainless steel products meet industry standards and
specifica�ons.

• Technical Guidance & Informa�on Dissemina�on: By technical guidance and exper�se

to Engineers, Designers and Fabricators working with stainless steel. This includes
informa�on on material selec�on, fabrica�on techniques and best prac�ces by
offering resources, publica�ons and data to industry professionals and public.

• Market Development: The associa�on explores and develops new markets and
applica�ons for stainless steel, iden�fying emerging trends and industries where
stainless steel can be u�lized effec�vely.

• Sustainability: ISSDA promotes the sustainability aspects of stainless steel,

emphasizing its recyclability, long life cycle and environmental benefits. We encourage
responsible manufacturing and usage of stainless steel.
Although Stainless Steel has been used for more than a hundred years, it is only recently its
applica�on in Bridges and other heavy structures is gaining recogni�on. Stainless Steel, an
iron alloy with minimum 10.5% Chromium, presents:

• High Strength

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 • Corrosion Resistance

• Enhanced Duc�lity
• Ease of Fabrica�on

• Infinitely Recyclable

• Negligible to Minimal Maintenance

Although mechanical behaviour of Stainless Steel is similar to Carbon Steel, there are some
dissimilari�es. There are mul�tude of grades of Stainless Steel and not all of them are suitable
for Bridge construc�on. The stress-strain curve of Stainless Steel is strictly not bilinear like
carbon steel. The coefficient of linear expansion and thermal conduc�vity characteris�cs are
o�en different from that of carbon steel.
Interna�onally, several standards and guidelines have been published to facilitate Structural
Engineer’s u�lise Stainless Steel in structural applica�on as follows:

• AISC (American Ins�tute of Steel Construc�on) Design Guide 27

• Eurocode 3 – Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-4: General Rules – Supplementary
Rules for Stainless Steel
• AS/NZS 4673 – Cold –formed Stainless Steel Structures: Australian and New Zealand
standard
• Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel 4 th Edi�on: SCI Publica�on P413 –
Published by Steel Construc�on Ins�tute, UK
However, there is yet to be a standard formulated for use of stainless steel in structural
applica�ons in India. Therefore, ISSDA as the nodal organiza�on has taken up the task of filling
the gap by dra�ing a design guideline �ll such �me a Na�onal Design Code is published. This
document is the result of such effort. The infrastructure builders and their designers have
been feeling the need for a design guideline for Stainless Steel Structures.
With Design Life expecta�on of 120 years for structures like bridges, the life�me cost of such
structures with Stainless Steel o�en work out cheaper par�cularly in a corrosive environment
where tradi�onal carbon steel with coa�ng do not perform admirably.
This document is based in IRC:24 – Steel Bridge Design Code to enable ease of adop�on.

9
2. GRADES AND PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEEL

2.1 Different Grades of Stainless Steel and their Applica�on

Stainless steel is the name given to a family of corrosion and heat resistant alloy steels
containing a minimum of 10.5% of chromium. In conjunc�on with low carbon content,
chromium imparts remarkable resistance to corrosion and heat.
Just as there are various types of structural and engineering carbon steels mee�ng different
strength, weldability and toughness requirements, there is also a variety of stainless steels
with varying levels of corrosion resistance and strength. This array of stainless steel proper�es
is the result of controlled alloying element addi�ons, each affec�ng mechanical proper�es
and the ability to resist different corrosive environments. It is important to select a stainless
steel which is adequate for the applica�on without being overly alloyed and costly.
When an alloy of steel containing chromium in excess of 10.5%, is exposed to air or any other
oxidizing environment, a transparent and �ghtly adherent layer of chromium-rich oxide forms
spontaneously on the surface of the steel alloy. If scratching or cu�ng damages the film, it
reforms immediately in the presence of oxygen. Although the film is very thin, about 5×10-6
mm, it is both stable and nonporous. As long as the stainless steel is corrosion resistant
enough for the service environment, it will not react further with the atmosphere. For this
reason, it is called a passive film. The stability of this passive layer depends on the composi�on
of the stainless steel, its surface treatment and the corrosiveness of its environment. Its
stability increases as the chromium content increases and is further enhanced by addi�ons of
other elements, such as nickel, molybdenum, �tanium, aluminum, niobium, copper, nitrogen,
sulphur, phosphorus or selenium, to increase corrosion resistance to specific environments,
enhance oxida�on resistance, and impart special characteris�cs.
Stainless steels can be classified into the following five basic types, with each possessing
unique proper�es and a range of different corrosion resistance levels.

Austeni�c Type
The most widely used austeni�c stainless steels contain 17% to 18% chromium and 8% to11%
nickel addi�ons. In comparison to structural carbon steels, which have a body-centred cubic
(BCC) atomic (crystal) structure, austeni�c stainless steels have a face-centred cubic (FCC)
atomic structure. As a result, austeni�c stainless steels, in addi�on to their corrosion
resistance, have high duc�lity, are easily cold formed, and are readily weldable. Compared to
structural carbon steels, they also have significantly be�er toughness over a wide range of
temperatures. These steels can be strengthened by cold working, but not by heat treatment.
The corrosion performance of austeni�c stainless steels can be further enhanced by higher
levels of chromium and addi�ons of molybdenum and nitrogen. They are by far the most
frequently used stainless steels in buildings and construc�ons.

Ferri�c Type
The chromium content of the most popular ferri�c stainless steels is between 10.5%and 18%.
Ferri�c stainless steels contain either no or very small nickel addi�ons and their body-centred

10
(BCC) atomic structure is the same as that of structural carbon steels. They are generally less
duc�le and less weldable than austeni�c stainless steels. The forming and machining
proper�es of ferri�c stainless steels are similar to those of E350 structural carbon steel. They
can be strengthened by cold working, but to a lesser degree than the austeni�c stainless
steels. Like the austeni�c grades, they cannot be strengthened by heat treatment. They have
good resistance to stress corrosion cracking and their corrosion performance can be further
enhanced by addi�on of molybdenum. They offer a corrosion resistant alterna�ve to many
light gauge galvanized steel applica�ons. Ferri�c grades are generally used in thickness gauges
of 4 mm and below.

Duplex (austeni�c-ferri�c) Type

Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, and so are
some�mes called austeni�c-ferri�c steels. They typically contain 20% to 26% chromium, 1%
to 8% nickel, 0.05% to 5% molybdenum, and 0.05% to 0.3% nitrogen. They are about twiceas
strong as austeni�c steels in the annealed condi�on which can make sec�on size reduc�on
possible, a property that can be very valuable in weight-sensi�ve structures like bridges.
Duplex grades are suitable for a broad range of corrosive environments. Although duplex
stainless steels have good duc�lity, their higher strength results in more restricted
formability, compared to the austeni�c alloys. They can also be strengthened by cold working,
but not by heat treatment. They have good weldability and good resistance to stress corrosion
cracking. This variety of stainless steel can be seen as being complementary to ferri�c
stainless steels, as they are more likely to be used in heavier gauges.

Martensi�c Type
Martensi�c stainless steels have a similar body-centred cubic (BCC) structure as ferri�c
stainless steel and structural carbon steels, but because of their higher carbon content, they
can be strengthened by heat treatment. Martensi�c stainless steels are generally used in a
hardened and tempered condi�on, which gives them high strength, and provides moderate
corrosion resistance. They are suitable for applications that take advantage of their wear and
abrasion resistance and hardness, like cutlery, surgical instruments, industrial knives, wear
plates and turbine blades. They are less duc�le and more notch sensi�ve than the ferri�c, the
austeni�c and the duplex stainless steels. Although most martensi�c stainless steels can be
welded, the process may require preheat and postweld heat treatment, which can limit their
use in welded components

Precipita�on Hardening Type

Precipita�on hardening steels can be strengthened by heat treatment to very high strengths.
These falls into three microstructure groups depending on the grade: martensi�c, semi-
austeni�c and austeni�c. These steels are not normally used in welded fabrica�ons. Their
corrosion resistance is generally be�er than the martensi�c stainless steels and similar to the
18% chromium, 8% nickel austeni�c stainless steels. Although they are mostly used in the
aerospace industry, this grade of stainless steel is also used fortension bars, sha�s, bolts and
other applica�ons requiring high strength and moderatecorrosion resistance.

2.2 Standards and Nomenclature for different grades of Stainless Steel

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Indian Specifica�on for Stainless Steel is IS:6911:2017. Extensive Specifica�ons and Standards
are available in both European standards as well as American Codes. Large number of
primarily ASTM publica�ons set forth standards for all types of Stainless Steels. UNS (unified
numbering system) designa�on is an identifica�on system for specific metals and alloys;
stainless steel alloys are iden�fied in the ASTM standards in accordance with ASTM E527 and
SAE J1086. The grade designa�ons in IS:6911 generally follow American standard.
The relevant standard in European code is EN 10088, Stainless Steels. It comprises five parts,
of which three are relevant to construc�on applica�ons.

• Part 1, Lists of stainless steels, shows the chemical composi�ons and reference data on
some physical proper�es such as modulus of elas�city, E.
• Part 4, Technical delivery condi�ons for sheet/plate and strip of corrosion resis�ng
steels for construc�on purposes, gives the technical proper�es and chemical
composi�ons for the materials used in forming structural sec�ons.
• Part 5, Technical delivery condi�ons for bars, rods, wire, sec�ons and bright products
of corrosion resis�ng steels for construc�on purposes, contains the technical proper�es
and chemical composi�ons for the materials used in long products.
The following table presents a correla�on between EN-10088 designa�ons and US
designa�ons.
Steel Grade to EN-10088 US
No Name ASTM Type UNS
Austenitic
1.4301 X5CrNi18-10 304 S30400
1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304L S30403
1.4307 X2CrNi18-9 304L S30403
1.4311 X2CrNin18-10 304LN S30453
1.4318 X2CrNiN18-7 301LN S30153
1.4401 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 316 S31600
1.4404 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 316L S31603
1.4406 X2CrNiMoN17-11-2 316LN S31653
1.4429 X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 316LN S31653
1.4432 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 316L S31603
1.4435 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 316L -
1.4439 X2CrNiMoN17-13-5 317LMN S31726
1.4529 X1NiCrMoCuN25-20-7 - N08926
1.4539 X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5 904 L N08904
1.4541 X6CrNiTi18-10 321 S32100
1.4547 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 - S31254
1.4565 X2CrNiMnMoN25-18-6-5 - S34565
1.4567 * X3CrNiCu18–9-4 S30430
1.4571 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 316Ti S31635
1.4578 * X3CrNiCuMo17–11–3-2 -
Duplex
1.4062 * X2CrNiN22-2-- S32202
1.4162 X2CrMnNiN21-5-1 S32101

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 Steel Grade to EN-10088 US
No Name ASTM Type UNS
1.4362 X2CrNiN23-4 2304 S32304
1.4410 X2CrNiMoN25-7-4 2507 S32750
1.4462 X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 2205 S32205
1.4482 * X2CrMnNiMoN21–5-3 -
1.4501 * X2CrNiMoCuWN25–7-4 S32760
1.4507 * X2CrNiMoCuWN25–7-4 S32520
1.4662 * X2CrNiMnMoCuN24–4-3–2 S82441
Ferri�c
1.4003 X2CrNi12 - S41003
1.4016 X6Cr17 430 S43000
1.4509 X2CrTiNb18 441 S43940
1.4512 X2CrTi12 409 S40900
1.4521 X2CrMoTi18-2 444 S44400
1.4621 * X2CrNbCu21 - S44500

Informa�on on all the above steels are available in EN 10088-4/5 except for those marked
with *, which are currently only in EN 10088-2/3.
In addi�on to IS-6911, RDSO, Indian Railways, have published a specifica�on in the document:
BS-S-7.5.3.1-9 [2020]: Specifica�on for Higher Strength Martensi�c Stainless Steel for Bridge
and Associated Structural Applica�on. It is designated as IRS 350 CR. Its yield strength and
ul�mate strength is 350 MPa and 485 MPa respec�vely. The specifica�on lists compa�ble
fasteners and welding consumables. This grade is prac�cally iden�cal to ASTM grade 50CR.

2.3 Grade Suitable for Structural Applica�ons

Austeni�c Type
Austeni�c stainless steels are generally selected for structural applica�ons which require a
combina�on of good strength, corrosion resistance, formability (including the ability to make
�ghter bends), excellent field and shop weldability and, for seismic applica�ons, very good
elonga�on prior to fracture.
Grades 1.4301 (widely known as 304) and 1.4307 (304L) are the most commonly used
standard austeni�c stainless steels and contain 17.5 to 20% chromium and 8 to 11%nickel.
Grades 1.4401 (316) and 1.4404 (316L) contain about 16% to 18% chromium, 10 to 14%nickel
and the addi�on of 2 to 3% molybdenum, which improves corrosion resistance. They will
perform well in marine and industrial sites.
The “L” in the designa�on indicates a low carbon version with reduced risk of sensi�sa�on (of
chromium carbide precipita�on) and of intergranular corrosion in heat affected zones of
welds. Either the “L” grade, or stabilized steel such as grade 1.4541 and1.4571 should be
specified for welded sec�ons. Low carbon does not affect corrosion performance beyond the
weld areas. When producers use state-of-the-art produc�on methods, commercially
produced stainless steels are o�en low carbon and dual cer�fied to both designa�ons (e.g.
1.4301/1.4307, with the higher strength of 1.4301and the lower carbon content of 1.4307).
When less modern technology is used, this cannot be assumed and therefore the low carbon

13
version should be explicitly specified in the documents of projects in which welding is
involved.
Grade 1.4318 is a low carbon, high nitrogen stainless steel which work hardens very rapidly
when cold worked. It has a long track record of sa�sfactory performance in the railcar industry
and is equally suitable for automo�ve, aircra� and architectural applica�ons. This has similar
corrosion resistance as1.4301 and is most suitable for applica�ons requiring higher strength
than 1.4301 where large volumes are concerned.
Duplex Type
Duplex stainless steels are appropriate where high strength, corrosion resistance and/or
higher levels of crevice and stress corrosion cracking resistance are required. Grade1.4462
(2205) is an extremely corrosion resistant duplex grade, suitable for use in marine andother
aggressive environments. An increasing use of stainless steels for load-bearing applica�ons
has led to increasing demand for duplex steels and development of new “lean” duplex grades.
These grades are described as lean owing the reduced alloy contents of nickel and
molybdenum. Lean grades have comparable mechanical proper�es of grade1.4462 and a
corrosion resistance which is comparable to the standard austeni�c grades. This makes them
appropriate for use in many onshore exposure condi�ons.
Ferri�c Type
The two “standard” ferri�c grades which are suitable for structural applica�ons and
commonly available are 1.4003 (a basic ferri�c grade containing about 11% chromium) and
1.4016 (containing about 16.5% chromium, with greater resistance to corrosion than 1.4003).
Welding impairs the corrosion resistance and toughness of grade 1.4016 (430) substan�ally.
Modern stabilised ferri�c grades, for example 1.4509 (441) and 1.4521(444), contain
addi�onal alloying elements such as niobium and �tanium which lead to significantly
improved welding and forming characteris�cs. Grade 1.4521 contains 2% molybdenum which
improves pi�ng and crevice corrosion resistance in chloride containing environments (it has
similar pi�ng corrosion resistance to 1.4401). 1.4621 is a recently developed ferri�c grade
that contains around 20% chromium, with improved polishability compared to 1.4509 and
1.4521.
Applica�ons in the construc�on industry
Stainless steels have been used in construc�on ever since they were invented over one
hundred years ago. Stainless steel products are a�rac�ve and corrosion resistant with low
maintenance requirements and have good strength, toughness and fa�gue proper�es.
Stainless steels can be fabricated using a range of engineering techniques and are fully
recyclable at end-of-life. They are the material of choice for applica�ons in structures situated
in aggressive environments including buildings and structures in coastal areas, exposed to de-
icing salts and in polluted loca�ons. The high duc�lity of stainless steel is a useful property
where resistance to seismic loading is required since greater energy dissipa�on is possible.
However, seismic applica�ons are outside the scope of this handbook.
Typical applica�ons for austeni�c and duplex grades include:

 Primary beams and columns, pins, barriers, railings, cable sheathing and expansion
joints in bridges

14
 • Beams, columns, pla�orms and supports in processing plant for the water treatment,
pulp and paper, nuclear, biomass, chemical, pharmaceu�cal, and food and beverage
industries
• Seawalls, piers and other coastal structures
• Reinforcing bar in concrete structures
• Curtain walling, roofing, canopies, tunnel lining
• Support systems for curtain walling, masonry, tunnel lining etc.
• Security barriers, hand railing, street furniture
• Fasteners and anchoring systems in wood, stone, masonry or rock
• Structural members and fasteners in swimming pool buildings (special precau�ons
should be taken for structural components in swimming pool atmospheres due to the
risk of stress corrosion cracking in areas where condensates may form
• Explosion- and impact- resistant structures such as security walls, gates and bollards
• Fire and Explosion resistant walls, cable ladders and walkways on offshore pla�orms
Ferri�c grades are used for cladding and roofing buildings, as well as for solar water heaters
and potable water pipes. They are also used for indoor applica�ons such as elevators and
escalators. In the transporta�on sector, they are used for load-bearing members, such as
tubular bus frames. Ferri�c type of stainless steel also have a good track record of usage in
railway wagons carrying coal, where wet sliding abrasion resistance is important. Although
currently they are not widely used for structural members in the construc�on industry, they
have the poten�al for greater applica�on for strong and moderately durable structural
elements with a�rac�ve metallic surface. For composite structures where a long service life
is required, or where the environmental condi�ons are moderately corrosive, ferri�c decking
may provide a more economically viable solu�on than galvanized decking which may struggle
to retain adequate durability for periods greater than 25 years. In addi�on to composite floor
systems, other poten�al applica�ons where ferri�c stainless steel is a suitable subs�tute for
galvanized steel include permanent formwork, roof purlins and supports to services such as
cable trays. They could also be used economically in semi-enclosed unheated environments
(e.g. railways, grandstands, bicycle sheds) and in cladding support systems, windposts and for
masonry supports.
Generally, the following grades of stainless steel may be considered for construc�on of bridge
and related structures. The selec�on has to be based on strength requirement as well as the
environment in which the structure will be built. However, a BIS commi�ee is in the process
of dra�ing a code for specifica�on of stainless steel grades that can be adopted in bridge
structures and once the Indian Standard document is published the selec�on of stainless steel
grade has to be done accordingly.

15
 Proof Ul�mate % EL Coeff of Thermal
Sl Grade Other designa�ons Stress Tensile Expansion
No. (N/mm2) Strength (20 to 100 0C )
(N/mm2)
1 IRS 350 CR X02Cr12Mo, 50CR 350 485 18 10.4 x 10-6
2 IRS 450 CR 450 550 18 10.8 x 10-6
3 Duplex 2205 X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 , 450 655 25 13 x 10-6
1.4462, S32205
4 304 X5CrNi18-10, 1.4301, 205 515 40 16.0 x 10-6
S30400
5 316 X5CrNiMo17-12-2, 205 515 40 15.9 x 10-6
1.4401, S31600,

2.4 Life cycle cos�ng and environmental impact

There is increasing awareness that life cycle (or whole life) costs, not just ini�al costs, should
be considered when selec�ng materials. Experience shows that using a corrosion resistant
material in order to avoid future maintenance, down�me and replacement can be a more
cost-effec�ve solu�on, even though the ini�al material costs are higher.
Life cycle costs take account of:

• ini�al costs,

• maintenance costs,

• diversion from landfills and recycled content,

• service life and environment.

The ini�al raw material cost of a structural stainless steel product is considerably higher than
that of an equivalent carbon steel product, depending on the grade of stainless steel.
However, there can be ini�al cost savings associated with elimina�ng corrosion resistant
coa�ngs. U�lising high strength stainless steels may reduce material requirements by
decreasing sec�on size and overall structure weight which cuts ini�al costs. Addi�onally,
elimina�ng the need for coa�ng maintenance or component replacement due to corrosion
can lead to significant long-term maintenance cost savings.
The excellent corrosion resistance of stainless steel offers reduced inspec�on frequency and
costs, reduced maintenance costs and long service life.
Stainless steel has a high residual scrap value (i.e. value at the end of a structure’s life), though
this is rarely a deciding factor for a structure with a long projected life (for instance over 50
years). However, because of the high residual scrap value, scrap is diverted from landfills and
recycled into new metal and end-of-life (EOL) recycling rates are very high. Stainless steel
producers use as much scrap as is available, but the material’s overall average 20 to 30 year
service life limits scrap availability. Typical recycled content for all types of stainless steel is at
least 60%. Stainless steel is 100% recyclable and can be indefinitely recycled into new high
quality stainless steel.

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Life cycle cos�ng uses the standard accountancy principle of discounted cash flow to reduce
all those costs to present day values. The discount rate encompasses infla�on, bank interest
rates, taxes and, possibly, a risk factor. This allows a realis�c comparison to be made of the
op�ons available and the poten�al long term benefits of using stainless steel to be assessed
against other material selec�ons.

2.5 Mechanical Proper�es of Stainless Steel

2.5.1 Basic stress-strain behavior
The stress strain behaviour of stainless steels differs from that of carbon steels in a number
of respects. The most important difference is in the shape of the stress strain curve. Whereas
carbon steel typically exhibits linear elas�c behaviour up to the yield strength and a plateau
before strain hardening is encountered, stainless steel has a more rounded response with no
well defined yield strength. Fig 2.1 compares the stress-strain characteris�cs of various
stainless steels with carbon steels for strains up to 0.75%. The stress-strain curves shown in
the figure are representa�ve of the range of material. Stainless steel “yield” strengths are
generally quoted in terms of a proof strength defined for a par�cular offset permanent strain
(conven�onally the 0.2% strain). The propor�onal limit of stainless steels ranges from 40 to
70% of the 0.2% proof strength.
The response of ferri�c stainless steel lies somewhere between that of carbon steel and
austeni�c stainless steel in that it is not quite as rounded or nonlinear as the austeni�c grades

Fig 2.1 : Typical Stress-Strain Diagram of different types of Stainless Steel

Figure 2.1 : Typical Stress-Strain diagram

but offers more strength than carbon steel. Stainless steels can absorb considerable impact
without fracturing due to their excellent duc�lity (especially the austeni�c grades) and their
strain hardening characteris�cs.

17
2.5.2 Factors Affec�ng Stress-Strain Behavior
Compared to carbon steels, the metallurgy of stainless steels is more complex and the
manufacturing process has a higher impact on their final proper�es. Certain factors can
change the form of the basic stress-strain curve for any given grade of stainless steel and are
to some extent independent.
Cold working
Stainless steel is generally available in the “annealed condi�on”, i.e. it has undergone a heat
treatment process in which it was heated up, maintained at that temperature for a �me
period, and then rapidly quenched. Annealing returns the material to a so� and workable
state. Strength levels of stainless steels, especially the austeni�c grades, are enhanced by cold
working (such as imparted during cold forming opera�ons including roller levelling/fla�ening
and during fabrica�on). Associated with this enhancement is a reduc�on in duc�lity but this
normally is of slight consequence due to the ini�al high values of duc�lity, especially for the
austeni�c stainless steels. The price of cold worked stainless steel is slightly higher than the
equivalent annealed material, depending on the grade, product form and level of cold
working. As stainless steel is cold worked, it tends to exhibit increasing non-symmetry of
tensile and compressive behaviour and anisotropy (different stress-strain characteris�cs
parallel and transverse to the rolling direc�ons). The degree of asymmetry and anisotropy
depends on the grade, level of cold working and manufacturing route.
Structural sec�ons of thickness above 3mm are not made from heavily cold worked material
and the differences in stress strain behaviour for such sec�ons due to non symmetry and
anisotropy are not large; the non-linearity has a more significant effect. Anisotropy and non-
symmetry are more significant in the design of lighter gauge, heavily worked sec�ons.
For cold worked material, the compression strength in the longitudinal direc�on is less than
the tensile strength in both the transverse and longitudinal direc�ons (the values tradi�onally
given in material standards and reported accordingly by suppliers). Care is therefore needed
in the choice of design strength for cold worked material.
During the fabrica�on of a sec�on by cold forming, plas�c deforma�ons occur which result in
a significant increase in the 0.2% proof strength. A strength enhancement of about 50% is
typical in the cold formed corners of cross sec�ons; the strength of the material in the flat
faces also increases. The strength increase can be exploited in design by tes�ng. Subsequent
heat treatment or welding of the member will have a par�al annealing (so�ening) effect with
a consequen�al reduc�on in any enhanced strength proper�es arising from cold working.
Strain rate sensi�vity is more pronounced in stainless steels than in carbon steels. That is, a
propor�onally greater strength can be realised at fast strain rates for stainless steel than for
carbon steel.
Strength
In design calcula�ons, the characteris�c yield strength fy and characteris�c ul�mate strength
fu are taken as the minimum specified values for the 0.2% proof strength and tensile strength
given in codes and specifica�ons. These values apply to material in the annealed condi�on,
and hence are conserva�ve for material or sec�ons which have undergone cold working
during fabrica�on. Structural sec�ons are rarely delivered in the annealed condi�on.

18
It should be noted that the measured yield strength of austeni�c stainless steels may exceed
the specified minimum values by a margin varying from 25 to 40%, for plate thicknesses of 25
mm or less. The margin for duplex stainless steels is lower, perhaps from 5 up to 20%. There
is an inverse rela�onship between thickness or diameter, and yield strength; lighter gauges
typically have yield strengths that are significantly higher than the minimum requirement
whereas at thicknesses of 25 mm and above, the values are usually fairly close to the specified
minimum yield strength.
For external, exposed structures in very hot climates, due considera�on should be taken of
the maximum temperature the stainless steel is likely to reach. While smaller and sheltered
components may remain at ambient temperatures, large surface areas of bare stainless steel
that are exposed to direct sun can reach temperatures that are about 50% higher than
ambient temperature. If the maximum temperature of the stainless steel is likely to reach 60 o
C, then a 5% reduc�on should be made to the room temperature yield strength; greater
reduc�ons will be necessary for higher temperatures.
For structural design, it is recommended that a value of 200×10 3 N/mm2 is used for the
modulus of elas�city for all stainless steels.
Tables 2.1 to 2.3 provide nominal values of yield strengths of different grades of stainless
steels to European and Indian Codes.
Table 2.1: Mechanical Proper�es of Different Grades of Stainless Steel in Annealed
Condi�on (IS6911:1992)

Grade Designa�on Hardness Yield Strength / Tensile %

Le�er Symbol Numerical Brinell Rockwell 0.2% Proof Stress Strength Elonga�o
Symbol (Min) MPa (Min) MPa n (Min)
X04Cr12 405 187 88 250 440 20
X07Cr17 430 192 88 250 440 18
X12Cr12 410 212 95 410 590 16
X20Cr13 420S1 229 - 490 690 14
X 30Cr13 420S2 235 - 590 780 11
X 15Cr16Ni2 431 262 - 640 830 10
X 10Cr17Mn6Ni4N20 201 217 9S 300 640 40
X07Cr17Mn12Ni4 201A 217 95 260 540 40
X10Cr18Mn9Nl5 202 217 95 310 620 40
X10Cr17Ni7 301 212 - 220 590 40
X07Cr18Ni9 302 192 92 210 400 40
X04Cr19Ni9 304S1 192 92 200 400 40
X02Cr19Ni10 304S2 192 88 180 440 40
X15Cr24Ni13 309 217 95 210 490 40
X20Cr25Ni20 310 217 95 210 490 40
X04Cr17Ni12Mo2 316 192 95 210 490 40
X02CrI7Ni12Mo2 316L 192 95 200 440 40
X04Cr17Ni12Mo2Ti 316T2 192 95 210 490 35
X04Cr10Ni10Ti 321 192 95 210 490 35
X04Cr18Ni10Nb 347 192 92 210 490 35
Table 2.2: Mechanical Proper�es of Austeni�c Steels in Work Hardened Condi�on
(IS6911:1992)

19
 Grade Designa�on 0.2% Proof Stress Tensile % Elonga�on Applicable To
Le�er Symbol Numerical (Min) MPa Strength (Min) (Min) Max Thickness
Symbol MPa (mm)
X04Cr19Ni9 304 S1 490 830 12 2.8
740 1030 8 2.4
910 1180 7 1.8
960 1270 3 1.4
X07Cr18Ni9 302 490 830 12 2.8
740 1030 9 2.4
X 10Cr17Ni7 301 490 830 25 3.3
740 1030 10 2.9
910 1180 5 2.4
960 1270 4 2.3
X10Cr17Mn6Ni4 201 490 830 20 3.3
N20 740 1030 10 2.9
910 1180 7 2.4
980 1270 4 2.3

Table 2.3: Nominal values of the yield strength (fy) and the ul�mate strength (fu) for
common stainless steels to EN 10088 (MPa)

Grade Cold Rolled Strip Hot Rolled Strip Hot Rolled Plate Bars, Rods & Sec�ons
Nominal Thickness , t
t ≤ 8mm t ≤ 13.5mm t ≤ 75mm t or φ ≤ 250mm
fy fu fy fu fy fu fy fu
Austenitic
1.4301 230 540 210 520 210 520 190 500
1.4307 220 520 200 520 200 500 175 500
1.4318 350 650 330 650 330 630 - -
1.4401 240 530 220 530 220 520 200 500
1.4404 240 530 220 530 220 520 200 500
1.4541 220 520 200 520 200 500 190 500
1.4571 240 540 220 540 220 520 200 500
Duplex
1.4062 530 700 480 680 450 650 380 650
1.4162 530 700 480 680 450 650 450 650
1.4362 450 650 400 650 400 630 400 600
1.4462 500 700 460 700 460 640 450 650
1.4482 500 700 480 660 450 650 400 650
1.4662 550 750 550 750 480 680 450 650
Ferritic
1.4003 280 450 280 450 250 450 260 450
1.4016 260 450 240 450 240 430 240 400
1.4509 230 430 - - - - 200 420
1.4521 300 420 280 400 280 420 - -
1.4621 230 400 230 400 - - 240 420

2.6 Thermal & Magne�c Proper�es

The coefficient of thermal expansion for austeni�c stainless steels is about 30% higher than
that for carbon steel. Where carbon steel and austeni�c stainless steel are used together, the

20
effects of differen�al thermal expansion should be considered in design. The thermal
conduc�vity of austeni�c and duplex stainless steels is about 30% of that of carbon steel.
Ferri�c grades have higher thermal conduc�vity, which is about 50% of the value for carbon
steel. The thermal expansion of ferri�c grades is much lower than that of the austeni�c grades
and approximately equal to that of carbon steels.
Duplex and ferri�c grades are magne�c, whereas annealed austeni�c stainless steels are
essen�ally not magne�c. In cases where extremely low magne�c permeability is needed,
specialist austeni�c grades are available and care must be exercised in selec�ng appropriate
welding consumables to eliminate the ferrite content in the weldment. These filler materials
give 100% austeni�c solidifica�on in the weld metal. Heavy cold working, par�cularly of the
lean alloyed austeni�c steels, can also increase magne�c permeability; subsequent annealing
would restore the non-magne�c proper�es.
2.7 Fasteners
The bolts, washers, and nuts shall all have equivalent or greater corrosion resistance than the
most corrosion resistant of the metal alloys joined. Austeni�c bolts to EN ISO 3506 property
class 70 are the most widely available. Reference should be made to EN ISO 3506 for certain
size and length restric�ons. The ASTM specifica�on for Bolts and Nuts are as under:
(a) Bolts
ASTM A193/A193M
ASTM A320/A320M
ASTM A453/A453M
ASTM A1082/A1082M
ASTM F593

(b) Nuts
ASTM A194/A194M
ASTM A453/A453M
ASTM A962/A962M
ASTM F594
ASTM F836M
Castings and Forgings
Following are the ASTM specifica�ons for Cas�ng and Forging of Stainless Steel.
Cas�ngs
ASTM A351/A351M (austeni�c stainless steel)
ASTM A747/A747M (precipita�on hardening stainless steel)
ASTM A890/A890M (duplex stainless steel)
Forgings

21
ASTM A182/A182M
ASTM A473
ASTM A705/A705M (precipita�on hardening stainless steel)
ASTM A1049/A1049M (duplex stainless steel)

22
3. DURABILITY OF STAINLESS STEEL
3.1 Durability is defined as the ability of a material to remain serviceable in the
surrounding environment during the useful life without damage or unexpected maintenance.
In the case of steel material, its durability is directly dependent on its ability to resist
corrosion.
Stainless steels are generally highly corrosion resistant and will perform sa�sfactorily in most
environments. The degree of corrosion resistance of a given stainless steel element is
predominantly dependent on its cons�tuent elements, which means that each grade has a
slightly different response when exposed to a corrosive environment. Care is therefore
needed to select the most appropriate grade of stainless steel for a given applica�on.
Furthermore, their higher strength may make it possible to reduce sec�on sizes. Austeni�c
material in the cold worked condi�on has a similar corrosion resistance to that in the
annealed condi�on.
The most common reasons for a metal to fail to perform as well as expected regarding
corrosion resistance are:

• incorrect assessment of the environment or exposure to unexpected condi�ons, e.g.

unsuspected contamina�on by chloride ions or higher than expected surface
accumula�ons,

• inappropriate stainless steel fabrica�on techniques (e.g. welding, heat trea�ng and
hea�ng during forming), incomplete weld heat �nt removal, or surface contamina�on
may increase suscep�bility to corrosion,

• too rough or incorrectly orientated finish.

Even when surface staining or corrosion occur, it is unlikely that structural integrity will be
compromised. However, the user may s�ll regard unsightly rust staining on external surfaces
as a failure. Careful material grade selec�on, good detailing and workmanship can
significantly reduce the likelihood of staining and corrosion. Experience indicates that any
serious corrosion problem is most likely to show up in the first two or three years of service.
In certain aggressive environments, some grades of stainless steel will be suscep�ble to
localised a�ack. Six mechanisms of localized corrosion are described hereina�er.

3.2 Types of Corrosion and Performance of Steel Grades

1.Pi�ng corrosion
As the name implies, pi�ng takes the form of localised pits. It occurs as a result of local
breakdown of the passive layer, normally by chloride ions although the other halides and
other anions can have a similar effect. In a developing pit, corrosion products may create a
very corrosive solu�on, o�en leading to high propaga�on rates. In most structural
applica�ons, the extent of pi�ng is likely to be superficial and the reduc�on in sec�on of a
component is negligible. However, corrosion products can stain architectural features. A less
tolerant view of pi�ng should be adopted for services such as ducts, piping and containment
structures. Since the chloride ion is by far the most common cause of pi�ng in exterior

23
applica�ons, coastal areas are rather aggressive. In addi�on to chloride content, the
probability of a service environment causing pi�ng depends on factors such as the
temperature, corrosive pollutants and par�culate acidity or alkalinity, the content of oxidizing
agents, and the presence or absence of oxygen. The pi�ng resistance of a stainless steel is
dependent on its chemical composi�on. Chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen all enhance
the resistance to pi�ng.
The Pi�ng Resistance Equivalent (PRE) gives an approximate empirically derived es�mate of
pi�ng resistance and is defined as:
PRE = % wt Cr + 3.3(% wt Mo) + 16(% wt N)
The PRE of a stainless steel is a useful guide to its corrosion resistance rela�ve to other
stainless steels, but should only be used as a rough indicator. Small differences in PRE can
easily be overshadowed by other factors that also influence corrosion pi�ng resistance.
Therefore, the PRE should not be the only factor in selec�on.
2. Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion occurs in �ght, unsealed crevices where there is a con�nuous film of water
both within and outside the crevice. The crevice must be fine enough to allow entry of water
and dissolved chloride yet prevent diffusion of oxygen into the crevice. Crevice corrosion can
be avoided by sealing crevices or elimina�ng them. The severity of a crevice is very dependent
on its geometry: the narrower and deeper the crevice, the more severe the corrosion
condi�ons. Joints that are not submerged should be designed to shed moisture. Some
stainless steels, including 304 and 316, are suscep�ble to crevice corrosion when chlorides or
salts are present in the environment. More corrosion resistant austeni�c and the duplex
steels are less suscep�ble and performance will be dependent on the condi�ons, especially
the temperature.
As in pi�ng corrosion, the alloying elements chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen enhance
the resistance to a�ack.
3. Bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion
When two dissimilar metals are in electrical contact and are bridged by an electrolyte (i.e. an
electrically conduc�ng liquid such as sea water or impure fresh water), a current flows from
the anodic metal to the cathodic or nobler metal through the electrolyte. As a result, the less
noble metal corrodes.
Stainless steels usually form the cathode in a galvanic couple and therefore do not suffer
addi�onal corrosion. Stainless steels and copper alloys are very close in the galvanic series,
and when exposed to moderate atmospheric condi�ons can generally be placed in direct
contact without concern.
This form of corrosion is par�cularly relevant when considering joining stainless steel and
carbon or low alloy steels, weathering steel, or aluminium. It is important to ensure the filler
metal is at least as noble as the most corrosion-resistant material (usually stainless steel).
Likewise, if connected with fasteners, the bol�ng material should be equivalent to the most
corrosion-resistant metal. Galvanic corrosion between different types of stainless steel is
hardly ever a concern, and then, only under fully immersed condi�ons.
Bimetallic corrosion can be prevented by elimina�ng current flow by:

24
• insula�ng dissimilar metals, i.e. breaking the metallic path

• preven�ng electrolyte bridging, i.e. breaking the electroly�c path by paint or other
coa�ng. Where protec�on is sought by this means and it is imprac�cable to coat both
metals, then it is preferable to coat the more noble one (i.e. stainless steel in the case of
a stainless/carbon steel connec�on).
The risk of deep corrosion a�ack is greatest if the area of the more noble metal (i.e. stainless
steel) is large compared with the area of the less noble metal (i.e. carbon steel). Special
a�en�on should be paid to the use of paints or other coa�ngs on the carbon steel. If there
are any small pores or pinholes in the coa�ng, the small area of bare carbon steel provides a
very large cathode/anode area ra�o, and severe pi�ng of the carbon steel may occur. This is,
of course, likely to be most severe under immersed condi�ons. In these situa�ons, it is
preferable to paint the stainless steel also up to a distance of at least 75 mm away from where
the metals are in contact so that any pores lead to small area ra�os.
Adverse area ra�os are likely to occur with fasteners and at joints. Carbon steel bolts in
stainless steel members should be avoided because the ra�o of the area of the stainless steel
to the carbon steel is large and the bolts will be subject to aggressive a�ack. Conversely, the
rate of a�ack on a carbon steel or aluminium member by a stainless steel bolt is negligible. It
is usually helpful to draw on previous experience in similar sites because dissimilar metals can
o�en be safely coupled under condi�ons of occasional condensa�on or dampness with no
adverse effects, especially when the conduc�vity of the electrolyte is low.
The predic�on of these effects is difficult because the corrosion rate is determined by a
number of complex variables.
4. Stress corrosion cracking
The development of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) requires the simultaneous presence of
tensile stresses and specific environmental factors unlikely to be encountered in normal
atmospheres. The stresses do not need to be very high in rela�on to the proof stress of the
material and may be due to loading, residual effects from manufacturing processes such as
welding, or bending. Ferri�c stainless steels are not suscep�ble to SCC. Duplex stainless steels
usually have superior resistance to stress corrosion cracking than the austeni�c stainless
steels.
5. General (uniform) corrosion
Under normal condi�ons typically encountered in structural applica�ons, stainless steels do
not suffer from the general loss of sec�on that is characteris�c of corrosion in non-alloyed
irons and steels.
6. Intergranular corrosion (sensi�sa�on) and weld decay
When austeni�c stainless steels are subject to prolonged hea�ng in the range 450°C to 850°C,
the carbon in the steel diffuses to the grain boundaries and precipitates chromium carbide.
This removes chromium from the solid solu�on and leaves a lower chromium content
adjacent to the grain boundaries. Steel in this condi�on is termed “sensi�zed”. The grain
boundaries become prone to preferen�al a�ack on subsequent exposure to a corrosive
environment. This phenomenon is known as “weld decay” when it occurs in the heat affected
zone of a weldment.

25
There are three ways to avoid intergranular corrosion through the use of:

• steel having a low carbon content,

• steel stabilised with �tanium or niobium because these elements combine preferen�ally
with carbon to form stable par�cles, thereby reducing the risk of forming chromium
carbide,

• heat treatment. (However this method is rarely used in prac�ce at present).

Regarding austeni�c or duplex stainless steels, a low carbon content (0.03% maximum)
stainless steel should be specified when welding sec�ons to avoid sensi�sa�on and
intergranular corrosion. Intergranular corrosion is now very uncommon in austeni�c or
duplex stainless steels because modern steel making prac�ce ensures low carbon contents
and thus avoids the problem.
Ferri�c stainless steels are more prone to sensi�za�on due to welding than austeni�c
stainless steels. Therefore, even with a low carbon content, it is s�ll important to use a
stabilized ferri�c grade for welded sec�ons.
Design for corrosion control
The most important step in preven�ng corrosion problems is selec�ng an appropriately
resistant stainless steel with suitable fabrica�on procedures for the given environment.
However, a�er specifying par�cular steel, much can be achieved in realizing the full poten�al
of the steels resistance by careful a�en�on to detailing. An� corrosion ac�o ns should ideally
be considered at the planning stage and during detailed design.

26
4. BASIS OF DESIGN
The design of Stainless Steel bridges shall be carried out as per Limit State Design concept of
IS/ IRC Codes, specifically IRC:24.
4.1 General requirements
A structure should be designed and fabricated so that it can:

• remain fit for use during its intended life

• sustain the loads which may occur during construc�on, installa�on and usage

• localise damage due to accidental overloads

• have adequate durability in rela�on to maintenance costs.

The above requirements can be sa�sfied by using suitable materials, by appropriate design
and detailing and by specifying quality control procedures for construc�on and maintenance.
Structures should be designed by considering all relevant limit states.
4.2 Basis of Design
The Limit State Design philosophy as stated in clause 503 of IRC:24 shall be followed. The
method is summarized hereina�er for the sake of completeness.
In the limit state design method, the bridge structure shall be designed to withstand safely all
loads likely to act on it throughout its design life. Also, the structure shall remain fit for use
during its design life. The acceptance limit for safety or serviceability requirements before the
failure occurs is called a limit state. In general, the structure shall be designed on the basis of
most cri�cal limit state and shall be checked for other limit states. The probability of a limit
state being reached during its life�me should be very low.
4.3 Limit State Design
The design shall be based on the characteris�c values of material strengths and applied loads,
which takes into account the probability of varia�ons in the material strengths and applied
loads. The characteris�c values shall be based on sta�s�cal data, if available. Where such data
are not available, these shall be based on experience. The design values are derived from the
characteris�c values through the use of par�al safety factors both for material strengths and
for loads. These factors are dependent on the type of material, the type of load and the limit
state being considered. The reliability of the design is ensured when:
Design Load ≤ Design Strength

Limit states are the states beyond which the structure no longer sa�sfies the specified
performance requirements. The Limit States are classified as:
a) Limit State of Strength
b) Limit State of Serviceability
c) Limit State of Fa�gue

27
 Limit State of Strength

Limit state of strength is associated with the failure (or imminent failure), under the ac�on of
probable and most unfavourable combina�on of loads on the structure using the appropriate
par�al safety factors, which may endanger the safety of life and/or property. The limit state
of strength includes:
a) Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or any of its parts or components.
b) Loss of stability of the structure (including the effect of overturning)
c) Failure by excessive deforma�on (including buckling induced deforma�on), rapture of
the structure or any of its parts or components.
d) Bri�le Fracture

Limit State of Serviceability

Limit state of serviceability includes:

a) Deforma�on or deflec�on, which may adversely affect the appearance or effec�ve
use of bridge structure.
b) Vibra�on of the structure or any of its components causing discomfort to user or
damages to the structure or which may limit its func�onal effec�veness.
c) Corrosion and durability

Limit State of Fatigue

Limit state of fa�gue is the state at which stress range due to applica�on of live load reaches
a limi�ng value corresponding to number of load cycles and detail configura�on. It is dealt in
detail in clause 511 of IRC:24. The same has been summarized under Clause 9.

4.4 Design Loads

The loads and load combina�ons specified in IRC:6 shall be considered along with the specified load
factors.
4.5 Design Strength
The design strength Sd is obtained as given below from ul�mate strength, S u and par�al
safety factors for material (Table 4.1)
Sd = Su / γm
Par�al safety factor for materials (γ m) account for the possibili�es of:
a) unfavourable devia�on of material strength from characteris�c value
b) unfavourable varia�on of member sizes
c) unfavourable reduc�on in member strength due to fabrica�on and tolerances

28
 d) uncertain calcula�on of strength of members
Table 4.1 : Safety Factor for Materials, γm
Sl No Defini�on Par�al Safety Factor
1) Resistance governed by yielding γm0 1.10
2) Resistance of member governed by buckling γm0 1.10
3) Resistance governed by ul�mate stress γ ml 1.25
4) Resistance of connec�on Shop Field
Fabrica�on Fabrica�on
1.25 1.25
a) Bolt – Bearing type γmb
1.25 1.25
b) Bolt – Fric�on type γmf
1.25 1.50
c) Welds γ mw

Note:

 As stainless steel does not show a definite yield point, 0.2% Proof Stress shall be
considered as characteris�c yield stress, f y

 For grades of stainless steel not specifically included in IS:6911 (or, Table 2.1 of EN
1993-1-4) or Na�onal Standards the γ m factors should be increased by 10%.

4.6 Factors governing Ul�mate Strength

4.6.1 Stability - Stability shall be ensured for the structure as a whole and for each of its
elements. This should include overall frame stability against overturning given below:
Stability Against Overturning - The structure as a whole or any part of it shall be designed to
prevent instability due to overturning, upli� or sliding under factored load as given below:
a) The loads shall be divided into components aiding instability and components resis�ng
instability.
b) The permanent and variable loads and their effects causing instability shall be
combined using appropriate load factors as per the Limit States requirements to
obtain maximum destabilizing effect.
c) The permanent loads and effects contribu�ng to resistance shall be mul�plied by a
par�al safety factor 0.9 and added together with design resistance (a�er mul�plying
by appropriate par�al safety factor). Variable loads and their effects contribu�ng to
resistance shall be disregarded.
d) The resistance effect shall be greater than or equal to the destabilizing effect.
Combina�on of imposed and dead loads should be such as to cause most severe effect
on overall stability.

29
4.6.2 Fa�gue - Fa�gue design shall be as per clause 9 which follows Clause 511 of IRC:24.
When designing for fa�gue the par�al safety factor for loads (f) shall be considered as 1.00
for loads causing stress fluctua�on and stress range.

5. Cross Sec�on Design

The procedures stated hereina�er essen�ally follows the s�pula�ons of IRC:24.

5.1 Geometrical Proper�es

The geometrical proper�es of the gross and the effec�ve cross-sec�ons of a member or part
thereof shall be calculated on the following basis:
a) The proper�es of the gross cross-sec�on shall be calculated from the specified size of the
member or part thereof or read from appropriate table.
b) The proper�es of the effec�ve cross-sec�on shall be calculated by deduc�ng from the area
of the gross cross-sec�on the following:
i) The sec�onal area in excess of effec�ve plate width, in case of slender sec�ons
(Clause 5.2.2).
ii) The sec�onal areas of all holes in the sec�on except for parts in compression. In case
of punched holes, hole size 2 mm in excess of the actual diameter may be deducted.

5.2 Classifica�on of Cross-Sec�ons

5.2.1The local buckling of plate elements of a cross-sec�on can be avoided before the limit
state is achieved by limi�ng the width to thickness ra�o of each element of a cross sec�on,
subjected to compression due to axial force, moment or shear.
5.2.1.1 When plas�c analysis is used, the members shall be capable of forming plas�c hinges
with sufficient rota�on capacity (duc�lity) without local buckling to enable the
redistribu�on of bending moment required before forma�on of the failure mechanism.
5.2.1.2 When elas�c analysis is used, the member shall be capable of developing the yield
stress under compression without local buckling.
5.2.2 On the basis of the above, four classes of sec�ons are defined as follows:
Class 1: Plas�c - Cross-sec�ons, which can develop plas�c hinges and have the rota�on
capacity required for failure of the structure by forma�on of plas�c mechanism. The
width to thickness ra�o of plate elements shall be less than that specified under Class
1 (Plastic) in Table 5.1.
Class 2: Compact - Cross-sec�ons, which can develop plas�c moment of resistance, but have
inadequate plas�c hinge rota�on capacity for forma�on of plas�c mechanism, due
to local buckling. The width to thickness ra�o of plate elements shall be less than
that specified under Class 2 (compact), but greater than that specified under Class 1
(Plas�c) in Table 5.1.

30
Class 3 : Semi-compact - Cross-sec�ons, in which the extreme fibre in compression can reach
yield stress, but cannot develop the plas�c moment of resistance, due to local
buckling. The width to thickness ra�o of plate elements shall be less than that
specified under Class 3 (Semi-compact), but greater than that specified under Class
2 (Compact) in Table 5.1.
Class 4: Slender - Cross-sec�ons in which the elements buckle locally even before reaching
yield stress. The width to thickness ra�o of plate element shall be greater than that
specified under Class 3 (Semi-compact) in Table 5.1. In such cases the effec�ve
sec�ons for design shall be calculated by deduc�ng width of compression plate
element in excess of the Semi-compact sec�on limit. The design of slender
compression element is outside the scope of this code. When different elements of
a cross-sec�on fall under different classes, the sec�on shall be classified as governed
by the most cri�cal element.
The maximum value of limi�ng width to thickness ra�os of elements for different
classifica�ons of sec�ons are given in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Limi�ng Width to Thickness Ra�o

(Clauses 5.2.2 and 5.2.4)

Compression Ra�o Class of Sec�on

Element Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Plas�c Compact Semi-Compact
Outstanding Rolled Sec�on b/tf 9.4ε 10.5ε 15.7ε
Element of Welded Sec�on b/tf 8.4ε 9.4ε 13.6ε
Compression Flange
Internal Elements of Compression b/tf 29.3ε 33.5ε
Compression Flange due to Bending
42ε
Axial b/tf Not Applicable
Compression
Web of I, H Neutral Axis at Mid d/tw 84ε 105ε 126ε
or Box Depth
Sec�on If r1 is d/tw 105ε/(1+r1) 126ε/(1+2r2
nega�ve 84ε/(1+r1) ) but ≥ 42ε
Generally
If r1 is d/tw but ≥ 42ε 105ε/(1+1.5r1
posi�ve ) but ≥ 42ε
Axial Compression d/tw Not Applicable 42ε
Web of a Channel d/tw 42ε 42ε 42ε
Angle, Compression due to Bending b/t 9.4ε 10.5ε 15.7ε
(both criteria should be sa�sfied) d/t 9.4ε 10.5ε 15.7ε
Single Angle or Double Angles with the b/t 15.7ε
components separated, Axial d/t 15.7ε
Not Applicable
Compression (All three criteria should (b+d)/t 25ε
be sa�sfied)
Outstanding leg of an Angle in contact d/t 9.4ε 10.5ε 15.7ε
back-to-back in a Double Angle
member

31
Compression Ra�o Class of Sec�on
Element Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Plas�c Compact Semi-Compact
Outstanding leg of an Angle with its d/t 9.4ε 10.5ε 15.7ε
back in con�nuous contact with
another component
Stem of a T-sec�on, Rolled or cut from D/tf 8.4ε 9.4ε 18.9ε
a rolled I or H sec�on

Circular Hollow Tube, including D/tf 42ε2 52ε2 146ε2

Welded Tube subjected to (a) D/t Not Applicable 88ε2
Moment, (b) Axial Compression

NOTE 1 :Elements which exceed semi-compact limits are to be taken as of slender cross-sec�on

NOTE 2:ε=

fy (N/mm2) 210 220 460

ε 1.03 1.01 0.698

NOTE 3: Webs shall be checked for shear buckling in accordance with Clause 6.6 when d/t > 67ε.
where, b is the width of the element (may be taken as clear distance between lateral
supports or between lateral support and free edge, as appropriate), t is the thickness of
element, d is the depth of the web, D is outer diameter of the element, Refer Fig 5.1 &Clauses
5.2.3 and 5.2.4.
NOTE 4: Different elements of a cross-sec�on can be of different classes. In such cases the sec�on is
classified based on the least favourable classifica�on.
NOTE 5: The stress ra�o r1 and r2 are defined as
r1 = (actual average axial stress (nega�ve, if tensile))/(design compressive stress of web
alone)
r2 = (actual average axial stress (negative, if tensile))/(design compressive stress of overall
Section)

5.2.3 Types of Elements

a) Internal elements are elements a�ached along both longitudinal edges to other
elements or to longitudinal s�ffeners connected at suitable intervals to transverse
s�ffeners. e.g. web of I-sec�on and flanges and web of box sec�on.
b) Outside elements or Outstands are elements a�ached along only one of the
longitudinal edges to an adjacent element, the other edge being free to displace out
of plane e.g. flange overhang of an I-sec�on, stem of T-sec�on and legs of an angle
sec�on.
c) Tapered elements may be treated as flat elements having average thickness defined
in SP:6 Part 1 of BIS.
5.2.4 Compound elements in built-up sec�on (Fig. 5.1) - In case of compound elements
consis�ng of two or more elements bolted or welded together, the limi�ng width to thickness
ra�os as given in Table 5.1should be considered as follows :

32
a) Outstanding width of compound elements (be) to its own thickness.
b) The internal width of each added plate between the lines of welds or fasteners connec�ng
it to the original sec�on to its own thickness.
c) Any outstand of the added plates beyond the line of welds or fasteners connec�ng it to
original sec�on to its own thickness.

Figure 5.1 : Dimensions of Sec�ons

33
6. Member Design
The design rules for stainless steel bridges are basically same as those for carbon steel. The
rules specified in IRC:24 shall be followed with some modifica�ons due to the difference in
behavior of stainless steel.
The rules stated hereina�er a�er as per the clauses of IRC:24 and are included here for the
sake of completeness.
For design of stainless bridges yield strength, f y, shall be taken as 0.2% proof strength.
Modulus of Elas�city, E, shall be taken as 2x10 5 MPa to take into account non-linearity of
stress strain curve while compu�ng the value of ε. Refer IS:6911, Interna�onal Codes or
manufacturer’s literature for the specific values of the selected grade.

6.1 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

6.1.1 Effec�ve Span
The effec�ve span shall be as given below:
a) For main girders - the distance between the centres of bearings
b) For cross girders - the distance between the centres of main girders or trusses
c) For stringers - the distance between the centres of cross girders

NOTE:- Where a cross girder or stringer terminates on an abutment or pier, the centre of
bearing thereon shall be taken as one end of the effec�ve span.
d) For pins in bending - the distance between the centres of bearings; but where pins
pass through bearing plates having thickness greater than half the diameter of the
pins, considera�on may be given to the effect of the distribu�on of bearing pressures
on the effec�ve span.

6.1.2 Effec�ve Depth

The effec�ve depth of plate or truss girder should be taken as the distance between the
centres of gravity of the upper and lower flanges or chords.
6.1.3 Spacing of Girders
The distance between centres of the main girders shall be sufficient to resist overturning or
over stressing due to lateral forces and loading condi�ons. Otherwise special provisions must
be made to prevent this. This distance shall not be less than 1/20 of the span.
6.1.4 Depth of Girders
Minimum depth preferably shall not be less than the following :
a) For trusses : 1/10 of the effec�ve span
b) For girders : 1/25 of the effec�ve span
The effec�ve depth of open web girders shall not be greater than three �mes the distance
between the centres of these girders.

34
6.1.5 Deflec�on of Girders
Deflec�on is to be checked by elas�c analysis, using a par�al safety factor for loads as 1.0.
6.1.5.1 Rolled steel beams, plate girders or la�ce girders, either simple or con�nuous spans,
shall be designed so that the total deflec�on due to dead load, live load and impact shall not
exceed 1/600 of the span. However, this restric�on shall not apply if minimum inplace
precamber is provided to compensate for all dead and superimposed dead load deflec�ons.
Addi�onally, the deflec�on due to live load and impact shall not exceed of 1/800 of the span.
6.1.5.2 The deflec�on of can�lever arms at the �p due to dead load, live load and impact shall
not exceed 1/300 of the can�lever arm and deflec�on due to live load and impact shall not
exceed 1/400 of the can�lever arm.
6.1.5.3 Sidewalk live load may be neglected in calcula�ng deflec�on.
6.1.5.4 When cross bracings or diaphragms of sufficient depth and strength are provided
between beams to ensure the lateral distribu�on of loads the deflec�on may be calculated
considering all beams ac�ng together.
6.1.5.5 The gross moment of iner�a shall be used for calcula�ng the deflec�on of beams or
plate girders. In calcula�ng the deflec�on of trusses the gross area of each truss member
should be used.

6.1.6 Camber
6.1.6.1 Camber, if any, shall be provided as specified by the engineer. Camber may be
required to maintain clearance under all condi�ons of loading or it may be required for the
sake of appearance.
6.1.6.2 In the absence of specific guidance, the following principles may be observed.
a) Beams and plate girders up to and including 35 m span need not be cambered.
b) In open web spans the camber of the main girders and the corresponding varia�ons in
length of members shall be such that when the girders are loaded with full dead load
plus 75 percent of the live load without impact producing maximum bending moment,
they shall take up the true geometrical shape assumed in their design. The camber
diagram shall be prepared as indicated in Annex-B of IRC:24.

6.1.7 Minimum Sec�ons

6.1.7.1 For all members of the structure, except parapets and packing plates, the following
minimum thicknesses of plates and rolled sec�ons shall apply:
a) 2.5 mm when both sides are accessible for inspec�on or are in close contact with other
plates or rolled sec�ons, or are otherwise adequately protected against corrosion.
b) When one side is not readily accessible for inspec�on or is not in close contact with
another member, or is not otherwise adequately protected and where the thickness
required by calcula�on is less than 5 mm, 1.0 mm shall be added to the calculated
thickness subject to the total thickness being not less than 6 mm.
c) 2 mm for box members when the inside of the member is effec�vely sealed.

35
 d) For rolled steel beams and channels the controlling thickness shall be taken as the
mean thickness of the flange, regardless of the web thickness
6.1.7.2 In floor plates and parapets not designed to carry stresses a minimum thickness of
2 mm shall be used if both sides are accessible or 2.5 mm if only one side is accessible.
For packing plates the thickness shall not be less than 1.5 mm.
6.1.7.3 No angle less than 65 mm x 45 mm and no flat less than 50 mm wide shall be used in
any part of a bridge structure, except for hand railings and shear connectors.
6.1.7.4 Thickness of end angles connec�ng stringers to cross girders or cross girders to main
girders shall be not less in thickness than three quarters of the thickness of the web
plates of the stringers and cross girders respec�vely.

6.1.8 Skew Bridges

For skew bridges, detailed analysis of forces shall be required. However, if the angle of skew
is within 150, such detailed analysis may not be necessary.

6.1.9 Bearings
6.1.9.1 Provision for jacking of the steel girder for inspec�on and maintenance of the bearings
shall be in-built in the bridge structure and the jacking posi�ons shall be iden�fied and clearly
marked.
6.1.9.2 It shall be ensured that, while selec�ng the bearing type and designing it, the adequacy
of the load transfer mechanisms from superstructure to bearing and bearing to sub-structure
have been examined and provided for.

6.2 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

6.2.1 General
Effects of design loads on a bridge structure and its members and connec�ons shall be
determined by structural analysis using Elas�c analysis
6.2.2 Elas�c Analysis
6.2.2.1 Assump�on- Individual members shall be assumed to remain elas�c under the effects
of factored design loads for all limit states.
6.2.2.2 The effect of haunching or any varia�on of the cross-sec�on along the axis of a
member shall be considered, and where significant shall be taken into account in the
determina�on of the member s�ffness.
6.2.2.3 Appropriate load combina�ons with corresponding load factors are to be used to find
out the maximum values of load effects on members.
6.2.2.4 In a first-order elas�c analysis, the equilibrium of the frame in the undeformed
geometry is considered, the changes in the geometry of the frame due to the loading are not
accounted for, and changes in the effec�ve s�ffness of the members due to axial force are
neglected. The effect of these on the first order bending moments may be accounted for by
carrying out second order elas�c analysis.

36
6.3 DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

6.3.1 Design
Tension members are linear members in which axial forces act causing elonga�on (stretch).
Such members can sustain loads upto ul�mate load, at which stage they may fail by rupture
at a cri�cal sec�on. However, if the gross area of the member yields over a major por�on of
its length before the rupture load is reached, the member may become non-func�onal due
to excessive elonga�on. Plates and other rolled sec�ons in tension may also fail by block shear
of end bolted regions (See Clause 6.3.1.3).
The factored design tension T, in the members shall sa�sfy the following requirement :
T < Td
where
Td = design strength of the member
The design strength of a member under axial tension, T d is the lowest of the design strength
due to yielding of gross sec�on, T dg, rupture of cri�cal sec�on, T dn and block shear Tdb given
in Clauses 6.3.1.1, 6.3.1.2 and 6.3.1.3 respec�vely
6.3.1.1 Design strength governed by yielding of gross sec�on
The design strength of members under axial tension, T dg as governed by yielding of gross
sec�on, is given by
Tdg = Ag fy / γ m0
where
fy = yield stress of the material
Ag = gross area of cross-sec�on
γ m0 = par�al safety factor for failure in tension by yielding (Table 4.1)

6.3.1.2 Design strength governed by rupture of cri�cal sec�on

6.3.1.2.1 Plates - The design strength in tension of a plate, T dn as governed by rupture of net
cross sec�onal area, An at the holes is given by
Tdn = 0.9 An fu / γ m1
where
γ m1 = par�al safety factor for failure at ul�mate stress (Table 4.1)
fu = ul�mate stress of the material
An = net effec�ve area of the member given by,

where
b, t = width and thickness of the plate, respec�vely
dh = diameter of the hole
g = gauge length between the holes, as shown in Fig. 6.1

37
 ps = staggered pitch length between line of holes as shown in Fig. 6.1
n = number of holes in the cri�cal sec�on
i = subscript for summa�on of all the inclined legs

Figure 6.1 : Plates with Holes in Tension

6.3.1.2.2 Threaded rods - The design strength of threaded rods in tension, T dn, as governed
by rupture is given by
Tdn = 0.9 An fu /γ m1
where
An = net root area at the threaded sec�on,

6.3.1.2.3 Single angles - The rupture strength of an angle connected through one leg is
affected by shear lag. The design strength T dn , as governed by rupture at net sec�on is given
by
Tdn = 0.9 Anc fu / γm1 + β Ago fy /γm0
where
β = 1.4 - 0.076 (w/t) (fy/ fu) (bs/Lc) ≤ (fuγm0/fy γm1) ≥ 0.7
where
w = outstand leg width
bs = shear lag width as shown in Fig. 6.2
Lc = length of the end connec�on, i.e., distance between the outermost bolts in the
end joint measured along the load direc�on or length of the weld along the load
direction

For preliminary sizing, the rupture strength of net sec�on may be approximately taken as
Tdn = α An fu/γm1
where
α = 0.6 for one or two bolts, 0.7 for three bolts and 0.8 for four or more bolts along
the length in the end connec�on or equivalent weld length
An = net area of the total cross sec�on
Anc = net area of the connected leg
Ago = gross area of the outstanding leg
t = thickness of the leg

38
 Figure 6.2 : Angles with Single Leg Connections

6.3.1.2.4 Other sec�ons - The rupture strength, Tdn of the double angles, channels, I sec�ons
and other rolled steel sec�ons, connected by one or more elements to an end gusset is also
governed by shear lag effects. The design tensile strength of such sec�ons as governed by
tearing of net sec�on may also be calculated using equa�on in Clause 6.3.1.2.3 where β is
calculated based on the shear lag distance, b s taken from the farthest edge of the outstanding
leg to the nearest bolt/weld line in the connected leg of the cross sec�on.

6.3.1.3 Design strength governed by block shear - The strength as governed by block shear at
an end connec�on of plates and angles is calculated as given in Clause 6.3.1.3.1.
6.3.1.3.1 Bolted connec�ons - The block shear strength, Tdb of connec�on shall be taken as
the smaller of
Tdb= (Avg fy/( S3 γm0) + 0.9 Atn fu/γm1)
or
Tdb = (0.9Avn fu/( S3 γm1) + Atg fy/γm0)
where
Avg, Avn = minimum gross and net area in shear along bolt line parallel to external
force, respec�vely [1-2 and 3-4 as shown in Fig. 6.3 (a) and 1-2 as shown in Fig.
6.3 (b)]
Atg, Atn = minimum gross and net area in tension from the bolt hole to the toe
o�he angle, end bolt line, perpendicular to the line of force, respec�vely [2-3 as
shown in Fig. 6.3 (b)]
fu, fy = ul�mate and yield stress of the material, respec�vely

39
Figure 6.3 : Block Shear Failure

6.3.1.3.2 Welded connec�on - The block shear strength, Tdb, shall be checked for welded end
connec�ons by taking an appropriate sec�on in the member around the end weld, which can
shear off as a block.

6.3.2 Design Details

6.3.2.1 Slenderness ra�o
For main members the ra�o of unsupported length to the least radius of gyra�on shall not
exceed 300.
6.3.2.2 Configura�on
Tension members should preferably be of solid cross sec�on. However, when composed of
two or more components these shall be connected as described in Clause 6.3.2.6, 6.3.2.7 and
6.3.2.8.
6.3.2.3 Effec�ve sec�onal area
When plates are provided solely for the purposes of lacing or ba�ening, they shall be ignored
in compu�ng the radius of gyra�on of the sec�on.

6.3.2.4 Lacing and ba�ening

The open sides of built-up tension members of channel or beam sec�ons shall be connected
by lacing or ba�ening where the length of the outstand towards the open side exceeds 14
�mes the mean thickness of the outstand.
6.3.2.5 Lacing and ba�ening shall be designed in accordance with Clause 6.3.2.7 and 6.3.2.8
and shall be propor�oned to resist all shear forces due to external forces, if any, in the plane
of lacing. The shear shall be considered as divided equally among all transverse systems and
pla�ng in parallel planes.
6.3.2.6 Tension members composed of two components back-to-back
6.3.2.6.1 Tension members formed by sec�ons placed back-to-back, either in contact or
separated by a distance not exceeding 50 mm shall be connected together in their length at

40
regular intervals by bol�ng or welding so spaced that the maximum ra�o of slenderness of
each element is not greater than that specified for main members in Clause 6.3.2.1.
6.3.2.6.2 Where the components are in contact back-to-back bol�ng or welding shall be in
accordance with clauses applicable.
6.3.2.6.3 When the components are separated they shall be connected through solid washers
or packing, bolted or welded.

6.3.2.7 Design of lacing

6.3.2.7.1 As far as prac�cable the lacing system shall not be varied throughout the length of
the tension member.
6.3.2.7.2 Lacing bars shall be inclined at an angle of 400 to 700 to the axis of the member when
a single intersec�on system is used and at an angle of 40 0 to 500 when a double intersec�on
system is used.
6.3.2.7.3 Except for �e as specified in Clause 6.3.2.7.7 double intersec�on lacing systems shall
not be combined with members or diaphragms perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
member, unless all forces resul�ng from deforma�on of the member are calculated and
provided for in the lacing and its fastenings.
6.3.2.7.4 Lacing bars shall be so connected that there is no appreciable interrup�on of the
triangula�on of the system.
6.3.2.7.5 The required sec�on of the lacing bar shall be determined in accordance with the
design provisions of lacings of compression members given in Clause 6.4.8. The slenderness
ra�o of the lacing shall not exceed 140. For this purpose the effec�ve length shall be taken as
follows:
i) In bolted construc�on, the length between the inner end bolts of the lacing bar in
single intersec�on lacing and 0.7 �mes this length for double intersec�on lacing
effec�vely connected at intersec�on.
ii) In welded construc�on, the distance between the inner ends of effective lengths of
welds connec�ng the bars to the components for single intersec�on lacing and 0.7
�mes this length for double intersec�on lacing effec�vely connected at intersec�on.
6.3.2.7.6 Bol�ng or welding of lacing bars to the main members shall be sufficient to transmit
the load to the bars. Where welded lacing bars overlap the main components, the amount of
lap shall not be less than four �mes the thickness of the bar or four �mes the mean thickness
of the flange of the component to which the bars are a�ached, whichever is less. The welding
shall be provided along each side of the bar for the full length of the lap and returned along
the ends of the bar for a length equal to at least four �mes the thickness of the bar or width
of the bar whichever is less.
Where lacing bars are fi�ed between main components, they shall be connected to each
component by fillet welds on both sides of the bar or by full penetra�on bu� welds.
6.3.2.7.7 Laced tension members shall be provided with �e plates at the ends of the lacing
systems, at points where the lacing systems are interrupted and where the member is
connected to another member.

41
6.3.2.7.8 The length of end �e plate parallel to the axis of the member shall not be less than
the perpendicular distance between the centroids of the main components and the length of
the intermediate �e plates shall not be less than 3/4 of this distance.
6.3.2.7.9 The thickness of all �e plates shall be not less than 1/60 of the distance between the
innermost lines of bolts or welds a�aching them to the main components, except when
effec�vely s�ffened at the edges, in which case the minimum thickness m ay be 2.5 mm; for
this purpose the edge s�ffeners shall have a slenderness ra�o not less than 170.
6.3.2.7.10 When angles, channels etc. are used instead of end �e plates or are provided where
the lacing system is interrupted, these shall be designed by the same method as for ba�ens.
The end ba�en or the intermediate ba�en and its fastenings shall be capable of carrying the
forces for which the lacing has been designed. The slenderness ra�o shall not exceed 140.

6.3.2.8 Design of ba�ens

Ba�ened tension members shall comply with the following requirements.
6.3.2.8.1 The spacing of ba�ens, measured as the distance between the centres of adjacent
end pitches of bolts or, for welded construc�on, the clear distance between the ba�ens, shall
be such that the maximum ra�o of slenderness of each element is not greater than that
specified for main members in Clause 6.3.2.1
6.3.2.8.2 The effec�ve length of the ba�en, parallel to the axis of the member, shall be taken
as the longitudinal distance between end fastenings.
End ba�ens shall have an effec�ve length of not less than the perpendicular distance between
centroids of the main components and the length of the intermediate ba�ens shall have an
effec�ve length of not less than one-half of this distance.
6.3.2.8.3 Ba�en plates shall have a thickness of not less than 1/60 of the minimum distance
between the connec�ng bolts groups or welds except where they are s�ffened at their edges.

6.3.2.8.4 Where ba�ens are a�ached by bolts, not less than two bolts shall be used in each
connec�on. Where ba�ens are a�ached by welds, the length of welds connec�ng each
longitudinal edge of the ba�en plate to the component shall, in the aggregate, be not less
than half the length of the ba�en plate, and at least one-third of the weld shall be placed at
each end of the longitudinal edge. In addi�on, welding shall be returned along the ends of the
plate for a length of at least four �mes the thickness of the plate.
Where the �e or ba�en plates are fi�ed between main components they shall be connected
to each member either by fillet welds on each side of the plate, at least equal in length to that
specified in the preceding paragraph or by full penetra�on bu� weld.
6.3.2.9 Splices
Splices in tension members shall have a sec�onal area 5 percent more than that required to
develop the load in the member and, whenever prac�cable, the cover material shall be
disposed to suit the distribu�on of stress in the various parts of the cross sec�on of the
member. Both surfaces of the parts to be spliced shall be covered wherever possible. Bolts or
welds shall develop the full strength of the cover material as defined above.

42
6.4 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

6.4.1 Design Strength

6.4.1.1 Common hot rolled and built up steel members, used for carrying axial compression,
usually fail by flexural buckling. The buckling strength of these members is affected by residual
stresses, ini�al bow and accidental eccentrici�es of load. To account for all these factors, the
strength of members subjected to axial compression is defined by buckling class a,b,c or d as
given in Table 6.1 and 6.2.
6.4.1.2 The factored design compression P in the member due to external loads shall sa�sfy
the following requirement:
P < Pd
where
Pd = design strength of the member as given below :
= Ae fcd
where
Ae = effec�ve sec�onal area as defined in Clause 6.4.3.2
fcd = design compressive stress obtained as per Clause 6.4.1.2.1

6.4.1.2.1 The design compressive stress, fcd of axially loaded compression members shall be
calculated using the following equa�on:

where
φ = 0.5[1 + ( - 0.2) + 2]

λ = non-dimensional effec�ve slenderness ra�o =

fcc = Euler buckling stress = 2E /(KL/r)2
where
KL/r = Effec�ve slenderness ra�o or ra�o of effec�ve length KL, to appropriate
radius of gyra�on, r
α = Imperfec�on factor given in Table 6.1
 = Stress reduc�on factor for different buckling class,

slenderness ra�o and yield stress =

 m0 = Par�al safety factor for material strength

TABLE-6.1 Imperfec�on Factor,α

(Clause 6.1.1 and 6.1.2.1)
Buckling Class a b c d
α 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

43
6.4.1.2.2 The classifica�on of different sec�ons under different buckling class a, b, c or d, is
given in Table 6.2. The curves corresponding to different buckling class are presented in non-
dimensional form, in Fig. 6.4.
TABLE-6.2 Buckling Class of Cross-Sec�ons

Cross-Sec�on Limits Buckling about Buckling

Axis Class
h/bf> 1.2 tf< 40mm z-z a
y-y b

40mm < tf< 100mm z-z b

y-y c
h/bf< 1.2 tf< 100mm z-z b
y-y c

tf> 100mm z-z d

y-y d
z-z b
tf< 40mm y-y c

tf> 40mm z-z c

y-y d

Hot rolled Any a

Cold formed Any b

Generally Any b
(Except as below)
Thick welds and
b/tf< 30 z-z c

h/tw < 30 y-y c

Any c

44
Cross-Sec�on Limits Buckling about Buckling
Axis Class

Any c

6.4.2 Effec�ve Length

6.4.2.1 The effec�ve length, KL is calculated from the member length, L, of the member,
considering the rota�onal and rela�ve transla�onal boundary condi�ons at the ends. The
member length shall be taken as the length from centre to centre of its intersec�ons with the
suppor�ng members in the plane of the buckling deforma�on. In the case of a member with
a free end, the free standing length from the centre of the intersec�ng member at the
supported end, shall be taken as the member length.

Figure 6.4 : Buckling Curves for Compression Members (Clause 6.4.1.2.1)

6.4.2.2 Where the boundary condi�ons in the plane of buckling can be assessed, the effec�ve
length KL, can be calculated on the basis of Table 6.3.
6.4.2.3 In the case of bolted or welded trusses and braced frames, the effec�ve length, KL of
the compression members should generally follow Clause 6.5 under "Design of Trusses or
Open-web Girders" of this code. In the case of members of trusses for buckling in the plane
perpendicular to the plane of the truss, the effec�ve length, KL shall be taken as the distance
between the centres of intersec�on. The design of angle struts shall be as specified in Clause
6.4.5.

45
 Table 6.3 Effec�ve Length of Prisma�c Compression Members
(Clause 6.4.2.2)

Boundary Condi�ons
Schema�c Effec�ve
At One End At the Other End
Representa�on Length
Transla�on Rota�on Transla�on Rota�on

Restrained Restrained Free Free

2.0 L

Free Restrained Restrained Free

Restrained Free Restrained Free 1.0 L

Restrained Restrained Free Restrained 1.2 L

Restrained Restrained Restrained Free 0.8 L

46
 Boundary Condi�ons
Schema�c Effec�ve
At One End At the Other End
Representa�on Length
Transla�on Rota�on Transla�on Rota�on

Restrained Restrained Restrained Restrained 0.65 L

6.4.3 Design Details

6.4.3.1 Thickness of plate elements - The classifica�on of members on the basis of thickness
of cons�tuent plate elements shall sa�sfy the width-thickness ra�o requirements specified in
Table 5.1.
6.4.3.2 Effec�ve sec�onal area A e - Except for Class 4 (slender sec�on) in Clause 5.2.2 - the
gross sec�onal area shall be taken as the effec�ve sec�onal area for all compression members
fabricated by welding or bol�ng so long as the sec�on is semi-compact or be�er. Holes not
filled with bolts or pins shall be deducted from gross area to calculate effec�ve sec�onal area.
6.4.3.3 Eccentricity for columns
For the purpose of determining the stress in the sec�on of a column, the reac�ons from the
connec�ng member or similar loads shall be assumed to be applied at an eccentricity of 100
mm from the face of the sec�on or at the centre of bearing whichever dimension gives the
greater eccentricity, and with the excep�on of the following two cases:
a) In the case of cap connec�on, the load shall be assumed to be applied at the face of
the column sec�on or at the edge of packing, if used towards the span of the beam.
b) In the case of a truss bearing on a cap, no eccentricity needs to be taken for simple
bearings without connec�ons, capable of developing any appreciable moment. In case
of web member connec�on with face, actual eccentricity is to be considered.

6.4.3.4 Splices
6.4.3.4.1 Where the ends of compression members are prepared for bearing over the whole
area, they shall be spliced to hold the connected members accurately in posi�on, and to resist
bending or tension, if present. Such splices should maintain the intended member s�ffness
about each axis. Splices should be located as close to the point of inflec�on as possible.
Otherwise their capacity should be adequate to carry moment (see Clause6.7.3.2.2). The ends
of compression members faced for bearing shall invariably be machined to ensure perfect
contact of surfaces in bearing.
6.4.3.4.2 Where such members are not faced for complete bearing, the splices shall be
designed to transmit all the forces to which the members are subjected.

47
6.4.3.4.3 Wherever possible, splices shall be propor�oned and arranged so that the centroidal
axis of the splice coincides as nearly as possible with the centroidal axes of the members being
jointed, in order to avoid eccentricity; but where eccentricity is present in the joint, the
resul�ng stress shall be accounted for.
Wherever possible both surfaces of the parts spliced shall be covered or other means taken
to maintain the alignment of the abu�ng ends.
6.4.3.4.4 Splices in compression members located at or near effec�vely braced panel points
shall be designed to transmit design strength of the member. All other splices in compression
members shall have a sec�onal area 5 percent more than that required to develop the design
strength in the member. All cover materials shall, as far as prac�cable be so disposed with
respect to the cross-sec�on of the member so as to transmit the propor�onal load of the
respec�ve parts of the sec�on.
Bolts or welds shall develop the full strength in the cover material as defined above.
6.4.3.4.5 Where flexural tension may occur in the member, the cover material shall be
designed to resist such tension.

6.4.4 Base Plates

6.4.4.1 General
6.4.4.1.1 Base plates of compression members should have sufficient s�ffness and strength
to transmit axial force, bending moments and shear forces at the base of the compression
members to their founda�on without exceeding the load carrying capacity of the supports.
Anchor bolts and shear keys should be provided wherever necessary. Shear resistance at the
proper contact surface between steel base and concrete/grout and bearing pressure between
the plate and support shall be determined and computed as per provisions of IRC:78.
6.4.4.1.2 If the size of the base plate is larger than that required to limit the bearing pressure
on the base support, an equal projec�on, c, of the base plate beyond the face of the
compression member and gusset may be taken as effec�ve in transferring the column load as
given in Fig. 6.5, such that beam pressure at the effec�ve area does not exceed bearing
capacity of concrete base.

Figure 6.5 : Effective Area of Base Plate

48
6.4.4.2 Gusseted bases
In gusseted bases, the gusset plates, angle cleats, s�ffeners, fastenings, etc. in combina�on
with the bearing area of the sha�, shall be sufficient to take the loads, bending moments and
reac�ons to the base plate without exceeding specified strength. All the bearing surfaces
should be machined to ensure perfect contact.
6.4.4.2.1 Where the ends of the compression member and the gusset plates are not faced for
complete bearing, the welding, fastenings connec�ng them to the base plate shall be
sufficient to transmit all the forces to which the base is subjected.
6.4.4.2.2 Compression member and base plate connec�ons-Where the end of the
compression member is connected directly to the base plate by means of full penetra�on bu�
welds, the connec�on shall be deemed to transmit to the base all the forces and moments to
which the compression member is subjected.
6.4.4.3 Slab bases
Compression members with slab bases need not be provided with gussets, but sufficient
fastenings shall be provided to retain the parts securely in place and to resist all moments and
forces, other than direct compression, including those arising during transit, unloading and
erec�on.
6.4.4.3.1 The minimum thickness, ts of rectangular slab bases, suppor�ng members under
axial compression shall be

> tf
where
w = uniform pressure from below on the slab base under the factored load axial
compression
a,b = larger and smaller projec�on of the slab base beyond the rectangle
circumscribing the compression member respec�vely
tf = flange thickness of compression member
When only the effec�ve area of the base plate is used as in Clause 6.4.4.1.1, c 2 may be
used in the above equa�on (See Fig. 6.5) instead of (a 2 - 0.3b2).
6.4.4.3.2 When the slab base does not distribute the load uniformly, due to eccentricity of the
load etc., special calcula�on shall be made to show that the base is adequate to resist the
moment due to the non-uniform pressure from below.
6.4.4.3.3 Bases for bearing upon concrete or masonry need not be machined on the
underside.
6.4.4.3.4 In cases where the cap or base is fillet welded directly to the end of the compression
member without boring and shouldering, the contact surfaces shall be machined to give a
perfect bearing and the welding shall be sufficient to transmit the forces as required in Clause
6.4.4.3. Where full strength but welds are provided, machining of contact surfaces is not
required.

49
6.4.5 Angle Struts
6.4.5.1 Single angle struts - The compression in single angles may be transferred either
concentrically to its centroid through end gusset or eccentrically by connec�ng one of its legs
to a gusset or adjacent member.
6.4.5.1.1 Concentric loading - When a single angle is concentrically loaded in compression the
design strength may be evaluated using Clause 6.4.1.2.
6.4.5.1.2 Loaded through one leg - The flexural torsional buckling strength of single angle
loaded in compression through one of its legs may be evaluated using the equivalent
slenderness ra�o, λe , as given below:

where
= constants depending upon the end condi�on, as given in Table 6.4

and

where
l = centre-centre length of the suppor�ng member
rvv = radius of gyra�on about the minor axis
b1, b2 = width of the two legs of the angle
t = thickness of the leg

TABLE 6.4 Constants k1, k2 and k3

(Clause 6.4.5.1.2)
No of Bolts at each Gusset/ Connec�ng k1 k2 k3
End Connec�on Member Fixity *
2 Fixed 0.20 0.35 20
Hinged 0.70 0.60 5
1 Fixed 0.75 0.35 20
Hinged 1.25 0.50 60

* S�ffness of in-plane rota�onal restraint provided by the gusset/connec�ng member. For

par�al restraint, the λe can be interpolated between the λe results for fixed and hinged cases.

6.4.5.2 Double angle struts

6.4.5.2.1 For double angle discon�nuous struts, connected back to back, on opposite sides of
the gusset or a sec�on, by not less than two bolts in line along the angles at each end, or by
the equivalent in welding, the load may be regarded as applied axially. The effec�ve length,
KL, in the plane of end gusset shall be taken as between 0.7 and 0.85 �mes the distance
between intersec�ons, depending on the degree of the restraints provided. The effec�ve
length, KL, in the plane perpendicular to that of the end gusset, shall be taken as equal to the
distance between centres of intersec�ons. The calculated average compressive stress shall

50
not exceed the values based on Clause 6.4.1.2. The angles shall be connected together over
their lengths so as to sa�sfy the requirements of Clauses 6.4.6 and 7.
6.4.5.2.2 Double angle discon�nuous struts connected back-to-back, to one side of a gusset
or sec�on by one or more bolts in each angle, or by the equivalent in welding, shall be
designed in accordance with Clause 6.4.5.2 and the angles shall be connected together over
their lengths so as to sa�sfy the requirements of Clauses 6.4.6 and 7.
6.4.5.3 Con�nuous members: Double angle con�nuous struts such as those forming the
chords or �es of trusses or trussed girders, or the legs of towers shall be designed as axially
loaded compression members, and the effec�ve length shall be taken in accordance with
Clause 6.5.
6.4.5.4 Combined stresses: In addi�on to axial loads, if the struts carry loads, which cause
transverse bending, the combined bending and axial stresses shall be checked in accordance
with Clause 6.7 of this code.
6.4.6 Compression Members Composed of Two Components Back-to-Back
6.4.6.1 Compression members composed of two angles, channels or tees back to back in
contact or separated by a distance not exceeding 50 mm shall be connected together by
bol�ng or welding, so that maximum ra�o of the slenderness of each component of the
member between such connec�ons is not greater than 40 or 0.6 �mes the maximum ra�o of
slenderness of the member as a whole, whichever is less.
The number of connec�ons shall be such that the member is divided into not less than three
approximately equal parts.
6.4.6.2 Where the members are separated back-to-back the bolts in these connec�ons shall
pass through solid washers or packings, and where the connected angles, legs or tables of
tees are 125 mm wide or over or where webs of channels are 150 mm wide or over, not less
than two bolts shall be used in each connec�on, one on the line of each gauge mark.
6.4.6.3 Where these connec�ons are made by welding, solid packing shall be used to effect
the join�ng unless the members are sufficiently close together to permit bu� welding, and
the members shall be connected by welding along both pairs of edges of the main
components.
6.4.6.4 The bolts or welds in these connec�ons shall be sufficient to carry the shear forces
and the moments specified for ba�ened struts and in no case shall the bolts be less than 16
mm dia for members upto and including 10 mm thick; 20 mm diameter for members upto
and including 16 mm thick; and 22 mm diameter for members over 16 mm thick.
6.4.6.5 Compression members connected by such bol�ng or welding shall not be subjected
to transverse loading in a plane perpendicular to the bolted or welded surfaces.
6.4.6.6 Where components are in contact back-to-back bol�ng or intermi�ent welding shall
be done in accordance with applicable clauses.
6.4.7 Lacing and Ba�ening
6.4.7.1 The open sides of built-up compression members of channel or beam sec�ons shall
be connected by lacing or ba�ening where the length of the outstand towards the open side
exceeds 14 �mes the mean thickness of the outstand.

51
6.4.7.2 Lacing and ba�ening plates shall be designed in accordance with Clauses 6.4.8 and
6.4.9 and shall be propor�oned to resist a total transverse shear force V t at any point in the
length of the member equal to at least 2.5 percent of the axial force in the member together
with all shear due to external forces, if any, in the plane of lacing. The shear force V t shall be
considered as divided equally among all transverse system and pla�ng in parallel planes.
6.4.7.3 Compression members composed of two or more components connected as
described in Clauses 6.4.6, 6.4.8 and 6.4.9 may be designed as homogeneous members.
6.4.8 Design of Lacings
6.4.8.1 As far as prac�cable, the lacing system shall not be varied throughout the length of
the compression member.
6.4.8.2 Lacing bars shall be inclined at an angle of 40 0 to 700 to the axis of the member where
a single intersec�on system is used, and at an angle of 40 0 to 500 where a double intersec�on
system is used.
6.4.8.3 Except for �e plates as specified in Clause 6.4.8.8 below, double intersec�on lacing
systems shall not be combined with members of diaphragms perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the main member, unless all forces resul�ng from deforma�on are calculated and
provided for in the lacing and its fastenings.
6.4.8.4 Lacing bars shall be so connected that there is no appreciable interrup�on of the
triangula�on of the system.
6.4.8.5 The maximum spacing of lacing bars whether by welding or bol�ng shall be such that
the effec�ve slenderness ra�o of the components of the compression member between
consecu�ve connec�ons of the lacing bars to one component is not greater than 50 or 0.7
�mes the maximum ra�o of slenderness of the member as a whole whichever is lesser.
6.4.8.6 The lacing shall be propor�oned to resist a total transverse shear, V t at any point in
the member in the manner defined in Clause 6.4.7.2.
6.4.8.7 For members carrying calculated bending stress due to eccentricity of loading, applied
end moments and/or lateral loading, the lacing shall be propor�oned to resist the actual shear
due to bending, in addi�on to that specified in Clause 6.4.8.6.
6.4.8.8 The effec�ve slenderness ra�o KL/r of the lacing bars shall not exceed 140.
For this purpose the effec�ve length KL shall be taken as follows:
a) In bolted construc�on - the length between the inner ends of bolts of the lacing bar in
single intersec�on lacing and 0.7 �mes this length for double intersec�on lacing
effec�vely connected at intersec�ons.
b) In welded construc�on - the distance between the inner ends of effec�ve lengths of
welds connec�ng the bars to the components in single intersec�on lacings and 0.7
�mes this length for double intersec�on lacing effec�vely connected at intersec�o ns.
6.4.8.9 Lacing bars shall be connected to the main members either bybol�ng by one or more
bolts, in line along the lacings or by welding at each end sufficient to transmit the load to the
bars. Any eccentricity of the connec�on with respect to the centroid of the lacing bar may be
ignored and the lacing designed as an axially loaded strut. Where welded lacing bars overlap

52
the main component, the amount of lap shall be not less than four �mes the thickness of the
bar or four �mes the mean thickness of the flange of the component to which the bars are
a�ached, whichever is less. Welding shall be provided at least along each side of the bar for
the full length of the lap and returned along the ends of the bar for a length equal to at least
four �mes the thickness of the bar or width of the bar whichever is less.
Where lacing bars are fi�ed between the main components they shall be connected to each
component by fillet welds on both sides of the bar or by full penetra�on bu� welds.
6.4.8.10 Laced compression member shall be provided with �e plate at the ends of the lacing
systems, at points where the lacing systems are interrupted and where the member is
connected to another member.
6.4.8.11 The length of end �e plates measured between end fastenings along the longitudinal
axis of the member shall not be less than (a) the perpendicular distance between the lines of
bolts connec�ng them to the flanges or (b) the distance between ver�cal side plates of the
main chords whichever is greater and shall be at least equal to (c) the depth of the cross
girders where these are directly a�ached to the struts and the length of intermediate �e
plates shall be not less than three-quarter of (a) above.
6.4.8.12 The thickness of �e plates shall not be less than 1/50 of the distance between the
innermost lines of bolts or welds except when effec�vely s�ffened at the free edges in which
case the minimum thickness may be 3 mm. For this purpose the edge s�ffener shall have a
slenderness ra�o not greater than 170.
6.4.8.13 Tie plates and their fastenings (calculated in accordance with the method described
for ba�ens) shall be capable of carrying the forces for which the lacing system is designed.
6.4.8.14 When angles, channels, etc, are used instead of end �e plates or are provided where
the lacing system is interrupted, these shall be designed by the same method as for ba�ens.
The end ba�en or the intermediate ba�en and its fastenings shall be capable of carrying the
forces for which the lacing has been designed. The effec�ve slenderness ra�o shall not exceed
140.
6.4.9 Design of Ba�ens
Ba�ened compression members shall comply with the following requirements:
6.4.9.1 The ba�ens shall be placed opposite each other at each end of the member and at
points where the member stayed in its length and shall, as far as prac�cable, be spaced and
propor�oned uniformly throughout. The number of ba�ens shall be such that the member is
divided into not less than three bays within its actual length between centre to centre of
connec�ons.
6.4.9.2 In ba�ened compression members when the effec�ve slenderness ra�o about the axis
perpendicular to the ba�ens is not more than 0.8 �mes the ra�o about the axis parallel to
the ba�ens, the spacing of ba�ens between centre to centre of end fastenings shall be such
that the slenderness ra�o of the lesser main component over this distance shall not be greater
than 50 or 0.7 �mes the ra�o of slenderness of the member as a whole about its axis parallel
to the ba�ens. In case it is more than 0.8 �mes the ra�o about the axis parallel to the ba�ens,
the spacing of ba�ens between centre to centre of end fastenings shall be such that

53
slenderness ra�o of the lesser main component over this distance shall not be greater than
50 or 0.7 �mes of slenderness ra�o of the member as a whole about it weaker axis.
6.4.9.3 Ba�ens shall be plates, channels or I sec�ons and shall be bolted or welded to the
main components, Ba�ens and their connec�ons shall be so designed that they resist
simultaneously a longitudinal shear force equal to V t D/na and a moment equal to Vt D/2n
where
D = the longitudinal distance between centre-to-centre of ba�ens.
a = the minimum transverse distance between the centroids of bolt groups or welding.
Vt = the transverse shear force as defined in Clause 6.4.7.2
n = the number of parallel planes of ba�ens

6.4.9.4 The effec�ve length of a ba�en parallel to the axis of a member shall be taken as the
longitudinal distance between the end fastenings. End ba�ens shall have an effec�ve length
of not less than (a) the perpendicular distance between the lines of bolts connec�ng them to
the components, or (b) the distance between the ver�cal side plates of the main chords
whichever is greater and shall be at least equal to (c) the depth of the cross girders where
these are directly a�ached to the struts; and intermediate ba�ens shall have an effec�ve
length of not less than 3/4 of (a) above, but in no case shall the length (of any ba�en) be less
than twice the width of the smaller component in the plane of the ba�ens.
6.4.9.5 The thickness of ba�en plates shall not be less than 1/50 of the minimum distance
between the innermost lines of connec�ng bolts or welds, except when effec�vely s�ffened
at the free edges, in which case the minimum thickness may be 3 mm; for the purpose the
edge s�ffeners shall have a slenderness ra�o not greater than 170.
6.4.9.6 Ba�ened compression members not complying with these requirements, or those
subjected to bending moments in the plane of the ba�ens shall be designed according to the
theory of elas�c stability, or empirically with verifica�on by tests, so that they have a load
factor of not less than 1.7.
6.4.9.7 Ba�ened compression member composed of two angles forming a cruciform cross-
sec�on shall conform to the above requirements except as follows:
a) the ba�ens shall be in pairs placed in contact one against the other, unless these are
welded to form cruciform ba�ens.
b) a transverse shear force Vt/S2 shall be taken as occurring separately about each
rectangular axis of the whole member.
c) a longitudinal shear force of Vt D/(aS 2) and the moment Vt D/(2 S2) shall be taken in
respect of each ba�en in each of the two planes, except where the effec�ve
slenderness ra�o can occur about a rectangular axis, in which case each ba�ens shall
be designed to resist a shear force of 2.5 percent of the total axial force.
NOTE : Vt , D and a are as defined in Clause 6.4.9.3

6.5 DESIGN OF TRUSSES OR OPEN-WEB GIRDERS

6.5.1 General

54
Trusses or open web girders are defined as triangulated skeletal girders. The design of
individual members and connec�ons should be made in accordance with this Clause in
conjunc�on with Clauses 6.3, 6.4, and 7 as appropriate.
6.5.2 Analysis
For analysis of trusses the following assump�on may be made unless rigorous rigid frame
analysis is adopted :
a) All members are fric�onless pin jointed.
b) All members are straight and free to rotate at the joints.
c) All loads including self weight of members are applied at the joints
S�pula�ons made in this sec�on are not applicable for design of s�ffening trusses of
suspension bridges.
6.5.3 Intersec�on at Joints
For triangulated trusses designed on the assump�on of fric�onless pin jointed connec�ons,
members mee�ng at a joint should, where prac�cable, have their centroidal axes mee�ng at
a point, and wherever prac�cable the centre of resistance of a connec�on shall lie on the line
of ac�on of the load so as to avoid an eccentricity moment on the connec�ons. If, at a joint,
the centroidal axes of the adjacent members do not meet at a single point, the resul�ng
flexural stresses in the members should be taken into account as secondary stress.
Where loads are not applied at truss joints, account should be taken of the following:
a) resul�ng stresses where load is applied to a member in the plane of a truss other than
at a joint
b) torsion and lateral flexure effects when the applied load is not in the plane of the truss.
Where the load is applied to a cross-member, the effect of interac�on between the
cross-member so loaded and the truss and adjacent cross-member should be taken
into account.
6.5.4 Effec�ve Length of Compression Members
6.5.4.1 In bolted or welded trusses the compression members act in a complex manner and
the effec�ve lengths KL of such members shall be taken as given in Table 6.5 for compu�ng
their design strengths. For ba�ened compression members, all values given in Table 6.5 shall
be increased by 10 percent.

Table 6.5 Effec�ve Length of Compression Members

Member Effec�ve Length KL of Member
For Buckling in For Bucking Normal to Plane of Truss
the Plane of Truss Compression Compression
Chord or Chord or
(Compression) (Compression)
member member
effec�vely braced unbraced
by lateral system

55
Chords 0.85 x distance 0.85 x distance See clause 6.5.4.4
between centres between centres
of intersec�on of intersec�on
with web with lateral
members bracing members
or rigidly
connected cross
girder
Web Single Triangulated System 0.70 x distance 0.85x distance Distance
between centres between centres between centres
of intersec�on of intersec�ons of intersec�ons
with the main
chords
Mul�ple Intersec�on system 0.85 x greatest 0.70 x distance 0.85 x distance
where adequate connec�ons distance between between centres between centres
are provided at all points of centres of any of intersec�on of intersec�on
intersec�on two adjacent with the main with the main
intersec�on chords chords
NOTE : The intersec�on referred to are those of the centroidal axis of the members.

6.5.4.2 For single angle discon�nuous strut connected to gussets or to a sec�on either by
bol�ng by not less than two bolts in line along the angle at each end, or by their equivalent in
welding, the eccentricity of the connec�on with respect to the centroid of the strut may be
ignored and the strut designed as an axially loaded member provided that the calculated
average stress does not exceed the design stress f cd given in Clause 6.4.1.2 in which effec�ve
length "KL" is the length of the strut, centre-to-centre of fastenings at each end and 'r' is the
minimum radius of gyra�on.
6.5.4.3 For single angle discon�nuous struts intersected by, and effec�vely connected to
another angle in cross bracing, the effec�ve length in the plane of bracings shall be taken as
in Table6.7 and normal to the plane of bracing the effec�ve lengths shall be taken as the
distance along the bracing members between the points of intersec�on and the centroids of
the main member. In calcula�ng the slenderness ra�o, the radius of gyra�on about the
appropriate rectangular axis shall be taken for buckling normal to the plane of the bracing
and the least radius of gyra�on for buckling in the plane of the bracing.
6.5.4.4 Effec�ve length of unbraced compression chords
For simply supported trusses with ends restrained at the bearings against torsion, the
effec�ve length of the compression chord for buckling normal to the plane of the truss shall
be taken as follows:
a) With no lateral support to compression chord; where there is no lateral bracing
between compression chords and no cross frames:
KL = span
b) With compression chords supported by U frames, where there is no lateral bracing of
the compression chord but where cross-members and ver�cals forming U frames
provide lateral restraints:

56
 where
E =Young's Modulus
I = maximum moment of iner�a of compression chord about the axis lying in the plane
of the truss.
a = distance between frames, and
δ= the virtual lateral displacement of the compression chord at the frame nearest mid
span of the truss, taken as the horizontal deflec�on. This deflec�on shall be computed
assuming that the cross-member is free to deflect ver�cally and that the tangent to
the deflec�on curve at the centre of its span remains parallel to the neutral axis of the
unrestrained cross member.
When δ is not greater than a3/(40EI)
KL = a

In case of symmetrical U frames, where cross-member and ver�cals are each of constant
moment of iner�a throughout their own length; it may be assumed that :

where
d1 =distance of the centroid of the compression chord from the top of the cross-
member,
d2 =distance of the centroid of the compression chord from the neutral axis of the
cross-member,
b = half the distance between centres of the main trusses,
E =Young's Modulus,
I1 = moment of iner�a of the ver�cal in its plane of bending, and
I2 = moment of iner�a of the cross-member in its plane of bending
U frames shall have rigid connec�ons and shall be designed to resist, in addi�on to the
effects of wind and other applied forces, the effects of a horizontal force F ac�ng
normal to the compression chord of the truss at the level of the centroid of this chord
where:

In the above formula:

δ = the deflec�on of the chord under the ac�on of unit horizontal force F
fcc = Euler buckling stress in chord =

57
 where
E =Young's Modulus
r = radius of gyra�on
fa = calculated stress in the chord.

c) with compression chord suppor�ng con�nuous deck

A compression chord con�nuously suppor�ng a reinforced concrete or steel

deck shall be deemed to be effec�vely restrained laterally throughout its length
(e.g., KL = 0) if the fric�on or posi�ve connec�on of the deck to the chord is
capable of resis�ng a lateral force, distributed uniformly along its length of 2.5
percent of the maximum force in the chord, in addi�on to other lateral forces.
6.5.5 Effec�ve Slenderness Ra�o of Compression Members
Effec�ve slenderness ra�o KL/r of a compression member shall not exceed 120 for main
members and 140 for wind bracings and subsidiary members.
6.5.6 Connec�ons at Intersec�on
6.5.6.1 Connec�ons of members at an intersec�on shall develop at least the design loads and
moments transmi�ed by the members. Due regard to the nature and distribu�on of stress
over the cross-sec�on of the members shall be given in determining the distribu�on of the
fastenings. All members shall, where possible, be so connected that the load is appropriately
distributed over the cross-sec�on; otherwise, considera�on shall be given to the distribu�on
of stress through the material to those parts of the sec�on not directly connected, and for
this purpose the angle of distribu�on may be taken as 45 0.
6.5.6.2 Gusset shall be capable of sustaining the design loads and moments transmi�ed by
the members.
6.5.6.3 Gusset plates shall be so shaped and connectors so arranged as to avoid stress
concentra�ons.
6.5.6.4 Bolt and welding groups shall be as compact as prac�cable.
6.5.7 Lug Angles
6.5.7.1 Lug angles connec�ng a channel or similar member shall, as far as possible, be
disposed symmetrically with respect to the sec�on of the member.
6.5.7.2 In the case of angle members the lug angles, and their connec�on to the gusset or
other suppor�ng member, shall be capable of developing a strength not less than 20 percent
in excess of the force in the outstanding leg of the angle and the a�achment of the lug angles
to the angle member shall be capable of developing a strength 40 percent in excess of that
force.
6.5.7.3 In the case of channel or similar members, the lug angles, and their connec�on to the
gusset or other suppor�ng member, shall be capable of developing a strength not less than
10 percent in excess of the force not accounted for by the direct connec�on of the member

58
and the a�achment of the lug angles to the member shall be capable of developing a strength
20 percent in excess of that force.
6.5.7.4 In no case shall less than two bolts be used for a�aching the lug angle to the gusset or
other suppor�ng member.
6.5.7.5 The effec�ve connec�on of the lug angle shall, as far as possible terminate at the end
of the member connected, and the fastening of the lug angle to the member shall preferably
start in advance of the direct connec�on of the member to the gusset etc.
6.5.8 Sec�on at Pin Holes in Tension Members
In Pin-connected tension members (generally used for erec�on purpose) the longitudinal net
sec�on beyond the pin hole parallel with the axis of the member shall be not less than the
required net sec�on of the member. The net sec�on through the pin hole transverse to the
axis of the member shall be at least 33 percent greater than the required net sec�on of the
member. In the case of members without s�ffened edges the ra�o of the net width of the
members (through the pin hole transverse to the axis of the member) to its thickness shall
not be more than 16. Where the thickness of the main material is not sufficient to resist the
load from the pin in bearing, or where the net sec�on through the pinhole requires
reinforcement, pin plates (see Clause 6.5.9 below) shall be provided and the total thickness
shall comply with the above requirements.
6.5.9 Pin Plates
Pin plates shall be of sufficient thickness to make-up the required bearing or cross sec�onal
area and shall be so arranged as to reduce the eccentricity to a minimum.
Their length measured from the centre of the pin to the end (on the reac�on side) shall be at
least equal to their width and at least one plate on each side shall be as wide as the
dimensions of the member will allow. Pin plates shall be connected with enough bolts or
welds to transmit the bearing pressure on them and shall be so arranged as to distribute it
uniformly over the full sec�on of the member.
6.5.10 Diaphragms in Members
In addi�on to diaphragms required for the proper func�oning of the structure, diaphragms
shall be provided as necessary for fabrica�on, transport and erec�on.
6.5.11 Lateral Bracings
6.5.11.1 Girders shall be provided with a lateral bracing system extending from end to- end
of sufficient strength designed to transmit the effect of wind, seismic and centrifugal forces,
if any to the bearings. Bracing system need not be provided if alterna�ve system for lateral
load transfer has been catered for e.g., by rigid deck.
6.5.11.2 The bracing on the loaded chord shall be so designed as to transmit to the main
girders the longitudinal loads due to trac�ve effort and/or braking effect in order to relieve
the cross girders of horizontal bending stress.
6.5.11.3 Where the depth permits, lateral diagonal bracings shall be fixed between the top
chords of main girders of through span, of sufficient rigidity to maintain the chords in line and
of sufficient strength to transmit the wind or seismic forces to the portal bracing between end
posts.

59
The floor system may be taken as part of the bracing system provided it is designed for that
purpose.
6.5.11.4 The lateral bracings between compression chords shall be designed to resist a
transverse shear at any sec�on equal to 2.5 percent of the total compressive force carried by
both the chords at the sec�on under considera�on. This force should be considered in
addi�on to the wind, and centrifugal forces.
6.5.11.5 Sway bracings
Wherever the depth of girder allows, the intermediate cross bracings or sway bracings
between ver�cal web members shall be propor�oned to transmit to the chord supported on
bearings through the web members at least 50 percent of the panel lateral load and the
ver�cal members shall be designed to resist the resul�ng bending moment. The sway bracing
so provided shall not be taken as affording any relief to the lateral bracing system or portal
system.

6.5.11.6 Portal bracings

Through truss spans shall be provided with suitably designed portal system, as deep as the
clearance will allow. The portal system shall be designed to take the full end reac�on of the
top chord lateral system and the end posts of the portal shall be designed to transfer this
reac�on to the bearings. In addi�on, the portal system shall be designed to resist a lateral
shear equal to 1.25 percent of the total compressive force in the end posts or in the top chords
in the end panel whichever is greater.

6.6 DESIGN OF BEAMS AND PLATE GIRDERS

6.6.1 General
6.6.1.1 Beams are defined as members with solid webs (or with openings in accordance with
Clause 6.6.1.4), including members of rolled and hollow sec�on, and plate girders subjected
primarily to bending.
6.6.1.2 Beams shall sa�sfy the deflec�on limita�on presented in Clause 6.1.5.
6.6.1.3 The effec�ve span of a beam shall be taken as the distance between the centres of
the supports.
6.6.1.4 Openings
6.6.1.4.1 Any openings in webs or compression flanges should be framed and the s�ffened
sec�on designed for local load effects, including secondary bending. Alterna�vely, openings
in webs may be uns�ffened provided that they meet the provisions of Clause 6.6.2.
All corners should be rounded with a radius of at least one-quarter of the least dimension of
the hole.
6.6.1.4.2 Openings in a web may be uns�ffened provided that:
a) the overall greatest internal dimension does not exceed one-tenth of the depth of the
web, nor, for longitudinally, s�ffened webs, one-third of the depth of the panel
containing the opening;

60
 b) the longitudinal distance between the boundaries of adjacent openings is at least
three �mes the maximum internal dimension;
c) not more than one opening is provided at any cross-sec�on.
6.6.2 Design Strength in Bending (Flexure)
The design bending strength of beam, adequately supported against lateral torsional buckling
(laterally supported beam) is governed by the yield stress (Clause 6.6.2.1). When a beam is
not adequately supported against lateral buckling (laterally unsupported beams) the design
bending strength may be governed by lateral torsional buckling strength (Clause 6.6.2.2).
The factored design moment, M at any sec�on in a beam due to external loads shall
sa�sfy the following requirement :
M < Md
where, Md = design bending strength of the section, calculated as given in Clause
6.6.2.1.2.
6.6.2.1 Laterally supported beam
A beam may be assumed to be adequately supported provided the compression flange has
full lateral restraint and nominal torsional restraint at supports suitably imparted by web
cleats, par�al depth end plates, fin plates or con�nuity with the adjacent span. Full lateral
restraint to compression flange may be assumed to exist, if the fric�onal or other posi�ve
restraint of a structural connec�on to the compression flange of the member is capable of
resis�ng a lateral force not less than 2.5 percent of the maximum force in the compression
flange of the member. This may be considered to be uniformly distributed along the flange,
provided gravity loads cons�tute the dominant loading on the member and the deck
construc�on is capable of resis�ng this lateral force.
The design bending strength of a sec�on which is not suscep�ble to web buckling under shear
before yielding (where d/t w ≤ 67ε) shall be determined according to Clause 6.6.2.1.2.
6.6.2.1.1 Sec�on with web suscep�ble to shear buckling before yielding - When the flanges
are plas�c, compact or semi-compact but the web is suscep�ble to shear buckling before
yielding (i.e. d/tw ≤ 67ε), the design bending strength shall be calculated using one of the
following methods:
a) The bending moment and axial force ac�ng on the sec�on may be assumed to be
resisted by flanges only and the web is designed only to resist shear (Clause 6.6.4).
b) The bending moment and axial force ac�ng on the sec�on may be assumed to be
resisted the whole sec�on. In such a case, the web shall be designed for combined
shear and normal stresses using simple elas�c theory in case of semi-compact webs
and simple plas�c theory in the case of compact and plas�c webs.
6.6.2.1.2 When the factored design shear force does not exceed 0.6 V d, where Vd is the design
shear strength of the cross-sec�on (Clause 6.6.4), the design bending strength, M d, shall be
taken as
Md = βbZpfy/γm0

61
To avoid irreversible deforma�on under serviceability loads, M d shall be less than
1.2 Zefy /γm0 in case of simply supported and 1.5 Zefy / γm0 in can�lever beams.
where
βb = 1.0 for plas�c and compact sec�ons.
βb = Ze/ Zp for semi-compact sec�ons
Zρ, Ze = plas�c and elas�c sec�on moduli of the cross-sec�on, respec�vely
fy = yield stress of the material
γm0 = par�al safety factor (Clause 4.5)

6.6.2.1.3 When the design shear force (factored), V t exceeds 0.6 Vd , where Vd is the design
shear strength of the cross-sec�on (Clause 6.6.4), the design bending strength, M d shall be
taken as :
Md = MdV
where MdV = design bending strength under high shear as defined in Clause 6.7.2.
6.6.2.1.4 Holes in the tension zone
a) The effect of holes in the tension flange, on the design bending strength need not
be considered if
(Anf / Agf) ≥ (fy/fu) (γml /γm0)/0.9
where
Anf / Agf = ra�o of net to gross area of the flange in tension
fy/fu = ra�o of yield and ul�mate stress of the material
γml /γm0 = ra�o of par�al safety factors against ul�mate to yield stress
(Clause 4.5)
When Anf/Agf does not sa�sfy the above requirement, the reduced
effec�ve flange area, A ef sa�sfying the above equa�on may be taken as
the effec�ve flange area in tension, instead of A gf
b) The effect of holes in the tension region of the web on the design flexural strength
need not be considered, if the limit given in (a) above is sa�sfied for the complete
tension zone of the cross-sec�on, comprising the tension flange and tension
region of the web.
c) Fastener holes in the compression zone of the cross-sec�on need not be
considered in design bending strength calcula�on, except for oversize and slo�ed
holes, or holes without any fastener.

6.6.2.1.5 Shear lag Effects - The shear lag effects in flanges may be disregarded provided:

62
 a) For outstand elements (supported along one edge) , b 0 ≤ Lo /20
b) For internal elements (supported along two edges), b i ≤ Lo /10
where
Lo = length between points of zero moment (inflec�on) in the span
b0 = width of the flange with outstand
bi = width of the flange as an internal element
When these limits are exceeded, the effec�ve width of flange for design strength
may be calculated using specialist literature, or conserva�vely taken as the value
sa�sfying the limit given above

6.6.2.2 Laterally unsupported beams

Resistance to lateral tor�onal buckling need not be checked separately (member may be
treated as laterally supported (Clause 6.2.1) in the following cases:
a) Bending is about the minor axis of the sec�on;
b) Sec�on is hollow (rectangular/tubular) or solid bars;
c) In case of major axis bending, LT (as defined below) is less than 0.4
The design bending strength of laterally unsupported beam as governed by lateral torsional
buckling is given by :
Md =βbZp fbd
where
βb = 1.0 for plas�c and compact sec�ons.
= Ze/ Zp for semi-compact sec�ons
Zp/ Ze = plas�c sec�on modulus and elas�c sec�on modulus with respect to extreme
compression fibre.
fbd = design bending compressive stress
fbd= χLT fy/λmo
χLT = bending stress reduc�on factor to account for lateral torsional buckling, given by:

αLT the imperfec�on parameter is given by:

αLT = 0.21 for rolled steel sec�on
αLT = 0.49 for welded steel sec�on

63
 The non-dimensional slenderness ra�o, λLT is given by

where
Mcr = elas�c cri�cal moment calculated in accordance with Clause 6.6.2.2.1
and
fcr,b= extreme fibre bending compressive stress corresponding to elas�c
lateral buckling moment (Clause 6.6.2.2.1)

6.6.2.2.1 Elas�c lateral torsional buckling moment - In case of simply supported, prisma�c
members with symmetric cross-sec�on, the elas�c lateral buckling moment, M cr can be
determined from:

fcr,bof non-slender rolled steel sec�ons in the above equa�on may be approximately
calculated from the following equa�on :

The following simplified equa�on may be used in the case of prisma�c members made of
standard rolled I-sec�ons and welded doubly symmetric I-sec�ons, for calcula�ng the elas�c
lateral buckling moment, M cr.

where
It = torsional constant = Σbi ti3 /3 for open sec�on
Iw = warping constant
Iy ry = moment of iner�a, radius of gyra�on about the weak axis, respec�vely
LLT = effec�ve length for lateral torsional buckling (Clause 6.6.3)
hf = centre-to-centre distance between flanges
tf = thickness of the flange

Mcr for different beam sec�ons, considering loading, support condi�on and non-symmetric
sec�on, shall be calculated using the method given in Annex-C of IRC:24.

64
Advanced Analysis Methods like Con�nuous Strength Method (CSM) that takes into effect
beneficial effects of strain hardening and Finite Element Method (FEM) that can include all
specifici�es of Ramberg-Osgood model have also been proposed for cri�cal structures.

6.6.3 Effec�ve Length for Lateral Torsional Buckling

6.6.3.1 For simply supported beams and girders of span length, L, where no lateral restraint
to the compression flanges is provided, but where each end of the beam is restrained against
torsion, the effec�ve length L LT for the lateral buckling to be used in Clause 6.6.2.2.1 shall be
taken as in Table 6.6

Table 6.6 Effec�ve Length for Simply Supported Beams, L LT

(Clause 6.6.3.1)
Condi�ons of Restraint at Support Loading Condi�on
Torsional Restraint Warping Restraint Normal Destabilising
Fully Restrained Both Flanges fully restrained 0.70 L 0.85 L
Fully Restrained Compression Flange fully 0.75 L 0.90 L
restrained
Fully Restrained Both Flanges fully restrained 0.80 L 0.95 L
Fully Restrained Compression Flange par�ally 0.85 L 1.00 L
restrained
Fully Restrained Warping not restrained in both 1.00 L 1.20 L
the Flanges
Par�ally restrained by Bo�om Warping not restrained in both 1.0 L + 2D 1.2 L + 2D
Flange support connec�on the Flanges
Par�ally restrained by Bo�om Warping not restrained in both 1.2 L + 2D 1.4 L + 2D
Flange Bearing support the Flanges
1) Torsional Restraint prevents rota�on about longitudinal axis
2) Warping Restraint prevents rota�on of the flange in its plane
3) D is the overall depth of the beam

In simply supported beams with intermediate lateral restraints against lateral torsional
buckling, the effec�ve length for lateral torsional buckling to be used in Clause 6.6.2.2.1, L LT,
shall be taken as the length of the relevant segment in between the lateral restraints. The
effec�ve length shall be equal to 1.2 �mes the length of the relevant segment in between the
lateral restraints.
Restraints against torsional rota�on at supports in these beams may be provided by:
a) web or flange cleats, or
b) bearing s�ffeners ac�ng in conjunc�on with the bearing of the beam, or
c) lateral end frames or external supports providing lateral restraint to the compression
flanges at the ends
6.6.3.2 For beams, which are provided with members giving effec�ve lateral restraint to the
compression flange at intervals along the span, in addi�on to the end torsional restraint
required in Clause 6.6.3.1, the effec�ve length for lateral torsional buckling shall be taken as
the distance, centre-to-centre, of the restraint members in the relevant segment under

65
normal loading condi�on and 1.2 �mes the distance, where the load is not ac�ng on the beam
at the shear centre and is ac�ng towards the shear centre so as to have destabilizing effect
during lateral torsional buckling deforma�on.
6.6.3.3 For can�lever beams of projec�ng length, L, the effec�ve length L LT to be used in
Clause 6.6.2.2.1 shall be taken as in Table 6.7 for different support condi�ons.
6.6.3.4 Where a member is provided with intermediate lateral supports to improve the lateral
buckling strength, these restraints should have sufficient strength and s�ffness to prevent
lateral movement of the compression flange at the point, rela�ve to the end supports.
The intermediate lateral restraints should be either connected to an appropriate bracing
system capable of transferring the restraint force to the effec�ve lateral support at the ends
of the member, or should be connected to an independent robust part of the structure
capable of transferring the restraint force. Two or more parallel members requiring such
lateral restraint shall not be simply connected together assuming mutual dependence for the
lateral restraint.
The intermediate lateral restraints should be connected to the member as close to the
compression flange as prac�cable. Such restraints should be closer to the shear centre of the
compression flange than to the shear centre of the sec�on. However, if torsional restraint
preven�ng rela�ve rotation between the two flanges is provided, the intermediate lateral
restraint may be connected at any appropriate level.
For beams which are provided with members giving effec�ve lateral restraint at intervals
along the span, the effec�ve lateral restraint shall be capable of resis�ng a force of 2.5 percent
of the maximum force in the compression flange taken as divided equally between the points
at which the restraint members are provided. Further, each restraint point should be capable
of resis�ng one percent of the maximum force in the compression flange.

66
 Table 6.7 : Effec�ve Length LLT for Can�lever of Length L
(Clause 6.6.3.3)
Restraint Condi�on Loading Condi�on
at Support at Top Normal Destabilising
a) Con�nuous, with lateral i) Free 3.0L 7.5L
restraint to top flange ii) Lateral restraint to 2.7L 7.5L
top flange
2.4L 4.5L
iii) Torsional restraint
iv) Lateral and Torsional 2.1L 3.6L
restraint

b) Con�nuous, with par�al i) Free 2.0L 5.0L

torsional restraint ii) Lateral restraint to 1.8L 5.0L
top flange
1.6L 3.0L
iii) Torsional restraint
iv) Lateral and Torsional 1.4L 2.4L
restraint

c) Con�nuous, with lateral and i) Free 1.0L 2.5L

torsional restraint ii) Lateral restraint to 0.9L 2.5L
top flange
0.8L 1.5L
iii) Torsional restraint
iv) Lateral and Torsional 0.7L 1.2L
restraint

d) Restrainted laterally, i) Free 0.8L 1.4L

torsionally and against ii) Lateral restraint to 0.7L 1.4L
rota�on on plan top flange
0.6L 0.6L
iii) Torsional restraint
iv) Lateral and Torsional 0.5L 0.5L
restraint

Top restraint conditions

i) Free ii) Lateral restraint to top iii) Torsional restraint iv) Lateral and torsional
flange restraint

6.6.3.4.1 In a series of such beams, with solid webs, which are connected together by the
same system of restraint members, the sum of the restraining forces required shall be taken
as 2.5 percent of the maximum flange force in one beam only.

67
6.6.3.4.2 In the case of a series of la�ced beams or girders, which are connected together by
the same system of restraint members, the sum of restraining forces required shall be taken
as 2.5 percent of the maximum force in the compression flange plus 1.25 percent of the force
for every member of the series other than the first, upto a maximum total of 7.5 percent.
6.6.3.5 For simply supported beams where there is no lateral bracing of the compression
flanges but where cross members and s�ffeners forming U-Frames provide lateral restraint.
KL but less than “a”
where
E = Young's Modulus
Ic = Maximum moment of iner�a of compression flange about its centroidal axis
parallel to the web of the girder.
a = distance between frames
δ= the lateral deflec�on which would occur in the U-Frame at the level of the centroid
of the flange being considered when a unit force acts laterally to the U-Frame
only at this point and simultaneously at each corresponding point on the other
flange or flanges connec�ng to the same U-Frame. The direc�on of each unit
force should be such as to produce the maximum aggregate value of δ. The U-
Frame should be taken as fixed in posi�on at each point or intersec�on
between the cross member and a ver�cal as free and unconnected at all other
points.

when δ is not greater than a3/(40 E Ic)

KL = a

In cases of symmetrical U-Frames where cross-members and s�ffeners are each of constant
moment of iner�a throughout their own length.
δ=

where
d1 = distance of the centroid of the compression flange from the top of the cross-
member
d2 = distance of the centroid of the compression flange from the neutral axis of the
cross-member
b = half the distance between centres of the main girders.
I1 = the moment of iner�a of a pair of s�ffeners about the centre of the web, or a
single s�ffener about the face of the web. A width of web plate upto 16 �mes
the web thickness may be included on each side of centerline of connec�on.
I2 = Moment of iner�a of the cross member in its plane of bending

6.6.4 Shear
The factored design shear force, V in a beam due to external ac�ons shall sa�sfy

68
 V ≤ Vd
where
Vd = design strength
= Vn /γm0
where
γm0 = par�al safety factor against shear failure (Clause 4.5)
The nominal shear strength of a cross sec�on, V n, may be governed by plas�c shear
resistance (Clause 6.6.4.1) or strength of the web as governed by shear buckling
(Clause 6.6.4.2).
6.6.4.1 The nominal plas�c shear resistance under pure shear is given by:
Vn = V p

where Vp =

Av = shear area
fyw = yield strength of the web
6.6.4.1.1 The shear area may be calculated as given below
I and channel sec�ons:
Major Axis Bending :
Hot Rolled : h tw
Welded : d tw
Minor Axis Bending
Hot rolled or welded : 2b tf
Rectangular hollow sec�ons of uniform thickness :
Loaded parallel to depth (h) : Ah/(b + h)
Loaded parallel to width (b) : Ab/(b + h)
Circular hollow tubes of uniform thickness : 2A/π
Plates and solid bars : A
Where
A = cross-sec�on area
b = overall breadth of tubular sec�on, breadth of I sec�on flanges
d = clear depth of the web between flanges
h = overall depth of the sec�on
tf = thickness of the flange

69
 tw = thickness of the web
NOTE : Fastener holes need not be accounted for in plas�c design shear strength calcula�on
provided that :
Avn ≥ (fy / fu) (γml /γm0) Av / 0.9
If Avn does not sa�sfy the above condi�on, the effec�ve shear area may be taken as that
sa�sfying the above limit. Block shear failure criteria may be verified at the end connec�ons.
Clause 6.7 may be referred to for design strength under combined high shear and bending
6.6.4.2 Resistance to shear buckling
6.6.4.2.1 Resistance to Shear buckling shall be verified as specified when
d/tw> 67ε for a web without s�ffeners and

> 67ε

where
Kv = shear buckling coefficient (Clause 6.6.4.2.2)
6.6.4.2.2 Shear buckling design methods
The nominal shear strength, Vn, of webs with or without intermediate s�ffeners as governed
by buckling may be evaluated using one of the following methods :
a) Simple post-cri�cal Method - The simple post cri�cal method based on the shear
buckling strength can be used for webs of I-sec�on girders, with or without
intermediate transverse s�ffener, provided that the web has transverse s�ffeners
at the supports. The nominal shear strength is given by :
Vn = Vcr

where
Vcr = shear force corresponding to web buckling
= Av.τb
where
τb = shear stress corresponding to web buckling, determined as follows:
a) When λw ≤ 0.8
τb = fyw / S 3
b) When 0.8 <λw< 1.2
τb = [1 - 0.8 (λw - 0.8)] (fyw/ S 3 )
c) When λw ≥ 1.2
τb = fyw / (S 3 λw2)

70
where
non-dimensional web slenderness ra�o for shear buckling stress, given by

The elas�c cri�cal shear stress of the web, is given by :

where
µ = Poisson’s ra�o

Kv = 5.35 when transverse s�ffeners are provided only at supports

= 4.0 + 5.35 (c/d)2 for c/d < 1.0
= 5.35 + 4.0 (c/d)2 for c/d ≥ 1.0

where c, d are the spacing of transverse s�ffeners and depth of the web
respec�vely

b) Tension field method - The tension field method, based on the post-shear buckling
strength, may be used for webs with intermediate transverse s�ffeners, in
addi�on to the transverse s�ffeners at supports, provided the panels adjacent to
the panel under tension field ac�on, or the end posts provide anchorage for the
tension fields and if c/d ≥ 1.0, where c, d are the spacing of transverse s�ffeners
and depth of the web respec�vely.
In the tension field method, the nominal shear resistance, Vn is given by

Vn = V �
where

where
τb = buckling strength, as obtained from Clause 6.6.4.2.2 (a)
fv = yield strength of the tension field

φ = inclina�on of the tension field = tan -1 (d/c)

wrf = width of the tension field
=
fyw = yield stress of the web
d = depth of the web

71
 c = spacing of the s�ffeners of the web
τb = shear stress corresponding to buckling of web (Clause 6.6.4.2.2(a))

Sc, St= anchorage lengths of tension field along the compression and tension
flange respec�vely, obtained from :

where
Mfr = reduced plas�c moment capacity of the respec�ve flange plate
(disregarding any edge s�ffener) a�er accoun�ng for the axial force, N t
in the flange, due to overall bending and any external axial force in the
cross-sec�on, and is calculated as given below:

Mfr =

where
bf’tf = width and thickness of the relevant flange respec�vely
fyf= Yield stress of the flange

6.6.5 S�ffened Web Panels

6.6.5.1 End panels design (Fig. 6.6) -The design of end panels in girders in which the interior
panel (panel A) is designed using tension field ac�on shall be carried out in accordance with
the provisions given herein. In this case the end panel should be designed using only Simple
Post Cri�cal Method, according to Clause 6.6.4.2.2 (a).
Addi�onally, the end panel along with the s�ffeners should be checked as a beam spanning
between the flanges to resist a shear force, R�, and a moment, M�, due to tension field forces
as given in Clause 6.6.5.3. Further, end s�ffener should be capable of resis�ng the reac�on
plus a compressive force due to moment, equal to M � , (Fig. 6.6)

NOTES:
1) Panel A is designed u�lizing tension field ac�on, as given in Clause 6.6.4.2.2(b)
2) Panel B is designed without u�lizing tension filed ac�on, as given in Clause
6.6.4.2.2(a).
3) Bearing s�ffener is designed for the compressive force due to bearing plus
comprehensive force due to the moment M� as given in Clause 6.6.5.3.

Figure 6.6 : End Panel Designed Not Using Tension

Field Action

72
6.6.5.2 End panels designed using tension field ac�on (Figs. 6.7 and 6.8) - The design of end
panels in girders which are designed using tension field ac�on shall be carried out in
accordance with the provisions men�oned herein. In this case, the end panel (Panel B) shall
be designed according to Clause 6.6.4.2.2(b).
Addi�onally it should be provided with an end post consis�ng of a single or double s�ffener,
(Figs. 6.7 and 6.8), sa�sfying the following :
a) Single s�ffener (Fig. 6.7) - The top of the end post should be rigidly connected to
the flange using full strength welds.
The end post should be capable of resis�ng the reac�on plus a moment from the
anchor forces equal to 2/3 M � due to tension field forces, where M � is obtained
from Clause 6.6.5.3. The width and thickness of the end post are not to exceed the
width and thickness of the flange.
b) Double s�ffener (Fig. 6.8) - The end post should be checked as a beam spanning
between the flanges of the girder and capable of resis�ng a shear force R � and a
moment, M� due to the tension field forces as given in Clause 6.6.5.3

Figure 6.7 : End Panel Designed Using Tension Field Action (Single
NOTES: Stiffener)
1) Panel A is designed u�lizing tension field ac�on as given in Clause 6.6.4.2.2(b)
2) Bearing s�ffener and end post is designed for combina�on of compressive loads
due to bearing and a moment equal to 2/3 M � as given in 6.6.5.3.

NOTES:

Figure 6.8 : End Panel Designed Using Tension Field Action (Double
Stiffener)
1) Panel A is designed u�lizing tension field ac�on, as given in Clause 6.6.4.2.2(b)
2) Bearing s�ffener is designed for compressive force due to bearing as given in Clause
6.6.4.2.2(a).
3) End post is designed for horizontal shear R � and moment M� as given in Clause
6.6.5.3.

73
6.6.5.3 Anchor forces - The resultant longitudinal shear, R� and a moment M� from the anchor
of tension field forces are evaluated as given below :

If the actual factored shear force, V in the panel designed using tension field
approach is less than shear strength, V � (Clause 6.6.4.2.2b), then the values
of Hq may be reduced by the ra�o;

where
V� = the basic shear strength for the panel u�lizing tension field ac�on as
given in Clause 6.6.4.2.2b

Vcr = cri�cal shear strength for the panel designed u�lizing tension field
ac�on as given in Clause 6.6.4.2.2a

6.6.5.4 Panels with openings - Panels with opening of dimension greater than 10 percent of
the minimum panel dimension should be designed without using tension field ac�on as given
in Clause 6.6.4.2.2(b). The adjacent panels should be designed as an end panel as given in
Clause 6.6.5.1 or Clause 6.6.5.2 as appropriate.

6.6.6 Design of Beams and Plate Girders

6.6.6.1 Minimum web thickness - The thickness of the web in a sec�on shall sa�sfy the
following requirements:
6.6.6.1.1 Serviceability requirement
a) When transverse s�ffeners are not provided,

≤ 200ε (web connected to flanges along both longitudinal edges)

≤ 90ε (web connected to flanges along one longitudinal edge only)

b) when only transverse s�ffeners are provided (in webs connected to flanges
along both longitudinal edges).
i) when 3d ≥ c ≥ d,

≤ 200 εw

ii) when 0.74d ≤ c < d,

≤ 200 εw

iii) when c < d

74
 ≤ 270 εw

iv) when c > 3d, the web shall be considered as uns�ffened.

c) When transverse s�ffeners and longitudinal s�ffeners at one level only are
provided (0.2 d from compression flange) as per Clause 6.6.7.12(a)
i) when 2.4d ≥ c ≥ d,

≤ 250 εw

ii) when 0.74 d ≤ c ≤ d

≤ 250 εw

iii) when c < 0.74 d,

≤ 340 εw

d) when a second longitudinal s�ffener (located at neutral axis) is provided.

≤ 400 εw

where
d = depth of the web
tw = thickness of the web
c = spacing of transverse s�ffener (Fig.6.6, Fig. 6.7)
εw = S(250 / fyw)
fyw = yield stress of the web

6.6.6.1.2 Compression flange buckling requirement - In order to avoid buckling of the

compression flange into the web, the web thickness shall sa�sfy the following:
a) when transverse s�ffners are not provided.

≤ 345 εf2

b) when transverse s�ffeners are provided and

i) when c ≥ 1.5 d,

≤ 345 εf2

ii) when c < 1.5 d

≤ 345 εf2

where
d = depth of the web
tw = thickness of the web
c = spacing of transverse s�ffener (Figs. 6.6 & 6.7)

75
 εf = S(250 / fyf)
fyf = yield stress of compression flange

6.6.6.2 Sec�onal proper�es

6.6.6.2.1 The effec�ve sec�onal area of compression flanges shall be the gross area with
deduc�ons for excessive width of plates as specified for compression members (Clause 6.4)
and for open holes occurring in a plane perpendicular to the direc�on of stress at the sec�on
being considered (Clause 6.6.2.1.4).
The effec�ve sec�onal area of tension flanges shall be the gross sec�onal area with
deduc�ons for holes as specified in Clause 6.6.2.1.4.
The effec�ve sec�onal area for parts in shear shall be taken as specified in Clause 6.6.4.1.1.
6.6.6.3 Flanges
6.6.6.3.1 In bolted construc�on, flange angles shall form as large a part of the area of the
flange as prac�cable (preferably not less than one-third) and the number of flange plates shall
be kept to a minimum.
In exposed situa�ons, where flange angles are used, at least one plate of the top flange shall
extend over the full length of the girder, unless the top edge of the web is machined flush
with the flange angles. Where two or more flange plates are used, tacking welds shall be
provided, if necessary to comply with the requirements of Clause7.
Each flange plate shall extend beyond its theore�cal cut-off point, and the extension shall
contain sufficient, bolts or welds to develop in the plate, the load calculated for the bending
moment on the girder sec�on (taken to include the curtailed plate) at the theore�cal cut-off
point.
The outstand of flange plates, that is the projec�on beyond the outer line of connec�ons to
flange angles, channel or joist flanges, or, in the case of welded construc�ons, their projec�on
beyond the face of the web or tongue plate, shall not exceed the values given in Clause 5.2.2
(Table 5.1).
6.6.6.3.2 In welded construc�on, the use of curtailed flange plates shall be avoided as far as
possible, local strengthening being provided by other means such as inser�ng by bu� welding
a thicker and or wider plate. The heavier sec�on plate shall be suitably tapered to the lighter
plate. If, in welded construc�on the use of curtailed flange plates cannot be avoided, the end
of the plate shall be tapered in plan to a rounded end and all welds shall be con�nuous round
the ends.
6.6.6.3.3 Flange splices
Flange splices preferably should not be located at points of maximum stress. Where splice
plates are used, their area shall not be less than 5 percent in excess of the area of the flange
element spliced; their centre of gravity shall coincide, as nearly possible, with that of the
element spliced. There shall be enough bolts or welds on each side of the splice to develop
the load in the element spliced plus 5 percent but in no case should the strength developed
be less than 50 percent of the effec�ve strength of the material spliced. In welded
construc�on, flange plates shall be joined by complete penetra�on bu� welds, wherever
possible. These bu� welds shall develop the full strength of the plates.

76
6.6.6.3.4 Connec�on of flanges to web
The flanges of plate girders shall be connected to the web by sufficient bolts or welds to
transmit the maximum horizontal shear force resul�ng from the bending moment gradient in
the girder, combined with any ver�cal loads which are directly applied to the flange. If the
web is designed using tension field method as given in Clause 6.6.4.2.2(b), then the weld
should be able to transfer the tension field stress, f yw, ac�ng on the web.
6.6.6.3.5 Bolted construc�on
For girders in exposed situa�ons and which do not have flange plates for their en�re length,
the top edge of the web plate shall be flush with or above the angles, and the bo�om edge
of the web plate shall be flush with or set back from the angles
6.6.6.3.6 Welded construc�on
The gap between the web plates and flange plates shall be kept to a minimum and for fillet
welds, shall not exceed 1 mm at any point before welding.
6.6.6.4 Webs
6.6.6.4.1 Effec�ve sec�onal area of web of plate girder - The effec�ve cross-sec�onal area
shall be taken as the full depth of the web plate mul�plied by the thickness.
NOTE : Where webs are varied in thickness in the depth of the sec�on by the use of tongue
plates or the like, or where the propor�on of the web included in the flange area is
25 percent or more of the overall depth, the above approxima�on is not permissible
and the maximum shear stress shall be computed based on theory.
6.6.6.4.2 Splices in webs
Splices and cut-outs for service ducts in the webs preferably should not be located at points
of maximum shear force and heavy concentrated loads.
Splices in the webs of the plate girders and rolled sec�ons shall be designed to resist the
shears and moments at the spliced sec�on.
In bolted construc�on, splice plate shall be provided on each side of the web. In welded
construc�on, web splices shall preferably be made with complete penetra�on bu� welds.
Where this is not possible, splice plates on both sides should be used (Refer to Clause 7).
6.6.6.4.3 Where addi�onal plates are required to augment the strength of the web, they shall
be placed on each side of the web and shall be equal in thickness. The propor�on of shear
force, assumed to be resisted by these plates shall be limited by the amount of horizontal
shear which they can transmit to the flanges through their fastenings, and such reinforcing
plates and their fastenings shall be carried up to the points at which the flange without the
addi�onal plates is adequate (Refer to Clause7).
6.6.6.5 Design of Steel Concrete Composite Girders
Steel Concrete Composite Girders shall be designed and detailed as per the provisions of
IRC:22 – “Standard Specifica�ons and Code of Prac�ce for Road Bridges : Sec�on VI :
Composite Construc�on”. The shear connectors shall be of same grade of stainless steel as
the girder material and the slab reinforcement bars should preferably be epoxy coated or
stainless steel.

77
6.6.7 Design of S�ffeners
6.6.7.1 General
6.6.7.1.1 When the web of a member ac�ng alone (that is without s�ffeners) proves
inadequate, s�ffeners for mee�ng the following requirements should be provided.
a) Intermediate transverse web s�ffeners - To improve the buckling strength of a
slender web due to shear (Clause 6.6.7.2).
b) Load carrying s�ffener - To prevent local buckling of the web due to
concentrated loading (Clauses 6.6.7.3 and 6.6.7.5).
c) Bearing s�ffener - To prevent local crushing of the web due to concentrated
loading (Clauses 6.6.7.4 and 6.6.7.6).
d) Diagonal s�ffener - To provide local reinforcement to a web under shear and
bearing (Clause 6.6.7.7).
e) Tension s�ffener - To transmit tensile forces applied to a web through a flange
(Clause 6.6.7.8).
f) Torsion s�ffener - To provide torsional restraint to beams and girders at
supports (Clause 6.6.7.9).
The same s�ffeners may perform more than one func�on and their design should comply
with the requirements of all the func�ons designed for.
6.6.7.1.2 Outstand of web s�ffeners - Unless the outer edge is con�nuously s�ffened,the
outstand from the face of the web should not exceed 20t qε.
When the outstand is between 14t qε and 20tqε, then the s�ffener design should be on the
basis of a core sec�on with an outstand of 14tqε.
where
tq = thickness of the s�ffener
6.6.7.1.3 S�ff bearing length - The s�ff bearing length of any element b 1, is that length which
cannot deform appreciably in bending. To determine b 1 the dispersion of load through a steel
bearing element should be taken as 450 through solid material, such as bearing plates, flange
plates etc. (Fig. 6.9)
6.6.7.1.4 Eccentricity - Where a load or reac�on is applied eccentric to the centre line of the
web or where the centroid of the s�ffener does not lie on the centre line of the web, the
resul�ng eccentricity of loading should be accounted for in the design of the s�ffener.
6.6.7.1.5 Buckling resistance of s�ffener - The buckling resistance Fqd, should be based on the
design compressive stress fcd (Clause 6.4.1.2.1) of a strut (curve c), the radius of gyra�on being
taken about the axis parallel to the web. The effec�ve sec�on is the full area or core area of
the s�ffener (Clause 6.6.7.1.2) together with an effec�ve length of web on each side o f the

78
centre line of the s�ffeners, limited to 20 �mes the web thickness. The design strength used
should be the minimum value obtained for buckling about the web or the s�ffener.

The effec�ve length of intermediate transverse s�ffeners used in calcula�ng the buckling
resistance, Fqd should be taken as 0.7 �mes the length, L, of the s�ffener.
The effec�ve length for load carrying web s�ffeners used in calcula�ng the buckling

Figure 6.9 : Stiff Bearing Length, b1

resistance, Fxd, assumes that the flange through which the load or reac�on is applied is
effec�vely restrained against lateral movement rela�ve to the other flange, and length should
be taken as:
a) KL = 0.7 L when flange restrained against rota�on in the plane of the s�ffener (by
other structural elements)
b) KL = L when flange not so restrained
where
L = length of the s�ffener
If the load or reac�on is applied to the flange by a compression member, then unless
effec�ve lateral restraint is provided at that point, the s�ffener should be designed as
part of the compression member applying the load, and the connec�on between the
compression member and the beam flange shall be checked for the effects of the strut
ac�on.
6.6.7.2 Design of intermediate transverse web s�ffeners
6.6.7.2.1 General - Intermediate transverse s�ffeners may be provided on one or both sides
of the web.
6.6.7.2.2 Spacing - Spacing of intermediate s�ffeners, where they are provided, shall comply
with Clause 6.6.6.1 depending on the thickness of the web.
6.6.7.2.3 Outstand of S�fferers - The outstand of the s�ffeners should comply with Clause
6.6.7.1.2.
6.6.7.2.4 Minimum s�ffeners - Transverse web s�ffeners not subject to external loads or
moments should have a second moment of area, Is about the centreline of the web (if
s�ffeners are on both sides of the web) and about the face of the web (if single s�ffener on
only one side of the web is used) such that:
if c/d ≥ S2 Is ≥ 0.75 d tw3

79
 and if c/d <S 2 Is ≥ 1.5 d3 tw3 / c2
where
d = depth of the web
tw = minimum required web thickness for spacing using tension field ac�on, as given
in Clause 6.6.4.2.1.
c = actual s�ffener spacing
6.6.7.2.5 Buckling check on intermediate transverse web s�ffeners - S�ffeners not subjected
to external loads of moments should be checked for a s�ffener force:
Fq = V–Vcr /γm0 ≤ Fqd
where
Fqd = design resistance of the intermediate s�ffeners
V = factored shear force adjacent to the s�ffener
Vcr = shear buckling resistance of the web panel designed without using tension field
ac�on Clause 6.6.4.2.2(a).
S�ffeners subject to external loads and moments should meet the condi�ons for load carrying
web s�ffeners in Clause 6.6.7.3. In addi�on they should sa�sfy the following interac�on
expression.

If Fq< Fx then (Fq–Fx) should be taken as zero.

where
Fq = s�ffener force given above
Fqd= design resistance of an intermediate web s�ffener corresponding to buckling
about an axis parallel to the web (Clause 6.6.7.1.5).
Fx= external load or reac�on at the s�ffener
Fxd= design resistance of a load carrying s�ffener corresponding to buckling about axis
parallel to the web (Clause 6.6.7.1.5).
Mq = moment on the s�ffener due to eccentrically applied load and transverse load, if
any.
Myq = yield moment capacity of the s�ffener based on its elas�c modulus about its
centroidal axis parallel to the web.
6.6.7.2.6 Connec�on of intermediate s�ffeners to web - Intermediate transverse s�ffeners
not subject to external loading should be connected to the web so as to withstand a shear
between each component of the s�ffener and the web (in kN/mm) of not less than

80
 tw2 / (5bs)
where
tw = web thickness (in mm)
bs = outstand width of the s�ffener (in mm)
For s�ffeners subject to external loading, the shear between the web and the s�ffener due to
such loading has to be added to the above value.
S�ffeners not subject to external loads or moments may terminate clear of the tension flange
and in such a situa�on the distance cut short from the line of the weld should not be more
than 4tw.
6.6.7.3 Load carrying s�ffeners
6.6.7.3.1 Web Check - Load carrying web s�ffeners should be provided where compressive
forces applied through a flange by loads or reac�ons exceed the buckling strength, F cdw, of
the uns�ffened web, calculated using the following:
The effec�ve length of the web for evalua�ng the slenderness ra�os is calculated as in Clause
6.6.7.1.5. The area of cross sec�on is taken as
(b1 + n1)tw
where
b1 = width of s�ff bearing on the flange (Clause 6.6.7.1.3).
n1 = dispersion of the load through the web at 45 0, to the level of half the
depth of the cross sec�on.
The buckling strength of this web about axis parallel to the web is calculated as
given in Clause 6.4.1.2.1 using curve 'c'.
6.6.7.4 Bearing s�ffeners
Bearing s�ffeners should be provided for webs where forces applied through a flange by loads
or reac�ons exceed the local capacity of the web at its connec�on to the flange, F w as given
below:
Fw = (b1 + n2) twfyw /γm0
where
b1 = s�ff bearing length (Clause 6.6.7.1.3)
n2 = length obtained by dispersion through the flange to the web junc�on at a slope
of 1:2.5 to the plane of the flange.
tw = thickness of the web
fyw = yield stress of the web
6.6.7.5 Design of load carrying s�ffeners

81
6.6.7.5.1 Buckling check - The external load or reac�on, Fx, on a s�ffener should not exceed
the buckling resistance, Fxd, of the s�ffener as given in Clause 6.6.7.1.5.
Where the s�ffener also acts as an intermediate s�ffener it should be checked for the effect
of combined loads in accordance with Clause 6.6.7.2.5.
6.6.7.5.2 Bearing check - Load carrying web s�ffeners should also be of sufficient size that the
bearing strength of the s�ffener, F psd, given below is not less than the load transferred, Fx.
Fpsd = Aq fyq / (0.8 λm0) ≥ Fx
where
Fx = external load or reac�on
Aq = area of the s�ffener in contact with the flange
fyq = yield stress of the s�ffener

6.6.7.6 Design of bearing s�ffeners

Bearing s�ffeners should be designed for the applied load or reac�on less the local capacity
of the web as given in Clause 6.6.7.4. Where the web and the s�ffener material are of different
strengths the lesser value should be assumed to calculate the capacity of the web and the
s�ffener. Bearing s�ffeners should project nearly as much as the overhang of the flange
through which load is transferred.
6.6.7.7 Design of diagonal s�ffeners
Diagonal s�ffeners should be designed to carry the por�on of the applied shear and bearing
that exceeds the capacity of the web.
Where the web and the s�ffener are of different strengths, the value for design should be
taken as given in Clause 6.6.7.6.
6.6.7.8 Design of tension s�ffeners
Tension s�ffeners should be designed to carry the por�on of the applied load or reac�on less
the capacity of the web as given in Clause 6.6.7.4 for bearing s�ffeners.
Where the web and the s�ffener are of different strengths, the value for design shou ld be
taken as given in Clause 6.6.7.6.

6.6.7.9 Torsional s�ffeners

Where bearing s�ffeners are required to provide torsional restraint at the supports of the
beam, they should meet the following criteria:
a) Condi�ons of Clause 6.6.7.4
b) Second moment of area of the s�ffener sec�on about the centreline of the web, I s,
should be such that :
Is ≥ 0.34 αs D3 Tcf

82
 where
αs = 0.006 for LLT/ ry ≤ 50
= 0.3 /(LLT/ry) for 50 < LLT/ry = 100
= 30/(LLT/ry)2 for LLT/ ry> 100
D = overall depth of beam at support
Tcf = maximum thickness of compression flange in the span under considera�on
KL = laterally unsupported effec�ve length of the compression flange of the beam
ry = radius of gyra�on of the beam about the minor axis

6.6.7.10 Connec�on of load carrying and bearing s�ffeners to web - S�ffeners, which resist
loads or reac�ons applied through a flange, should be connected to web by sufficie nt welds
or fasteners to transmit a design force equal to the lesser of:
a) The tension capacity of the s�ffener
b) The sum, of the forces applied at the two ends of the s�ffener when they act in
the same direc�on or the larger of the forces when they act in opposite direc�ons.

S�ffeners, which do not extend right across the web, should be of such length that the shear
stress in the web due to the design force transmi�ed by the s�ffener does not exceed the
shear strength of the web. In addi�on, the capacity of the web beyond the end of the s�ffener
should be sufficient to resist the applied force.
6.6.7.11 Connec�on to flanges
6.6.7.11.1 In tension - S�ffeners required to resist tension should be connected to the flange
transmi�ng the load by con�nuous welds or non-slip fasteners.
6.6.7.11.2 In compression - S�ffeners required to resist compression should either be fi�ed
against the loaded flange or connected by con�nuous welds or non-slip fasteners.
The s�ffener should be fi�ed against or connected to both flanges when:
a) a load is applied directly over a support; or
b) it forms the end s�ffener of a s�ffened web; or
c) it acts as a torsion s�ffener

6.6.7.12 Hollow sec�ons - Where concentrated loads are applied to hollow sec�ons,
considera�on should be given to local stresses and deforma�ons and the sec�on reinforced
as necessary.
6.6.7.13 Longitudinal s�ffeners - Where longitudinal s�ffeners are used in addi�on to
transverse s�ffeners, they shall be as follows :
a) One longitudinal s�ffener shall be placed on the web at a distance from the
compression flange equal to 1/5 of the distance from the compression flange
angle, plate or tongue plate to the neutral axis when the thickness of the web
is less than the limit specified in Clause 6.6.6.1. The s�ffener shall be designed
so that Is is not less that 4ctw3 where Is and tw are as defined in Clause 6.6.7.2.4
and c is the actual distance between the transverse s�ffeners.

83
 b) A second longitudinal s�ffener (single or double) shall be placed at the neutral
axis of the girder when the thickness of the web is less than the limit specified
in Clause 6.6.6.1. This s�ffener shall be designed so that I s is not less that d2tw3
where Is and tw are as defined in Clause 6.6.7.2.4 and d 2 is twice the clear
distance from the compression flange angles, plates or tongue plates to the
neutral axis.
c) Longitudinal web s�ffeners shall extend between ver�cal s�ffeners, but need
not be con�nuous over them.
d) Longitudinal s�ffeners may be in pairs arranged on each side of the web, or
single located on one side of the web.
6.6.7.14 Detailing requirements
a) Load bearing s�ffeners should be in pairs (that is two legs of plates, angles etc.)
placed symmetrically at both sides of the web. When the condi�on is not met the
effect of the resul�ng eccentricity should be considered.
b) The ends of the load bearing stiffener should be closely fi�ed or adequately
connected to both flanges. They should be shaped to allow space for any root fillet
or weld connec�ng the web to the flange, with a clearance not exceeding five
�mes the thickness of the web.
c) Load bearing stiffeners shall not be joggled and shall be solidly packed
throughout.
d) Outstanding legs of each pair of load bearing s�ffeners shall be so propor�oned
that the bearing stress on that part of their area in contact with the flange and
clear of the root of the flange or flange angles or clear of the flange welds, does
not exceed the design bearing strength.
e) Load bearing s�ffeners consis�ng of two legs shall be designed as struts assuming
the sec�on to consist of the pair of s�ffeners together with a length of web on
each side of the centre line of the s�ffeners equal to twenty �mes the web
thickness (but limited to the edge distance of the web and half the distance of the
adjacent s�ffener).
In case of bearing s�ffeners consis�ng of four or more legs, the effec�ve s�ffener
sec�on should be taken to comprise the s�ffeners, the web plate between the
two outer legs and a por�on of web plate not exceeding the length of the web as
specified for single leg s�ffeners on the outer sides of the outer legs.
f) The load bearing s�ffeners shall be provided with sufficient bolts or welds to
transmit to the web the whole of the load in the s�ffeners.
g) In no case shall the greater unsupported clear dimension of a web panel exceed
270 t nor the lesser unsupported clear dimension of the same panel exceed 180 t
where t is the thickness of the web plate.
h) Where transverse s�ffeners are required, they shall be provided throughout the
length of the girder at a distance apart not greater than 1.5 d 1 and not less than
0.33 d1, where d1 is the depth as defined in clause 6.6.8. Where longitudinal

84
 s�ffeners are provided d 1 shall be taken as the clear distance between the
horizontal s�ffener and the farthest flange ignoring fillets.
NOTE : If the thickness of the web is made greater, or the spacing of s�ffener made
smaller than that required by the standard, the moment of iner�a of the
s�ffener need not be correspondingly increased.
Intermediate transverse s�ffeners, when not ac�ng as load bearing s�ffeners, may be joggl ed
and may be single or in pairs placed one on each side of the web. Where single s�ffeners are
used, they should preferably be placed alterna�vely on opposite sides of the web. The
s�ffeners shall extend from flange to flange. They can be connected or fi�ed to, or kept well
clear of the flanges.
6.6.8 Lateral Bracings
All spans shall be provided with a lateral bracing system extending from end to end of
sufficient strength to transmit to the bearings all lateral forces due to wind, seismic effect etc,
as applicable.
6.6.9 Expansion and Contrac�on
In all bridges, provision shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced, or
means shall be provided for movement caused by temperature changes. Provision shall also
be made for changes in length of span resul�ng from live loads.

6.7 MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO COMBINED FORCES

6.7.1 General
This clause governs the design of members subjected to combined forces such as shear and
bending, axial force and bending, or shear force, axial force and bending.
6.7.2 Combined Shear and Bending
6.7.2.1 No reduc�on in moment capacity of the sec�on is necessary as long as the cross-
sec�on is not subjected to high shear force (factored value of applied shear force is less than
or equal to 60 percent of the shear strength of the sec�on as given in Clause 6.6.4. The
moment capacity may be taken as, Md (Clause 6.6.2) without any reduc�on.
6.7.2.2 When the factored value of the applied shear force is high (exceeds the limit in Clause
6.7.2.1) the factored moment of the sec�on should be less than the moment capacity of the
sec�on under higher shear force M dv calculated as given below:
a) Plas�c or compact sec�on
Mdv = Md – β (Md – Mfd) ≤ 1.2 Zefy/γm0
where
β = (2V/Vd – 1)2
Md = plas�c design moment of the whole sec�on disregarding high shear force effect
(Clause 6.6.2.1.2) considering web buckling effects (Clause 6.6.2.1.1)
V = factored applied shear forces as governed by web yielding or web buckling.

85
 Vd = design shear strength as governed by web yielding or web buckling (Clause 6.6.4.1
or 6.6.4.2)
Mfd = plas�c design strength of the area of the cross-sec�on excluding the shear area,
considering par�al safety factor γm0
Ze= elas�c sec�on modulus of the whole sec�on
b) Semi-compact Sec�on
Mdv = Zefy/ γm0
6.7.3 Combined Axial Force and Bending Moment
Under combined axial force and bending moment sec�on strength as governed by material
failure and member strength as governed by buckling failure shall to be checked in accordance
with Clauses 6.7.3.1 and 6.7.3.2., respec�vely.
6.7.3.1 Sec�on strength
6.7.3.1.1 Plas�c and compact sec�ons - In the design of members subjected to combined axial
force (tension or compression) and bending moment, the following should be sa�sfied.

Conserva�vely, the following equa�on may be used under combined axial force and bending
moment.

Where
My, Mz = factored applied moments about the minor and major axis of the cross
sec�on, respec�vely
Mndy, Mndz = design reduced flexural strength under combined axial force and the
respec�ve uniaxial moment ac�ng alone, (Clause 6.7.3.1.2)
N = factored applied axial force (Tension T, or Compression P)
Nd = design strength in tension (Td) as obtained from Clause 6.3 or in compression due
to yielding given by : Nd = Agfy/ γm0
Mdy, Mdz = design strength under corresponding moment ac�ng alone, (Clause 6.6.2)
Ag = gross area of the cross sec�on
α1 , α2= constants as given in Table 6.8
λm0 = par�al factor of safety in yielding

86
 Table-6.8 Constants α1 and α2

Sec�on α1 α2
I and Channel 5n≥1 2
Circular Tubes 2 2
Rectangular Tubes 1.66 / (1 – 1.13 n2) ≤ 6 1.66 / (1 – 1.13 n2) ≤ 6
Solid Rectangles 1.73 + 1.8 n3 1.73 + 1.8 n3

6.7.3.1.2 For plas�c and compact sec�ons without bolt holes, the following approxima�ons
may be used for evalua�ng M ndy and Mndz
a) Plates
Mnd = Md (1 – n2)
b) Welded I or H sec�on

where n = N/Nd and a = (A – 2 b tf) / A ≤ 0.5

c) For standard I or H sec�ons
for n ≤ 0.2 Mndy = Mdy
for n > 0.2 Mndy = 1.56 Mdy (1 – n)(n + 0.6)
Mndz = 1.11 Mdz (1 – n) ≤ Mdz
d) For rectangular hollow sec�ons and welded box sec�ons – When the sec�on is
symmetric about both axes and without bolt holes
Mndy = Mdy (1–n) / (1–0.5 af) ≤ Mdy
Mndz = Mdz (1–n) / (1–0.5 aw) ≤ Mdz
where aw = (A–2 b tf) / A ≤ 0.5
af = (A–2 h tw) / A ≤ 0.5
e) Circular hollow tubes without bolt holes
Mnd = 1.04 Md (1 - n1.7) ≤ Md

87
6.7.3.1.3 Semi-compact sec�on - In the absence of high shear force (Clause 6.7.2.1) semi-
compact sec�on design is sa�sfactory under combined axial force and bending, if the
maximum longitudinal stress under combined axial force and bending, fx, sa�sfies the
following criteria.
fx ≤ fy / γm0

For cross sec�on without holes, the above criteria reduces to

+ + ≤ 0.5

where
Nd, Mdy, Mdz are defined in Clause 6.7.3.1.1
6.7.3.2 Overall member strength
Members subjected to combined axial force and bending moment shall be checked for overall
buckling failure as given in this sec�on.
6.7.3.2.1 Bending and axial tension - The reduced effec�ve moment, M eff, under tension and
bending calculated as given below, should not exceed the bending strength due to lateral
torsional buckling, Md (Clause 6.6.2.2)
Meff = [M – ψ T Zec / A] ≤ Md
where
M, T = factored applied moment and tension, respec�vely
A = area of cross-sec�on
Zec = elas�c sec�on modulus of the sec�on with respect to extreme compression fibre
ψ = 0.8 if T and M vary independently or otherwise
= 1.0
6.7.3.2.2 Bending and axial compression - Members subjected to combined axial compression
and biaxial bending shall sa�sfy the following interac�on rela�onships.

where
Cmy, Cmz = equivalent uniform moment factor as per Table6.9
P = applied axial compression under factored load

88
My , Mz = maximum factored applied bending moments about y and z-axis of the
member, respec�vely.
Pdy , Pdz = design strength under axial compression as governed by buckling about
minor (y) and major (z) axis respec�vely.
Mdy , Mdz = design bending strength about y (minor) or z (major) axis of the cross
sec�on (Clause 6.6)

where
ny , nz = ra�o of actual applied axial force to the design axial strength for buckling
about the y and z axis, respec�vely and
CmLT = equivalent uniform moment factor for lateral torsional buckling as per Table 6.9
corresponding to the actual moment gradient between lateral supports
against torsional deforma�on in the cri�cal region under considera�on.

89
90
7. Connec�ons

7.1 General
7.1.1 The term "connec�on" applies to all joints between different components of a structural
member, joints between separate structural members and splices in members. The term
"fasteners" applies to bolts and pins.
7.2 Basis of Design
7.2.1 All connec�ons should sa�sfy the provisions of Clause 7for the ul�mate limit state.
7.2.2 The fa�gue considera�on should be in accordance with the recommenda�ons of Clause
9 of this Code.
7.2.3 The connec�ons in a structure shall be designed so as to be consistent with the
assump�ons made in the analysis of the structure and comply with the requirement specified
in this Clause. Connec�ons shall be capable of transmi�ng the calculated design loads and
moments communicated by the members.
7.2.4 Where members are connected to the surface of a web or flange of a sec�on, the ability
of the web or flange to transfer the applied forces locally should be checked and local
s�ffening provided where necessary.
7.2.5 Ease of fabrica�on and erec�on, as also subsequent inspec�on and maintenance should
be considered in the design of connec�ons. The following may be considered in this respect.

• use of standardised details

• the clearances necessary for safe erec�on

• the clearances needed for �ghtening fasteners,

• the need for access for welding,

• the requirements of welding procedures,

• the effects of angular and length tolerances on fit-up.

7.2.6 In general, use of different forms of fasteners to transfer the same force shall be
avoided. Sufficient number of one type of fastening shall be provided to transmit the en�re
load for which the connec�on is designed.
7.2.7 The par�al safety factor in the evalua�on of design strength of connec�ons shall be
taken as given in Table 4.1.
7.2.8 The design of joints, in par�cular, needs the most careful a�en�on to maintain op�mum
corrosion resistance. This is especially so for joints that may become wet from the weather,
spray, immersion, or condensa�on, etc. The possibility of avoiding or reducing associated
corrosion problems by loca�ng joints away from the source of dampness should be
inves�gated. Alterna�vely, it may be possible to remove the source of dampness; for

91
instance, in the case of condensa�on, by adequate ven�la�on or by ensuring that the ambient
temperature within the structure lies above the dew point temperature.
Where it is not possible to prevent a joint involving carbon steel and stainless steel from
becoming wet, considera�on should be given to preven�ng bimetallic corrosion. The use of
carbon steel bolts with stainless steel structural elements should always be avoided. In bolted
joints that would be prone to an unacceptable degree of corrosion, provision should be made
to isolate electrically the carbon steel and stainless steel elements. This entails the use of
insula�ng washers and possibly bushes; typical suitable details are shown in Figure 7.1 for

Figure 7.1 : Typical Bolted Connection with Carbon Steel Elements

bolts installed in the snug-�ght condi�on. The insula�ng washers and bushings should be
made of a thermoset polymer such as neoprene (synthe�c rubber), which is flexible enough
to seal the joint when adequate pressure is applied and long las�ng to provide permanent
metal separa�on. Sealing the joint is important to prevent moisture infiltra�on which would
lead to crevice corrosion. Note also that the insula�ng washer should not extend beyond the
stainless steel washer in case a crevice is created. In atmospheric condi�ons with chloride
exposure, an addi�onal strategy to protect against crevice corrosion is to insert an insula�ng,
flexible washer directly under the bolt head, or to cover the area with clear silicone sealant.
With respect to welded joints involving carbon and stainless steels, it is generally
recommended that any paint system applied to the carbon steel should extend over the
weldment onto the stainless steel up to a distance of about 75 mm. Care should be taken in
selec�ng appropriate materials for the environment to avoid crevice corrosion in bolted
joints.
7.3 Alignment of Members
The centroidal axes of members mee�ng at a joint or at a splice should preferably meet at a
point. When this is not the case, the moment on the connec�on due to any eccentricity should
be taken into account.
7.4 Welded Connec�ons
7.4.1 Welds shall conform to IS 816 and IS 9595 as appropriate.
The hea�ng and cooling cycle involved in welding affects the microstructure of all stainless
steels, and this is of par�cular importance for duplex stainless steels. It is essen�al that
suitable welding procedures and compa�ble consumables are used and that qualified welders
undertake the work. This is important not only to ensure the strength of the weld and to

92
achieve a defined weld profile but also to maintain corrosion resistance of the weld and
surrounding material.
Compa�ble consumables should be used, such that the specified yield strength, tensile
strength, elonga�on at failure and minimum Charpy V notch energy value of the filler metal
should be equivalent to, or be�er than that specified for the parent material.
For welding stainless steel to carbon steel, the filler metal should be over-alloyed to ensure
adequate mechanical proper�es and corrosion resistance of the joint.
Over alloying avoids dilu�on of the joined elements in the fusion zone of the base stainless
steel. When welding stainless steel to galvanized steel, the zinc coa�ng around the area to be
joined needs to be removed before welding. The inclusion of zinc can result in embri�lement
or reduced corrosion resistance of the finished weld and the fumes given off when a�emp�ng
to weld through the galvanized layer are a significant health hazard. Once the galvanizing has
been removed, welding requirements are as for welding stainless steel to ordinary carbon
steel.
7.4.2 Types of welds
The following types of welds can be used :
a) Con�nuous full penetra�on or par�al penetra�on bu� welds.
b) Con�nuous or intermi�ent fillet welds,
c) Plug welds
Intermi�ent bu� welds shall not be used.
Par�al penetra�on bu� welds shall not be used for transmi�ng tensile forces or bending
moments along longitudinal axis of the welds. Plug welds shall not be used for transmi�ng
loads or moments and shall be used only to prevent the buckling or separa�on of lapped parts
or to joint components of built-up members.
7.4.3 Strength of weld
7.4.3.1 Bu� weld
The strength of a full penetra�on bu� weld shall be taken as equal to the strength of the
weaker of the parts joined provided the yield stress of the weld metal is atleast equal to that
of the parent metal.
The strength of a par�al penetra�on bu� weld together with its reinforcing fillet weld, if any,
shall be calculated as for a full penetra�on fillet weld. The throat thickness shall be taken as
a) the depth of weld prepara�on where this is of the J or U type.
b) the depth of weld prepara�on minus 3 mm where the prepara�on is the V or bevel
type.
7.4.3.2 Fillet weld
The strength of a fillet weld shall be based on the effec�ve throat thickness and the effec�ve
length.

93
The effec�ve throat thickness shall be considered as the height of a triangle that can be
inscribed within the weld and measured perpendicular to its outer side.
The effec�ve length shall be considered as the actual length minus twice the leg length. In
case of fillet welds with end returns as per Clause 7.4.4.1 the effec�ve length shall be
considered as the actual length.
7.4.4 General requirements of welds
7.4.4.1 Fillet welds
Maximum leg length of a fillet weld shall be 1 mm less than the thickness of the connected
parts at the edge.
Minimum leg length of a fillet weld shall be in accordance with IS 9595 Intermi�ent fillet
welds. Intermi�ent fillet weld should not be used at loca�ons where they could result in the
possible forma�on of rust pockets. Where the connec�on is protected from weather, e.g. in
the interior of box sec�ons, intermi�ent fillet welds are permi�ed.
The clear unconnected gap between the ends of the welds whether in line or staggered shall
not be more than 200 mm and also shall not be more than -
a) 12 �mes the thickness of the thinner part when the part is in compression
b) 16 �mes the thickness of the thinner part when the part is in tension
c) One-quarter of the distance between s�ffeners when used to connect s�ffeners to a
plate or other part subject to compression or shear.
In a line of intermi�ent welds, there shall be a weld at each end of the part connected.
In built-up members in which plates are connected by intermi�ent welds, con�nuous side
fillet welds shall be provided at the ends of each side of the plate for a length at least equal
to three quarter of the width of the narrower plate concerned. In excep�onal cases, where
this is not possible, the intermi�ent plug or slot weld shall be provided to prevent separa�on.
End returns
The fillet weld shall be returned con�nuously around the corner at the end of the side of a
part for a length beyond the corner of not less than twice the leg length of the weld.
End connec�ons by side fillets
If side fillets alone are used in end connec�ons, both sides of the part shall be welded and the
length of the weld on each side shall not be less than the distance between the welds nor less
than 4 �mes the thickness of the thinnest part connected. Where the distance between the
welds exceeds 16 �mes the thickness of thinnest part connected, intermediate plug or slot
welds shall be used to prevent separa�on.
End connec�ons by transverse welds
The overlap between the connected parts shall not be less than four �mes thickness of the
thinnest part and the parts shall be connected by two transverse lines of welds. Where the
distance between the weld exceeds 16 �mes the thickness of the thinnest part connected
intermediate slot or plug welds shall be used to prevent separa�on.
Welds with packings

94
Where two parts connected by welding are separated by packing having thickness less than
the leg length of a weld necessary to transmit the force, the required leg length will be
increased by thickness of the packing. The packing shall be trimmed flush with the edge of
the part which is to be welded. Where two parts connected by welding are separated by
packing having a thickness equal to or greater than the leg length of weld necessary to
transmit force, each of the parts shall be connected to the packing by a weld capable of
transmi�ng the design force.
Welds in holes and slots
Fillets welds in holes or slots may be used to transmit shear in lap joints or to prevent the
buckling or separa�on of the lapped parts or to join components of built-up members.
7.4.4.2 T bu� joints
Bu� welds in T joints shall be completed by means of fillet welds each having a size of not less
than 25 percent of the thickness of the outstanding part.
7.4.4.3 Plug welds
The en�re area of the hole or slot shall be filled with weld metal having a thickness
a) equal to the thickness of the holed or slo�ed part where it is 16 mm or less.
b) In other cases, not less than any of the following :
1) 16 mm
2) 0.45 �mes the diameter of the hole or the width of the slot.
3) One-tenth of the length of slot but not greater than the thickness of the holed or
slo�ed part.
The diameter of the hole or the width of a slot shall not be less than the thickness of the hole
or slo�ed parts plus 8 mm.
The distance between centres of holes or between the centre lines of slots shall not be less
than four �mes the diameter of the hole or the width of the slot. The distance between the
centres of the slots measured in the direc�on of their length shall not be less than double the
length of the slot.
The ends of the slot shall be semicircular except where the slot terminates at the edges of the
part where it can be square.
7.4.4.4 Welding procedure
The welding procedure and details shall be in accordance with IS 9595 unless otherwise
s�pulated in this Clause. Reference should also be made to Manufacturers recommenda�ons.
7.4.5 Design stresses in welds
7.4.5.1 Shop welds
7.4.5.1.1 Fillet welds - Design strength of a fillet weld, fwd shall be based on its throat area.
fwd= fwn/ γmw
where

95
 fwn= fu/ S3
fu= smaller of the ul�mate stress of the weld or the parent metal

Table 4.1)
λmw = par�al safety factor (Table 4.1
7.4.5.1.2 Bu� welds - Bu� welds shall be treated as parent metal with a thickness equal to
the throat thickness, and the stresses shall not exceed those permi�ed in the parent metal.
7.4.5.1.3 Slot or plug welds - The design shear stress of slot or plug welds shall be as per Clause
7.4.5.1.1.
7.4.5.2 Site welds - The design strength in shear and tension for site welds made during
erec�on of structural members shall be calculated as per Clause 7.4.5.1, using appropriate
par�al safety factor as per Table 4.1.
4.1
7.4.5.3 Long joints - When the length of the welded joint, lj, of a splice or end connec�on in a
compression or tension element is greater than 150 tt, the design capacity of weld (Clause
7.4.5.1.1),
7.4.5.1.1 fwd, shall be reduced by the factor

βtw = 1.2 – ≤ 1.0

where
lf= length of the joint in the direc�on of the force transfer
tt= throat size of the weld
7.4.6 Fillet weld applied to the edge of a plate or sec�on
7.4.6.1 Where a fillet weld is applied to the square edge of a part, the specified size of the
weld should generally be at least 1.5 mm less than the edge thickness in order to avoid
Fig. 7.2a).
washing down of the exposed areas (Fig. 7.2a
7.4.6.2 Where a fillet weld is applied to the rounded toe of a rolled sec�on, the specified size
of the weld should generally not exceed ¾ of the thickness of the sec�on at the toe (Fig. 7.2b).

Figure 7.2 : Fillet Welds on Square Edge of Plate or Round Toe of Rolled
Section
7.4.6.3 Where the size specified for a fillet weld is such that the parent metal will not project
beyond the weld, no mel�ng of the outer cover or covers shall be allowed to occur to such an
extent as to reduce the throat thickness (Fig.7.3).
Fig.7.3

96
 Figure 7.3 : Full Size Fillet Welds Applied to the Edge of a Plate or Section
7.4.6.4 When fillet welds are applied to the edges of a plate or sec�on in members subject to
dynamic loading, the fillet weld shall be of full size, that is, with its leg length equal to the
thickness of the plate or sec�on, with the limita�ons specified in Clause 7.4.6.3.
7.4.6.3
7.4.6.5 End fillet weld normal to the direc�on of force shall be of unequal size with a throat
thickness not less than 0.5t where t is the thickness of the part as shown in Fig. 7.4.
7.4
The difference in thickness of the welds shall be nego�ated at a uniform slope.
7.4.7 Stresses due to individual forces - When subjected to either compressive or tensile or
shear force alone, the stress in the weld is given by:

where
fa= calculated normal stress due to axial force in N/mm 2
q = shear stress in N/mm2
P = force transmi�ed (axial force N or the shear force Q)
tt= effec�ve throat thickness of weld in mm
lw= effec�ve length of weld in mm

Figure 7.4 : End Fillet Welds Normal to Direc�on of Force

7.4.8 Combina�on of stresses

7.4.8
7.4.8.1 Fillet welds

97
7.4.8.1.1 When subjected to a combina�on of normal and shear stress, the equivalent stress
fe shall sa�sfy following

where
fa= normal stresses, compression or tension, due to axial force or bending moment
(Clause 7.4.7)
7.4.7
q = shear stress due to shear force or tension (Clause 7.4.7)
7.4.7
7.4.8.1.2 Check for the combina�on of stresses need not be done for :
a) Side fillet welds joining cover plates and flange plates, and
b) Fillet welds where sum of normal and shear stresses does not exceed fwd (Clause
7.4.5.1.1)
7.4.5.1.1
7.4.8.2 Bu� welds
7.4.8.2.1 Check for the combina�on of stresses in bu� welds need not be carried out provided
that :
a) Bu� welds are axially loaded, and
b) In single and double bevel welds the sum of normal and shear stresses does not
exceed the design normal stress, and the shear stress does not exceed 50
percent of the design shear stress.
7.4.8.2.2 Combined bearing, bending and shear - Where bearing stress, fbr, is combined with
bending (tensile or compressive), fb, and shear stresses, q, under the most unfavorable
condi�ons of loading in bu� welds, the equivalent stress, fe, as obtained from the following
formula shall not exceed the values allowed for the parent metal.

where
fe = equivalent stress
fb= calculated stress due to bending in N/mm 2
fbr= calculated stress due to bearing in N/mm 2
q = shear stress in N/mm2

7.5 Connec�ons made with Bearing Type Bolts or Pins

7.5.1 General
Connec�ons and splices in all members may be made by the use of fasteners (bolts or pins).
The arrangement of plates, rolled sec�ons and other connec�ng elements shall be such as to
make proper provision for all axial, flexural, shear and/or torsional forces in the members
being connected.

98
Bolted splices in all compression members shall be located as near as prac�cable to points of
effec�ve lateral support.
A member carrying a calculated stress shall not have a splice or connec�on with a single bolt.
Connec�ons and splices for minor members, such as light bracing members, railings, etc. may
have single bolted connec�ons.
Minimum diameter of fasteners used in load bearing members shall be 16 mm diameter.
7.5.2 Connec�ons and splices in flexural members
a) The connec�on between a flange and a web of a built-up girder shall be designed to
transmit the longitudinal shear force in the flange combined with any ver�cal loads
which are directly applied to the flanges.
b) Flange splices
1) General
Flange splices to join flange components are to be made from the same grade of
steel but may be of different cross-sec�ons.
2) Bolted splices
Where bolted splice plates are used to obtain a splice in a flange the sum of their
areas shall be at least equal to the area of the flanges as spliced. The centres of
gravity of the sec�ons on either side of the splice shall coincide as far as
prac�cable. The splice plates and connec�ons on each side of the splice shall be
capable of transmi�ng at least the greater of -
i) 1.10 �mes the force in the flange at the splice point computed from factored
loads.
ii) 0.80 �mes the maximum capacity of the weaker flange, considering
appropriate safety factor (Table 4.1),
4.1) the net sec�on being used for tension
flanges and the gross sec�on for compression flanges.
c) Web splice
A splice in the web of a plate girder or rolled sec�on used as a beam shall be designed
to resist the shearing forces and the por�on of the design moment in the web, and
for the moment due to the eccentricity of shear introduced by the splice connec�on,
computed from factored loads.
Web plates shall be spliced symmetrically by plates on each side. The splice plates
shall extend as far as prac�cable for the full depth of the web. There shall not be less
than at least two rows of bolts on each side of the joint.
7.5.3 Connec�ons in triangulated structures
a) Eccentric connec�ons :
Axially stressed members mee�ng at a joint shall have their gravity axes intersect at
a point if prac�cable; if not, provision shall be made for bending stresses due to the
eccentricity

99
 b) Connec�ons at intersec�ons :
Connec�on of members at an intersec�on shall develop at least 1.10 �mes the
design loads and moments in the members computed from factored loads. Due
regard to the nature and distribu�on of stress over the cross-sec�on of the members
shall be given in determining the distribu�on of the fasteners.
All members shall, where possible, be so connected that the load is appropriately
distributed over their cross-sec�on.
If this is imprac�cable, considera�on shall be given to the way in which the stresses
at the joint are distributed to those parts of the cross-sec�on of the member which
are not directly connected at the joint. For this purpose the angle of distribu�on of
stress may be taken as 450.
Gusset plates shall be capable of sustaining 1.05 �mes the design loads and moments
transmi�ed by the members. If an unsupported edge of a gusset plate is in
compression and if the length of such edge exceeds 50 �mes the thickness of the
gusset plate, the edge shall be suitably s�ffened.
c) Splices in tension members and compression members of non bearing type
Such splices shall be made symmetrical about the gravity axes of the members as far
as is prac�cable.
Bolted splices shall be designed for any applied moment computed from factored
loads and the greater of
1) 1.10 �mes the computed forces in the member, and
2) 0.80 �mes the capacity of the member, considering appropriate par�al
Table 4.1).
safety factor (Table 4.1
The ends of the members need not be in close contact.
d) Splices in compression members of bearing type
In bearing type splices in a compression member, the ends of the members shall be
machined and assembled to be in close contact with each other.
For a bearing splice it may be assumed that the machined faces transmit 50 percent
of the compressive force in the member. The splice plates and connec�on shall be
however designed to transmit 60 percent of the factored compressive force in the
member and the factored moment, if any.
NOTE :Before
: specifying bearing splices the designer shall, however, sa�sfy that such
facili�es for machining are available in the par�cular project.
7.5.4 Details of bolted connec�ons
a) Diameter of bolt holes
The diameter of a bolt hole shall generally be taken as the nominal diameter of the
bolt plus 1.5 mm unless otherwise specified
b) Edge distances

100
 1) In case of rolled, machine flame cut, sawn or plane edges the distance between
the centre of the bolt hole to such edge shall not be less than 1.5 �mes the
diameter of the hole.
2) In case of sheared or hand flame cut edges the edge distance shall be 1.75 �mes
the diameter of the hole.
3) The maximum edge distance to the nearest line of fasteners from an edge of any
uns�ffened part should not exceed 12t where t is the thickness of the thinner
outer plate (This rule does not apply to fasteners interconnec�ng the components
of back-to-back tension members). Where the members are exposed to corrosive
influences the maximum edge distance shall not exceed 40 mm plus 4t where t is
the thickness of thinner connected plate.
c) Pitch of bolts
1) The minimum distance between the centres of any two adjacent bolts shall not
be less than 2.5 �mes the diameter of the shank of the bolt.
2) The maximum distance between the centres of any two adjacent bolts connec�ng
members either in tension or in compression shall not exceed either 32t or 300
mm, where t is thickness of the thinner outside element.
3) The distance between centres of two consecu�ve bolts in a line along the
direc�on of stress shall not exceed 16t or 200 mm in tension members, and 12t
or 200 mm in compression members. In the case of compression members
transferring forces through bu�ng faces the pitch shall not exceed 4.5 �mes the
diameter of bolt from the abu�ng faces. This pitch will apply for a distance equal
to 1.5 �mes the width of the member.
4) When bolts are staggered at equal intervals and the gauge does not exceed 75
mm, the distance as specified in (2) and (3) above between centre of adjacent
connectors may be increased by 50 percent.
5) Except as noted in (4) above, the distance between centre of two consecu�ve
bolts in a line adjacent and parallel to an edge of an outside connected part
should not be greater than (100 mm +4t) or 200 mm, whichever is lesser, where t
is the thickness of the thinner outside plate.
7.5.5 Bearing type bolts
7.5.5.1 Effec�ve areas of bolts
Since threads can occur in the shear plane, the effec�ve area Aeb for resis�ng shear should
normally be taken as the net tensile stress area, Anb of the bolts. For bolts where the net
tensile stress area is not defined, Anb shall be taken as the area at the root of the threads.
Where it can be shown that the threads do not occur in the shear plane. Aebmay be taken as
the cross sec�on area, Asbat the shank.

 The net sec�onal area of a bolt or screwed tension rod Anb shall be taken as the tension
area for the par�cular diameter of bolt as given in the table below :

101
Nominal Bolt
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33
Diameter (mm)
Nominal Stress
84 115 157 192 245 303 353 459 561 694
Area (mm2)

7.5.5.2 A bolt subjected to a factored shear force (Vsb ) shall sa�sfy the condi�on
Vsb ≤ Vdb
Where Vdb is the design strength of the bolt taken as the smaller of the value as
governed by shear, Vdsb (Clause 7.5.5.3) and bearing, Vdpb (Clause 7.5.5.4)
7.5.5.3 Shear capacity of bolt – The design strength of the bolt, Vdsb , as governed shear
strength is given by
Vdsb = Vnsb / γmb
where
Vnsb = nominal shear capacity of a bolt, calculated as follows :
Vnsb = (nn Anb + ns Asb)
where
fub = ul�mate tensile strength of a bolt
nn = number of shear planes with threads intercep�ng the shear plane
ns = number of shear planes without threads intercep�ng the shear plane
Asb = cross-sec�onal area of the bolt at the shank
Anb = net shear area of the bolt taken as the area corresponding to root diameter
at the thread.
7.5.5.4 Bearing capacity of bolt – The design strength of a bolt on any plate, Vdpb , as governed
by bearing is given by
Vdpb = Vnpb/ γmb
where
Vnpb = nominal bearing strength of a bolt, calculated as follows :
= 2.5 kb d t f 1u
where
k b is smallest of e/3d 0 ; p/3d 0 - 0.25 ; fub /fu ; 1.0
e, p = end and pitch distances of the fastener along bearing direc�on
do= diameter of the hole
f1u= smaller of fubr, fu

102
 fubr= 0.5fyb + 0.6fub<fub
fyb= yield stress of the bolt
fub= ul�mate stress of the bolt
fu= ul�mate tensile stress of the plate
d = nominal diameter of the bolt
t = summa�on of the thicknesses of the connected plates experiencing bearing
stress in the same direc�on, or, if the bolts are countersunk, the thickness of the
plate minus one half of the depth of countersinking
NOTE: The block shear of the edge distance due to bearing force may be checked as
given in Clause 6.3.1.3
7.5.5.5 Tension capacity of bolt - A bolt subjected to a factored tensile force (Tb) shall sa�sfy
Tb≤ Tdb
where
Tdb = Tnb/ λmb
and Tnb = nominal tensile capacity of the bolt, calculated as follows :
Tnb= 0.90 fub Anb < fyb Asb( λmb/ λmo)
where
fub= ul�mate tensile stress of the bolt
fyb= yield stress of the bolt
Anb= net tensile stress area as specified in Clause 7.5.1
Asb= shank area of the bolt
7.5.6 Bolt subjected to combined shear and tension – A bolt required to resist both design
shear force (Vsb) and design tensile force (Tb) at the same �me shall sa�sfy

where
Vsb= factored shear force ac�ng on the bolt
Vdb= design shear capacity (Clauses 7.5.5.3 & 7.5.6.3)
7.5.6.3
Tb= Factored tensile force ac�ng on the bolt
Tdb= design tension capacity (Clauses 7.5.5.5 &7.5.6.5)
&7.5.6.5

7.5.7 Long joints - When the length of the joint, lj, of a splice or end connec�on in a
compression or tension element containing more than two fasteners (i.e. the distance
between the first and last rows of fasteners in the joint, measured in the direc�on of the load

103
transfer) exceeds 15d in the direc�on of load, the nominal shear capacity of the fastener
(Clauses 7.5.5.2 & 7.5.6.2)
7.5.6.2 shall be reduced by the factor, β lj , given by
β lj = 1.075–lj/(200d) but 0.75 ≤ β lj≤ 1.0
= 1.075 – 0.005(lj /d)
where
d = nominal diameter of the fastener
NOTE: This provision does not apply when the distribu�on of shear over the length of joint is
uniform as in the connec�on of web of a sec�on to the flanges.
7.5.8 Large grip lengths - When the grip length, lg(equal to the total thickness of the connected
plates) exceeds 5 �mes the diameter, d, of the fastener the design shear capacity shall be
reduced by a factor β lg, given by
β lg = 8 d / (3d + lg)
= 8/(3 + lg/d)
β lgshall not be more than β ijgiven in Clause 7.5.7. The grip length, lgin no case shall be greater
than 8d
Packing Plates: The design shear capacity of bolts carrying shear through a packing plate in
excess of 6 mm shall be decreased by a factor, β pkgiven by
β pk= (1 - 0.0125 tpk)
where
tpk = thickness of the thicker packing in mm
7.6 Connec�ons made with High Strength Fric�on Grip (HSFG) Bolts
7.6.1 In high strength fric�on grip bol�ng, ini�al pretension in bolt develops clamping force
at the interfaces of elements being joined. The fric�onal resistance to slip between the plate
surfaces subjected to clamping force opposes slip due to externally applied shear. Fric�on
grip type bolts and nuts shall conform to IS 3757. Their installa�on procedures shall conform
to IS 4000.
It may be noted that some Interna�onal Codes ini�ally did not recommend connec�ons with
HSFG bolts in Stainless Steel structures. However, recent experimental research has
demonstrated that behavior of HSFG bolts in most grades of Stainless Steel are iden�cal to
that in carbon steel elements. It is recommended that manufacturers advice/ test results
should be consulted before adop�ng HSFG bolt connec�on in Stainless Steel Bridges.
7.6.2 Long joints - The provision for the long joints in Clause 7.5.7 shall apply to fric�on grip
connec�ons also.
7.6.3 Capacity a�er slipping - When fric�on type bolts are designed not to slip only under
service loads, the design capacity at ul�mate load may be calculated as per bearing type
connec�on (Clause 7.5.5).
7.5.5

104
The block shear resistance of the edge distance due to bearing force may be checked as given
in Clause 6.1.3.
7.6.4 Tension resistance – A fric�on bolt subjected to a factored tension force (TTf) shall sa�sfy
Tf ≤ Tdf
where
Tdf = Tnf/γmf
Tnf= nominal tensile strength of the fric�on bolt, calculated as follows:
Tnf= 0.9 fubAn≤ fyb Asb (γmf / γm)
where
fub= ul�mate tensile stress of the bolt
An= net tensile stress area as specified in IS 1367. (For bolts where the tensile
stress area is not defined, Anshall be taken as the area at the root of
the threads)
Asb= shank area of the bolt
γmf= par�al factor of safety
7.6.5 Combined shear and tension Bolts in a connec�on for which slip in the serviceability
limit state shall be limited and which are subjected to a tension force, T , and shear force, V,
shall sa�sfy

where
Vsf= applied factored shear at design load
Vdf= design shear strength
Tf= externally applied factored tension at design load
Tdf= design tension strength

7.7 Prying Forces

105
Where prying force, Q, is significant, prying force shall be calculated as given below and
added to the tension in the bolt.

where
lv= distance from the bolt centreline to the toe of the fillet weld or to half the root
radius for a rolled sec�on;
le= distance between prying force and bolt centerline and is the minimum of, either
the end distance or the value given by

β = 2 for non pre-tensioned bolt and 1 for pre-tensioned bolt

η = 1.5
be= effec�ve width of flange per pair of bolts
fo= proof stress in consistent units
t = thickness of the end plate

106
8. FIRE SAFETY
HAZARD

8.1 Adequate provision may be made as far as possible for fire figh�ng equipment to
access all parts of the bridge.
8.2 Austeni�c stainless steels generally retain a higher propor�on of their room
temperature strength than carbon steel above temperatures of about 550°C. All stainless
steels retain a higher propor�on of their s�ffness than carbon steel over the en�re
temperature range.
8.3 In case of accidental occurrence of fire in a bridge it should be mandatory for the
authori�es to have the bridge inspected by competent experts in order to ascertain the health
of the structure before it can be declared safe for use.

107
9. FATIGUE

9.1 General
This sec�on applies to the design of structures and structural elements subject to loading
which could lead to fa�gue failure. This shall, however, not cover the following:
a) Corrosion fa�gue
b) Low cycle (high stress) fa�gue
c) Thermal fa�gue
d) Stress corrosion cracking
e) Effects of high temperature (>150 oC)
f) Effects of low temperature (< bri�le transi�on temperature)
9.1.1 For the purpose of design against fa�gue, different details (of members and
connec�ons) are classified under different fa�gue class. The design stress ranges
corresponding to various numbers of cycles, are given for each fa�gue class. The
requirements of this Clause shall be sa�sfied with, at each cri�cal loca�on of the structure
subjected to cyclic loading, considering relevant number of cycles and magnitudes of stress
range expected to be experienced during the life of the structure.
9.2 Design
9.2.1 Reference design condi�ons
The Standard S-N curves for each detail category are given for the following condi�ons:
a) The detail is located in a redundant load path, wherein local failure at that detail alone
will not lead to overall collapse of the structure.
b) The nominal stress history at the local point in the detail is es�mated/ evaluated by a
conven�onal method without taking into account the local stress concentra�on
effects due to the detail.
c) The load cycles are not highly irregular.
d) The details are accessible for and subject to regular inspec�on.
e) The structure is exposed to only mildly corrosive environment as in normal
atmospheric condi�on and suitably protected against corrosion (pit depth <1 mm).
f) The transverse fillet or bu� weld connects plates of thickness not greater than 25 mm.
g) As far as possible, holes should preferably be avoided in members and connections
subjected to fa�gue.
Fa�gue need not be inves�gated if condi�on in Clauses 9.2.2.3, 9.5.1, or 9.6 is sa�sfied.
The values obtained from the standard S-N curve shall be modified by a capacity reduc�on
factor μr, when plates greater than 25 mm in thickness are joined together by transverse fillet
or bu� welding, as given by :
μr = (25/tp)0.25 ≤ 1.0

108
 where
tp = actual thickness in mm of the thicker plate being joined.
No thickness correc�on is necessary when full penetra�on bu� weld reinforceme nts are
machined flush and proved free of defect through non-destruc�ve tes�ng.
9.2.2 Design spectrum
9.2.2.1 Stress evalua�on - The design stress shall be determined by elas�c analysis of the
structure to obtain stress resultants and the local stresses may be obtained by a conven�onal
stress analysis method. The normal and shear stresses shall be determined considering all
design loads on the members, but excluding stress concentra�on due to the geometry of the
detail. The stress concentra�on effect is accounted for in detail category classifica�on (Table
9.4). The stress concentra�on, however, not characteris�c of the detail shall be accounted for
separately in the stress calcula�on.
In the fa�gue design of trusses made of members with open sec�ons in which the end
connec�ons are not pinned, the stresses due to secondary bending moments shall be taken
into account unless the slenderness ra�o, (KL/r), of the member is greater than 40.
In the determina�on of stress range at the end connec�ons between hollow sec�ons, the
effect of connec�on s�ffness and eccentrici�es may be disregarded, provided:
a) The calculated stress range is mul�plied by appropriate factor given in Table 9.1 in the
case of circular hollow sec�on connec�ons and Table 9.2 in the case of rectangular
hollow sec�on connec�ons.
b) The design throat thickness of fillet welds in the joints is greater than the wall
thickness of the connected member.
9.2.2.2 Design stress spectrum - In the case of loading events producing non-uniform stress
range cycle, the stress spectrum may be obtained by a ra�onal method.

Table 9.1 Mul�plying Factors for Calculated Stress Range

(Circular Hollow Sec�ons)

Types of Connec�on Chords Ver�cals Diagonals

Gap Connec�ons K type 1.5 1.0 1.3
N type 1.5 1.8 1.4
Overlap Connec�ons K type 1.5 1.0 1.2
N type 1.5 1.65 1.25

Table 9.2Mul�plying Factors for Calculated Stress Range

(Rectangular Hollow Sec�ons)

Types of Connec�on Chords Ver�cals Diagonals

Gap Connec�ons K type 1.5 1.0 1.5
N type 1.5 2.2 1.6
Overlap Connec�ons K type 1.5 1.0 1.3
N type 1.5 2.0 1.4

109
9.2.2.3 Low fa�gue - Fa�gue assessment is not required for a member, connec�on or detail,
if normal and shear design stress ranges, f, sa�sfy the following condi�ons:
f ≤ 27/ γm�
Or if the actual number of stress cycles, Nsc, sa�sfies

where
γm� ,γ� = par�al safety factors for strength and load, respec�vely (See Clause
9.2.3)
f = actual fa�gue stress range for the detail
9.2.3 Par�al safety factors
9.2.3.1 Par�al safety factor for loads and their effects (γ �) - Unless and otherwise the
uncertainty in the es�ma�on of the applied loads and their effects demand a higher value,
the par�al safety factor for loads in the evalua�on of stress range in fa�gue design shall be
taken as 1.0.
9.2.3.2 Par�al safety factor for fa�gue strength (γ m�) - Par�al safety factor for strength is
influenced by consequences of fa�gue damage and level of inspec�on capabili�es.
9.2.3.3 Based on consequences of fa�gue failure, component details have been classified as
given in the Table 9.3 and the corresponding par�al safety factor for fa�gue strength shall be
used.
a) Fail-safe structural component/detail is the one where local failure of one component
due to fa�gue crack does not result in the failure of the structure due to availability of
alterna�ve load path (redundant system).
b) Non-fail-safe structural component/detail is the one where local failure of one
component leads rapidly to failure of the structure due to its non-redundant nature.

Table 9.3 Par�al Safety Factors for Fa�gue Strength (γ mft)

Inspec�on and Access Consequence of Failure

Fail-safe Non-Fail-safe
Periodic Inspec�on, maintenance and 1.00 1.25
accessibility to detail is good
Periodic Inspec�on, maintenance and 1.15 1.35
accessibility to detail is poor

9.3 Detail Category

Tables 9.4 (a) to (d) indicate the classifica�on of different details into various categories for
the purpose of assessing fa�gue strength. Details not classified in the table may be treated as
the lowest detail category of a similar detail, unless superior fa�gue strength is proved by
tes�ng and/or analysis.

110
Holes in members and connec�ons subjected to fa�gue loading shall not be made:
a) Using punching in plates having thickness greater than 12 mm unless the holes are
sub-punched and subsequently reamed to remove the affected material around the
punched hole, and
b) Using gas cu�ng unless the holes are reamed to remove the material in the heat
affected zone.
9.3.1 Members subjected to tensile forces under repe��ve loading cycles are primarily
suscep�ble to fa�gue failure.In common with carbon steel structures, the combina�on of
stress concentra�ons and defects at welded joints leads to loca�ons being almost invariably
more prone to fa�gue failure than other parts of the structure. Much can be done to reduce
the suscep�bility of a structure to fa�gue by adop�ng good design prac�ce. This involves
judiciously selec�ng the overall structural configura�on and carefully choosing construc�onal
details (i.e the Detail Categories) that are fa�gue resistant. The key to fa�gue resistant design
is a ra�onal considera�on of fa�gue early in the design process. A fa�gue assessment
performed only a�er other design criteria have been sa�sfied may result in an inadequate or
costly structure.
It may be possible to eliminate poten�al fa�gue problems by giving due regard to
construc�onal details and avoiding:

• sharp changes in cross-sec�on and stress concentra�ons in general,

• misalignments and eccentrici�es,
• small discon�nui�es such as scratches and grinding marks,
• unnecessary welding of secondary a�achments, e.g. li�ing lugs,
• par�al penetra�on welds, fillet welds, intermi�ent welding, and backing strips,
• arc strikes.

111
 Table 9.4 (a) Detail Category Classifica�on: Group 1: Non-welded Details
(Clauses 9.2.2.1 and 9.3)
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
Rolled and Extruded Products
i) 118
i) Plates and Flats (1)
ii) Rolled Sec�ons (2)
iii) Seamless Tubes (3)

Sharp edges, surface and rolling flaws to

be removed by grinding in the direc�on
of applied stress

Bolted Connec�ons
ii) 103 (4) & (5): Stress range calculated on
the gross sec�on and on net sec�on.
Unsupported one-sided cover plate
connec�ons shall be avoided or the
effect of the eccentricity taken into
account in calcula�ng stresses.
Material with gas-cut or sheared edges
with no draglines.
(6): All hardened material and visible
signs of edge discon�nui�es to be
removed by machining or grinding in
the direc�on of applied stress
Material with machine gas-cut edges
with draglines or manual gas-cut
iii) 92
material
(7): Corners and visible signs of edge
discon�nui�es to be removed by
grinding in the direc�on of the applied
stress

NOTE: The arrow indicates the loca�on and direc�on of the stresses ac�ng in the basic
material for which the stress range is to be calculated on a plane normal to the
arrow.

112
 Table 9.4 (b) Detail Category Classifica�on: Group 2: Welded Details –
not in Hollow
Hol Sec�ons
(Clauses 9.2.2.1 and 9.3)
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
Welded plate I-sec�ons and box
girders with con�nuous longitudinal
i) 92
welds
(8) & (9) : Zones of con�nuous
automa�c fillet or bu� welds
carried out from both sides and all
welds having un-repaired stop-start
posi�on.

Welded plate I-sec�on and box

girders with con�nuous longitudinal
ii) 83
welds
(10) & (11) : Zones of con�nuous
automa�c bu� welds from one side
only with a con�nuous backing bar
and all welds not having un-
repaired stop-start posi�ons.
(12) : Zones of con�nuous
longitudinal fillet or bu� welds
carried out from both sides but
containing stop-start posi�ons. For
con�nuous manual longitudinal
fillet or bu� welds carried out from
both sides use Detail Category 92).

Welded plate I-sec�on and box

girders with con�nuous longitudinal
iii) 66
welds
(13) : Zones of con�nuous
longitudinal welds carried out from
one side only, with or without stop-
start posi�ons.
Intermi�ent longitudinal welds
iv) 59 (14) : Zones of intermi�ent
longitudinal welds

113
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
Intermi�ent longitudinal welds
v) 52 (15) : Zones containing cope holes
in longitudinally welded T-joints.
Cope hole not to be filled with
weld.
Transverse bu� welds (complete
penetra�on)
vi) 83
Weld run-off tabs to be used,
subsequently removed and ends of
welds ground flush in the direc�on of
stress. Welds to be made from two
sides.
(16) : Transverse splices in plates,
flats and rolled sec�ons having the
weld reinforcement ground flush to
plate surface. 100 percent NDT
inspec�on and weld surface to be
free of exposed porosity in the weld
metal.
(17) : Plate girders welded as in,
(16) before assembly.
(18) : Transverse splices as in (16)
with reduced or tapered transi�on
with taper < 1:4

Transverse bu� welds (complete

penetra�on)
vii) 66
Weld run-off tabs to be used,
subsequently removed and ends of
welds ground flush in the direc�on of
stress. Welds to be made from two
sides.
(19) : Transverse splice of plates,
rolled sec�ons or plate girders
(20) : Transverse splice of rolled
sec�on or welded plate girders,
without cope hole. With cope hole
use Detail Category 52, as in (15)
(21) : Transverse splices in plates or
flats being tapered in width or in
thickness where the taper is 1<4.

114
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
Transverse bu� welds (complete
penetra�on)
viii) 59
Weld run-off tabs to be used,
subsequently removed and ends of
welds ground flush in the direc�on of
stress. Welds to be made from two
sides.
(22) : Transverse splices as in (21)
with taper in width or thickness 1:4
but <1:2.5

Transverse bu� welds (complete

penetra�on)
ix) 52
(23) : Transverse bu�-welded
splices made on a backing bar. The
end of the fillet weld of the backing
strip shall stop short by more than
10mm from the edges of the
stressed plate.
(24) : Transverse bu� welds as per
(23) with taper on width or
thickness <1:2.5
Transverse bu� welds (complete
penetra�on)
x) 37
(25) : Transverse bu� welds as in
(23) where fillet welds end closer
than 10mm to plate edge
Cruciform joints with load-carrying
welds
xi) 52
(26) : Full penetra�on welds with
intermediate plate NDT inspected
and free of defects.
Maximum alignment of plates
either side of joint to be <0.15 �mes
the thickness of intermediate plate.

(27) : Par�al penetra�on or fillet

(27) welds with stress range calculated on
xii) 41
plate area.
(28) : Par�al penetra�on or fillet
27 (28) weld with stress range calculated on
throat area of weld.

115
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
Overlapped welded joints
xiii) 46 (29) : Fillet welded lap joint, with
welds and overlapping elements
having a design capacity greater
than the main plate. Stress in the
main plate to be calculated on the
basis of area shown in the
illustra�on

Overlapped welded joints

xiv) 41 (30) (30) : Fillet welded lap joint, with
welds and main plate both having
design capacity greater than the
overlapping elements
(31) : Fillet welded lap joint, with
xv) 33 (31) main plate and overlapping
elements both having a design
capacity greater than the weld.

(32) (33) Welded a�achments (non-load

_ 1/3<r/b carrying) – Longitudinal welds
xvi) 66
(32) : Longitudinal fillet welds. Class
59 l<50mm _
of detail varies according to length
52 50<l<100 1/6<r/b<1/3 of a�achment weld as noted
37 100mm<l _ (33) : Gusset welded to the edge of
a plate or beam flange. Smooth
33 _ r/b < 1/6 transi�on radius (r), formed by
machining or flame cu�ng plus
grinding. Class of detail varies
according to r/b ra�o as noted.
Welded a�achments
xvii) 59 (34): Shear connectors on base
material (failure in base material)
Transverse welds
xviii) 59 t< 12mm

116
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
(35): Transverse fillet welds with
t >12mm the end of the weld > 10mm from
52
the edge of the plate
(36) : Ver�cal s�ffeners welded to a
beam or plate girder flange or web
by con�nuous or intermi�ent
welds. In the case of webs carrying
combined bending and shear design
ac�ons, the fa�gue strength shall
be determined using the stress
range of the principal stresses.
(37) : Diaphragm of both girders
welded to the flange or web by
con�nuous or intermi�ent welds.
Cover plates in beams and plate
tf or tp girders
xix) 37 < 25mm
(38) : End zones of single or
tf or tp
mul�ple welded cover plates, with
> 25mm
27 or without a weld across the end.
For a reinforcing plate wider than
the flange, an end weld is essen�al.
Welds loaded in shear
xx) 67 (39) : Fillet welds transmi�ng
shear. Stress range to be calculated
on weld throat area.
(40) : Stud welded shear connectors
(failure in the weld) loaded in shear
(the shear stress range to be
calculated on the nominal sec�on
of the stud).

NOTE: The arrow indicates the loca�on and direc�on of the stresses ac�ng in the basic
material for which the stress range is to be calculated on a plane normal to the
arrow.

117
 Table 9.4 (c) Detail Category Classifica�on: Group 3: Bolts
(Clauses 9.2.2.1 and 9.3)
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
Bolts in shear (8.8/TB bol�ng category
only)
i) 83
(41) : Shear stress range calculated on
the minor diameter of the bolt (Ac)
NOTE – If the shear on the joint is
insufficient to cause slip of the joint
the shear in the bolt need not be
considered in fa�gue

Bolts and threaded rods in tension

(tensile stress to be calculated on the
ii) 27
tensile stress area, At)
(42) : Addi�onal forces due to prying
effects shall be taken into account. For
tensional bolts, the stress range
depends on the connec�on geometry.
NOTE – In connec�ons with tensioned
bolts, the change in the forces in the
bolts is o�en less than applied forces,
but this effect is dependent on the
geometry of the connec�on. It is not
normally required that any allowance
for fa�gue be made in calcula�ng the
required number of bolts in such
connec�ons.

NOTE: The arrow indicates the loca�on and direc�on of the stresses ac�ng in the basic
material for which the stress range is to be calculated on a plane normal to the
arrow.

118
Table 9.4 (d) Detail Category Classifica�on: Group 4 : Welded Details – in Hollow Sec�ons
(Clauses 9.2.2.1 and 9.3)
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
Con�nuous Automa�c Longitudinal
Welds
i) 103
(43) : No stop-starts or as
manufactured, proven free to
detachable disco�nui�es

Transverse Bu� Welds

ii) 66 (44) : Bu�-welded end-to-end
t > 8mm connec�on of circular hollow sec�ons
NOTE – Height of weld reinforcement less
than 10 percent of weld with smooth
52 transi�on to the plate surface. Welds
t < 8mm made in flat posi�on and proven free to
detachable discon�nui�es

(45) : Bu�-welded end-to-end

iii) 52
connec�on of rectangular hollow sec�on
t > 8mm

41
t < 8mm
Bu� Welds to intermediate plate
41
iv) (46) : Circular hollow sec�ons, end-to-
t > 8mm
end bu�-welded with an intermediate
plate
37
t < 8mm

37 (47) : Rectangular hollow sec�ons, end-

v)
t > 8mm to-end bu�-welded with an
intermediate plate
30
t < 8mm
Welded a�achments (non load carrying)
52
vi) (48) : Circular or rectangular hollow
sec�on, fillet welded to another
sec�on. Sec�on width parallel to stress
direc�on < 100mm

119
Sl No Detail Construc�onal Detail
Category
Illustra�on (See Note) Descrip�on
Fillet welds to intermediate plate
33
vii) (49) : Circular hollow sec�ons, end-to-
t > 8mm
end fillet welded with an intermediate
plate
29
t < 8mm

29 (50) : Rectangular hollow sec�ons, end-

viii)
t > 8mm to-end fillet welded with an
intermediate plate
27
t < 8mm
NOTE: The arrow indicates the loca�on and direc�on of the stresses ac�ng in the
basic material for which the stress range is to be calculated on a plane normal to the
arrow.
9.4 Fa�gue Strength
The fa�gue strength of the standard detail for the normal or shear fa�gue stress range, not
corrected for effects discussed in Clause 9.2.1 is given below (Figs. 9.1&9.2)
a) Normal stress range

when

when

b) Shear stress

where
ff , τf = design normal and shear fa�gue range of the detail, respec�vely, for life
cycle of NSC

120
 ffn , τfn = normal and shear fa�gue strength of the detail for 5 x 10 6 cycles, for the
detail category

Figure 9.1 : S-N Curve for Normal Stress (Clause 9.4)

Figure 9.2 : S-N Curve for Shear Stress (Clause 9.4)

121
9.5 Fa�gue Assessment
The design fa�gue strength for N SC life cycles (ffd , τfd) may be obtained from the standard
fa�gue strength for NSC cycles by mul�plying with correc�on factor, μ r, for inspec�on level
and thickness, as discussed in Clause 9.2.1 and dividing by par�al safety factor given in Table
9.3.
9.5.1 Exemp�ons - At any point in a structure if the actual normal and shear stress range f,
are less than the design fa�gue strength range corresponding to 5 x 10 6 cycles, with
appropriate par�al safety factor, no further assessment for fa�gue is necessary at that point.
9.5.2 Stress limita�ons
9.5.2.1 The (absolute) maximum value of the normal and shear stresses shall never exceed
the elas�c limit (f y , τy) for the material under cyclic loading.
9.5.2.2 The maximum stress range shall not exceed 1.5 f y for normal stresses and 1.5 fy / S3
for the shear stresses under any circumstance.
9.5.2.3 Constant stress range - The actual normal and shear stress range f and τ at a point of
the structure subjected to NSC cycles in life shall sa�sfy.
f ≤ ffd = μr ff /γm�
τ ≤ τfd = μrτf /γm�
where
μr = correc�on factor (Clause 9.2.1)
γm� = par�al safety factor against fa�gue failure, given in Table 9.3
f f , τf = normal and shear fa�gue strength ranges for the actual life cycle, N SC,
obtained from Clause 9.4.

9.5.2.4 Variable stress range - Fa�gue assessment at any point in a structure, wherein variable
stress ranges f� or τ� for ni number of cycles (i = 1 to r) are encountered, shall sa�sfy the
following:
a) For normal stress (f)

b) For shear stresses (τ)

where γ5 is the summa�on upper limit of all the normal stress ranges (f i) having magnitude
lesser than (μc ffn /γm�) for that detail and the lower limit of all the normal stress ranges (f j)

122
having magnitude greater than (μc ffn /γm�) ) for the detail. In the above summa�on all normal
stress ranges, fi and τi having magnitude less than 0.55μc ffn and 0.55 μcτfn may be disregarded.
9.6 Necessity for Fa�gue Assessment
No fa�gue assessment is necessary if any of the following condi�ons is sa�sfied.
a) The highest normal stress range ffmax sa�sfies
ffmax ≤ 27μc /γm�
b) The highest shear stress range τfmax sa�sfies
τfmax ≤ 67 μc /γm�
c) The total number of actual stress cycles N SC, sa�sfies

where = equivalent constant amplitude stress range in Mpa given by

where
n =

f� , f � = stress ranges falling above and below the f fn the stress range
corresponding to the detail at 5 x 10 6 number of life cycles.

123
10. FABRICATION ASPECTS

In general, clauses 513 and 514 of IRC:24 along with the IRC Guide Book should be followed
for Fabrica�on, Inspec�on, Transporta�on, Handling and Erec�on of Steel Structures. For
stainless steel structure fabrica�on, special care is required for welding opera�on including
selec�on of welding consumables in order to ensure that the fabricated structure does not
have any poten�al corrosion problem.
It is more important in stainless steel than carbon steel to reduce loca�ons at which crevice
corrosion may ini�ate. Welding deficiencies such as undercut, lack of penetra�on, weld
spa�er, slag and stray arc strikes are all poten�al sites and should thus be minimised. Stray
arc strikes or arcing at loose earth connec�ons also damage the passive layer, and possibly
give rise to crevice corrosion, thereby ruining the appearance of a fabrica�on.
The following aspects should be carefully considered while planning and execu�ng welded
joints.

• Welded joints with sharp edges and abrupt change in cross-sec�on or profile should
be avoided. The steep change in lines of stresses should be as undisturbed as possible.

• If possible, the center lines of the welded parts should coincide in one point. Weld
seams should be avoided in high stress areas. If this is not possible, higher
requirements of inspec�on shall be planned.

• If required, to make a decision in the process of development an evidence of the

calculated thickness of the weld a can be proved by produc�on weld test ,with respect
to the weldability of the parent materials and the welding consumables the
requirements and recommenda�ons informa�on of their manufacturers shall be
observed.

• For steel components with stress in thickness direc�on, suitable design measures and
shall be taken and material with the required reduc�on of material in thickness
direc�on shall be selected.

• Corrosion protec�on should be ensured by suitable welding design, e.g. full

penetra�on weld. Par�al penetra�on welds or intermi�ent welds should have
sufficient corrosion protec�on.

• Assemblies shall be designed so as to offer the best access possible when welding or
inspec�ng them.

• The accumula�on of joints should be avoided. If necessary, forged pieces or cas�ngs

can be used.

• Welding secondary parts onto tension flanges by transverse beads should be avoided.

124
• In the heat-affected zone of cold deformed steel alloys the decrease of strength shall
be considered in calcula�on. Designs with mixed assemblies combining welded joints
with bolted or riveted joints should be avoided.

• Minimize the amount of weld metal , Do not over weld

• Use intermi�ent welding in preference to a con�nuous weld pass

• Place welds above the neutral axis, Balance the welding about the middle of the joint
by using a double-V joint

• Weld-deposi�on sequence shall be adjusted to minimize the residual stresses and

distor�on to obtain the desired dimensional stability & mechanical a�ributes.

• If possible, welding shall be accomplished in PA or PB posi�ons by using simple �l�ng

or rota�ng device.

• The welding shop will be protected against the harmful wind & weather (e.g. wind,
rain, snow and air-draughts) while welding. General cleanliness and the absence of
contamina�on are important for a�aining good weld quality. Oils or other
hydrocarbons, dirt and other debris, strippable plas�c film, and wax crayon marks
should be removed to avoid their decomposi�on and the risk of carbon pick up and
weld surface contamina�on. The weld should be free from zinc, including that arising
from galvanised products, and from copper and its alloys.

• Preferably the arc current return cable shall be a�ached directly to the substrate to
enable ample electrical contact with least resistance in circuit. It is recommended to
a�ach the welding current return cable as close as possible to the arc spots.

• The substrate or work piece temperature, just before the arc strikes, shall always be
maintained 15 °C (Min) & inter-run temperature be ≤ 180 °C (Max).

• If the tack-welds are merged into the final weld, then those tack-welds too will be
subjected to the same degree of inspec�on, as required for the final weld assembly.
Tack welds becoming the part of final weld shall be accomplished in a manner that
they are melted & merged precisely during welding.

• A�er removing the notches & ridges caused by the finishing opera�ons, as grinding or
cu�ng, the wall-thicknesses shall be maintained at least 98 % of that designed
nominal thicknesses. If the nominal wall thickness reduced beyond 2% a repair shall
be warranted by welding. Devia�on shall only be allowed with the prior agreements
between the customer & manufacturer.

• If the drawings specify notch free surfaces for the obvious reason of fa�gue- strength
then that weld surfaces shall be ground flush in that direc�on of loading.

• For repairs, only, the qualified welding procedure & welder suitable for that type and
class of welding shall be used. If the systema�c damage or devia�ons observed from

125
 the blueprint drawing the prior agreement of the customer shall be inevitable before
welding.

• Stainless steels have a rate of thermal expansion 50% greater than carbon steels. The
lower thermal conduc�vity than carbon steel leads to steeper temperature gradients.
Use frequent tacks, or skip welding to reduce stresses. Minimize weaving techniques
which result in slower travel speeds and higher heat input. Stringer beads are most
desired when welding on stainless steel or nickel base alloys.

• Post-Weld Cleaning is a very important step. The purpose of post weld cleaning is to
ensure a properly formed chrome oxide film on the surface for op�mum corrosion
resistance: the smoother the finish, the higher the corrosion resistance. The heat from
welding is capable of deple�ng chrome at the surface which can result in corrosion.
To avoid rust, it is very important to remove the chrome depleted zone by chemical
or mechanical post weld cleaning.

• Use of stainless steel brushes and other tools are highly recommended to avoid
impinging iron par�cles into the surface which will cause rust.

• Do not mix stainless steel and carbon steel fabrica�ons to avoid iron contamina�on.
Iron par�cles serve to ini�ate localized corrosion.

126
11. WORKED OUT EXAMPLE

In IRC:SP:120 – the Explanatory Handbook to IRC:22-2015 – the IRC design code for Steel
Concrete Composite Construc�on, a worked out example of a 30m two lane Steel Concrete
Composite bridge has been presented. A same design with iden�cal loading etc. is presented
here with Stainless Steel of grade IRS 350 CR. The example problem in SP:120 considered Steel
Grade E-350 B0.
The example bridge is having a span length of 32.0 m (c/c of expansion joint) with effec�ve
span of 30.0 m (c/c of bearings). The bridge carries a 2-lane single carriageway road . The
overall width of the deck is 12 m comprising of 7.5 m carriageway with 1.5 m wide footway
on either side of the carriageway. The carriageway and footway is separated by 0.45 m
concrete crash barriers. Structural scheme for the superstructure comprise of steel concrete
composite plate girders, four numbers spaced @ 3 m c/c, with 200 mm thick in-situ RCC deck
slab on top. The deck can�levers 1.5 m outside the web of the outer girders.. Corrugated
Profiled Sheet is proposed to be used for the cas�ng of deck slab

1.0 Design Data for Simply Supported Stainless Steel Composite

C Girder

1.1Structural Geometry
Total Length of Span = L 32.0 m Distance b/w centers of the expansion joint
Effec�ve span (C/C of Bearing) = Lo 30.0 m
Deck width = decw 12.00 m
Number of Plate Girders = 4
Edge can�lever distance = B0 1.500 m
Outer Girder spacing = B1 3.000 m (C/C spacing of Girders)
Inner Girder spacing = B2 3.000 m

1.2Material Property
Steel Plate Girder Properties
Material Proper�es: -
Steel Grade Designa�on (Chara. Yield Strength) :IRS350CR

Yield Strength fsyk.1 350 MPa For Plate < 16mm RDSO Doc. No. BS-S-7.5.3.1-9, Ver-10
fsyk.2 350 MPa For Plate 16 - 40mm Table 2, IS 2062: 2011
fsyk.3 350 MPa For Plate 40- 50mm Table 2, IS 2062: 2011
Elas�c Modulus of Steel Plate
Girder - Esk 2.00E+05 MPa
Coefficient of thermal expansion
of steel - α 1.20E-05 /oC
Unit Weight of Steel uws 78.50 KN/m3 SP120-2018

127
Cast-in-Situ Concrete:
Material Proper�es: -
Concrete Grade M40
Compressive Strength of Concrete fck 40
Elas�c Modulus of Concrete Eck 3.30E+04 Mpa SP120-2018
Unit Weight of Concrete uwc 25.00 kN/m3 SP120-2018
Creep Factor Kc 0.50 IRC:22 C; 604.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion of 1.17E-05 SP120-2018
α
concrete
Thickness of slab slh 0.22 m
Grade of steel Fe500
Modular Ra�o: -
Es/Ec for Transient Loading m. 7.50 IRC:22 C; 604.3
1
Es/Ec for Permanent Loading m. 15.00
2

1.3 Girder Geometry

Steel Girder : Midspan Support At Splice ( considering reduc�on due

Width of Top Flange = wt 350 350 350 m to bolt area on tension

m flange)
Thickness of Top Flange = t� 20 20 20 m
m
Width of Bo�om Flange = wb 450 450 356 m
m
Thickness of Bo�om Flange = t� 20 20 20 m
m
Width of Bo�om cover plate = wb1 0 - 269 m
m
Thickness of Bo�om cover plate = t�1 0 - 0
Depth of Web = dw 1700 1700 1700 m (Clear Depth of Web)
m
Thickness of Web = tw 12 12 12 m
m
m
Top Flange Outstand = b 169.0 169.0 169.0 m
m
Bo�om Flange Outstand = bt 219.0 219.0 172.2 m

Depth of Girder only sec�on

Min. Overall depth required - (Leff/25) dech.r 1.20 m Clause– 6.1.4
Min. Overall depth provided dech.p 1.74 m OK

128
Spacing of Girders
Min. spacing of girders required - Leff/20 gsp.r 1.50 m Clause – 6.1.3
Min. spacing of girders provided gsp.p 3.00 m OK

Check for Minimum Sec�on

Minimum Web Thickness:
Ra�o of Depth to Thickness =d/tw 141.67 OK
Horizontal s�ffeners NOT REQUIRED
Depth of web, d 1700 mm
εf 0.845
εw 0.845
Distance between two s�ffners,c 1500 mm
minimum tw1 8.87 mm Cl. 6.6.6.1.1,b,ii
minimum tw2 5.83 mm Cl. 6.6.6.1.2,b,ii
Minimum thickness of Web = tw.1 8.87 mm
Provided Thickness of Web = tw 12.00 OK

Notes:
1) The structure chosen is iden�cal to the structure in the standard worked-out example in
Appendix-IV of IRC:SP:120-2018.
2) As in the above example, the design calcula�ons are presented for the external main girder
(marked 'G1').
3) The design calcula�on is presented for cri�cal bending moment at midspan and shear force at
support, being representa�ve sec�on checks for academic interest & for purpose of this
assignment.
4) The analysis results for SIDL and live loads are taken from values in the Worked-out example, as
the span, carriageway configura�on and structural arrangements are iden�cal.
5) The steel sec�on chosen is different from the IRC:SP:120-2018 to jus�fy the efficiency in using
stainless steel over carbon steel. The bending moment, shear force and deflec�on for self
weight of steel sec�ons are therefore recalculated and presented in sec�on-9. The
associated effects from temperature gradient and differen�al shrinkage are also
recalculated due to change in steelwork geometry and dimensions.

129
 2.0 Gross Girder Sec�on Property Calcula�on
2.0 Gross Girder Sec�on Property Calcula�on

2.1 External Girder (G1) -

2.1.1 SteelOnly Property at Mid Span:

At Midspan At Support
�b 350 350 mm
�h 20 20 mm
b� 450 450 mm
b� 20 20 mm
bcb 450 - mm
bch 20 - mm
wdep 1700 1700 mm
wth 12 12 mm

B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB I IZZ Iyy

Top Flange 350 20 7000 1730 12110000 907.25 2.333E+05 5.76E+09 7.15E+07
Web 12 1700 20400 870 17748000 47.25 4.913E+09 4.96E+09 2.45E+05
Bo�om
450 20 9000 10 90000 812.75 3.000E+05 5.95E+09 1.52E+08
Flange
Cover Plate 0 0 0 0 0 822.75 0.000E+00 0 0.00E+00
Σ 1.67E+10 2.24E+08
C/S area of Steel Girder : - A.sg = 36400 mm2 = 0.0364 m2

130
Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb = 822.75 mm
(From Top) Yt = 917.25 mm

Moment of Iner�a: - Ixx = 1.67E+10 mm4 = 0.0167 m4

Sec�on Modulus: - At Top Fibre Zt = 1.817E+07 mm3 = 0.0182 m3

At Bo�om Fibre Zb = 2.026E+07 mm3 = 0.0203 m3

Moment of Iner�a about Y - Axis Iyy = 2.236E+08 mm4 = 0.0002 m3

Plas�c Sec�on Modulus: - (From Top) Yt = 953.33 mm

At Top Fibre Zp = 2.235E+07 mm3 = 0.0223 m3

131
 2.1.2 Composite for Transient Loading (For Live Loads/Short Term) at Mid Span:

Effec�ve Width of slab:- = 3.00 m Cl.603.2.1 of IRC:22

Avg. depth of slab:- = 0.22 m

Slab Eccentricity from girder ver�cal axis = 0.00 m

Equi. Beff 400.0

�b 350 mm
�h 20 mm
b� 450 mm
b� 20 mm
bcb 0 mm
bch 0 mm
170
wdep mm
0
wth 12 mm

B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB I IZZ Iyy

400. 220.0 8800 3.549E+0
Slab 1850 162800000 300.58 8.31E+09 6.60E+10
0 0 0 8
2.333E+0
Top Flange 350 20 7000 1730 12110000 180.58 2.28E+08 7.15E+07
5
2040 4.913E+0
Web 12 1700 870 17748000 679.42 1.43E+10 2.45E+05
0 9
Bo�om 3.000E+0
450 20 9000 10 90000 1539.42 2.13E+10 1.52E+08
Flange 5
Cover 0.000E+0
0 0 0 0 0 1549.42 0 0.00E+00
Plate 0
Σ 4.42E+10 6.62E+10

132
C/S Area of Composite A.cp1
124400 mm2 = 0.1244 m2
Sec�on: - =

Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb.cp1 = 1549.4 mm

(From Top) Yt.cp1 = 410.6 mm
Moment of Iner�a:
Ixx.cp1 = 4.419E+10 mm4 = 0.0442 m4
-

Sec�on Modulus: - At Slab Top Zt.sl1 = 1.076E+08 mm3 = 0.1076 m3

At Slab Bo�om/Top Fibre Zt.cp1 = 2.319E+08 mm3 = 0.2319 m3
At Bo�om Fibre Zb.cp1 = 2.852E+07 mm3 = 0.0285 m3

Moment of Iner�a about Y - axis: - Iyy.cp1 = 6.622E+10 mm4 = 0.0662 m4

2.1.3 Composite for Permanent Loading (For SIDL/Long term)

Effec�ve Width of slab:- = 3.000 m

Avg. depth of slab:- = 0.220 m

Equiv Beff 200.0

m
�b 350
m
m
�h 20
m
m
b� 450
m
m
b� 20
m
m
bcb 0
m
m
bch 0
m
m
wdep 1700
m
m
wth 12
m

133
 B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB I IZZ Iyy
200. 220.0 8140000 1.775E+0
Slab 44000 1850 465.07 9.69E+09 3.30E+10
0 0 0 8
1211000 2.333E+0
Top Flange 350 20 7000 1730 345.07 8.34E+08 7.15E+07
0 5
1774800 4.913E+0
Web 12 1700 20400 870 514.93 1.03E+10 2.45E+05
0 9
Bo�om 3.000E+0
450 20 9000 10 90000 1374.93 1.7E+10 1.52E+08
Flange 5
0.000E+0
Cover Plate 0 0 0 0 0 1384.93 0 0.00E+00
0
Σ 3.79E+10 3.32E+10
C/S Area of Composite A.cp2
80400 mm2 = 0.0804 m2
Sec�on: - =

Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb.cp2 = 1384.9 mm

(From Top) Yt.cp2 = 575.1 mm

Moment of Iner�a: - Ixx.cp2 = 3.786E+10 mm4 = 0.0379 m4

Sec�on Modulus: - At Slab Top Zt.sl2 = 6.584E+07 mm3 = 0.0658 m3

At Slab Bo�om/Top Fibre Zt.cp2 = 1.066E+08 mm3 = 0.1066 m3
At Bo�om Fibre Zb.cp2 = 2.734E+07 mm3 = 0.0273 m3

Moment of Iner�a about Y - axis: - Iyy.cp2 = 3.322E+10 mm4 = 0.0332 m4

2.1.4 Summary of Section Properties at Mid Span:

Steel Only for Dead Composite 1 for Live Composite 2 for

Load Load SIDL
Area (mm2) 36400.0 124400.0 80400.0
Y*(From Base) (mm) 822.7 1549.4 1384.9
Ixx (mm ) 4 1.67E+10 4.42E+10 3.79E+10
Iyy (mm ) 4 2.24E+08 6.62E+10 3.32E+10
Zp (mm ) 3 2.23E+07 - -
Z1(A-A) (mm )-Slab Top
3 - 1.08E+08 6.58E+07
Z2(B-B) (mm )-Girder Top
3 1.82E+07 2.32E+08 1.07E+08
Z3(C-C) (mm )-Girder Bo�om
3 2.03E+07 2.85E+07 2.73E+07

2.2.1Steel Only Property at Splice

At Splice

134
 �b 350 mm
�h 20 mm
b� 356 mm
b� 20 mm
bcb 269 mm
bch 0 mm
wde
1700 mm
p
wth 12 mm

B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB I IZZ Iyy

Top Flange 350 20 7000 1730 12110000 863.19 233333.333 5.22E+09 7.15E+07
2040
Web 12 1700 870 17748000 3.19 4913000000 4.91E+09 2.45E+05
0
Bo�om
356 20 7128 10 71280 856.81 237600 5.23E+09 7.55E+07
Flange
Cover Plate 269 0 0 0 0 866.81 0 0 0.00E+00
Σ 1.54E+10 1.47E+08

C/S area of steel

A.sg = 34528 mm2 = 0.0345 m2
girder

Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb = 866.81 mm

(From Top) Yt = 873.19 mm

mm4
Moment of Iner�a: - Ixx = 1.5362E+10 0.0154 m4
=

mm3
Sec�on Modulus: - At Top Fibre Zt = 1.759E+07 0.0176 m3
=
mm3
At Bo�om Fibre Zb = 1.772E+07 0.0177 m3
=

Moment of Iner�a about Y - Axis Iyy = 1.472E+08 mm4

B D Area YT-Y AYT

Top Flange 350 20 7000 865.33 6.057E+06

135
 Web 12 855.33 10264 427.67 4.390E+06
PNA
Web 12 844.67 10136 422.33 4.281E+06
Bo�om Flange 356 20 7128 854.67 6.092E+06
Cover Plate 269 0 0 864.67 0.000E+00

Plas�c Sec�on Modulus: - (From Top) Yt = 875.33 mm

mm3 m
At Top Fibre Zp = 0.0204
2.042E+07 = 3

2.2.2 Composite for Transient Loading (For Live Loads) at splice

Effec�ve Width of slab:- = 3.00 m

Avg. depth of slab:- = 0.22 m
Slab Eccentricity from girder ver�cal axis 0.00 m

Equi. Beff 400 mm

�b 350 mm
�h 20 mm
b� 356 mm
b� 20 mm
bcb 269 mm
bch 0 mm
wdep 1700 mm
wth 12 mm

B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB I IZZ Iyy

16280000 3.549E+0
Slab 400 220 88000 1850 277.06 7.11E+09 3.55E+08
0 8
2.333E+0
Top Flange 350 20 7000 1730 12110000 157.06 1.73E+08 7.15E+07
5
4.913E+0
Web 12 1700 20400 870 17748000 702.94 1.5E+10 2.45E+05
9

136
 Bo�om 2.376E+0
356 20 7128 10 71280 1562.94 1.74E+10 7.55E+07
Flange 5
0.000E+0
Cover Plate 269 0 0 0 0 1572.94 0 0.00E+00
0
Σ 3.97E+10 5.02E+08

C/S Area of Composite

A.cp1 = 122528 mm2 = 0.1225 m2
Sec�on: -

Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb.cp1 = 1572.94 mm

(From Top) Yt.cp1 = 387.06 mm

Moment of Iner�a: mm4

Ixx.cp1 = 3.9688E+10 0.0397 m4
- =

mm3
Sec�on Modulus: - At Slab Top Zt.sl1 = 1.025E+08 0.1025 m3
=
mm3
At Slab Bo�om/Top Fibre Zt.cp1 = 2.376E+08 0.2376 m3
=
mm3
At Bo�om Fibre Zb.cp1 = 2.523E+07 0.0252 m3
=

mm4
Moment of Iner�a about Y - axis: - Iyy.cp1 = 5.021E+08 0.0005 m4
=

2.2.3 Composite for Permanent Loading (For Live Loads) at splice

Effec�ve Width of slab:- = 3.00 m

Avg. depth of slab:- = 0.22 m

Equi. Beff 200

�b 350 mm
�h 20 mm
b� 356 mm

137
 b� 20 mm
bcb 269 mm
bch 0 mm
wdep 1700 mm

B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB IXX INA Iyy

4400 8140000 1.775E+
Slab 200 220 1850 432.30 8.4E+09 3.30E+10
0 0 08
1211000 2.333E+ 6.83E+0
Top Flange 350 20 7000 1730 312.30 7.15E+07
0 05 8
170 2040 1774800 4.913E+
Web 12 870 547.70 1.1E+10 2.45E+05
0 0 0 09
Bo�om 1407.7 2.376E+ 1.41E+1
356 20 7128 10 71280 7.55E+07
Flange 0 05 0
1417.7 0.000E+
Cover Plate 269 0 0 0 0 0 0.00E+00
0 00
3.42E+1
Σ 3.31E+10
0

0.07852
C/S Area of Composite Sec�on: -A.cp1 = 78528 mm2 = m2
8

Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb.cp1 = 1417.70 mm

(From Top) Yt.cp1 = 542.30 mm

3.4241E+ m
Moment of Iner�a: - Ixx.cp1 = mm4 = 0.0342
10 4

6.314E+0 m
Sec�on Modulus: - At Slab Top Zt.sl1 = mm3 = 0.0631
7 3

At Slab Bo�om/Top 1.062E+0 m

Zt.cp1 = mm3 = 0.1062
Fibre 8 3

2.415E+0 m
At Bo�om Fibre Zb.cp1 = mm3 = 0.0242
7 3

3.315E+1 3.315E+ m
Moment of Iner�a about Y - axis: - Iyy.cp1 = mm4 =
0 07 4

2.2.4 Summary of Section Properties at splice:

Steel Only for Dead Composite 1 for

Composite 2 for SIDL
Load Live Load
Area (mm2) 34528.0 122528.0 78528.0
Y*(From Base) (mm) 866.8 1572.9 1417.7
Ixx (mm4) 1.54E+10 3.97E+10 3.42E+10
Iyy (mm4) 1.47E+08 5.02E+08 3.31E+10

138
 Zp (mm3) 2.04E+07 - -
Z1(A-A) (mm3)-Slab Top - 1.03E+08 6.31E+07
Z2(B-B) (mm3)-Girder Top 1.76E+07 2.38E+08 1.06E+08
Z3(C-C) (mm3)-Girder Bo�om 1.77E+07 2.52E+07 2.42E+07

139
2.3.1 Steel Only Property at Support:

At
Support
m
�b 350
m
m
�h 20
m
m
b� 450
m
m
b� 20
m
m
wdep 1700
m
m
wth 12
m

mm2
C/S area of Steel Girder : - A.sg = 36400 0.0364 m2
=

Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb = 822.75 mm

(From Top) Yt = 917.25 mm

mm4
Moment of Iner�a: - Ixx = 1.67E+10 0.0167 m4
=

mm3
Sec�on Modulus: - At Top Fibre Zt = 1.817E+07 0.0182 m3
=
mm3
At Bo�om Fibre Zb = 2.026E+07 0.0203 m3
=

Moment of Iner�a about Y - Axis Iyy = 2.236E+08 mm4

Plas�c Sec�on Modulus: - (From Top) Yt = 953.33 mm

mm3
At Top Fibre Zp = 0.0223 m3
2.235E+07 =

140
 B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB I IZZ Iyy
Top Flange 350 20 7000 1730 12110000 907.25 2.333E+05 5.76E+09 7.15E+07
Web 12 1700 20400 870 17748000 47.25 4.913E+09 4.96E+09 2.45E+05
Bo�om Flange 450 20 9000 10 90000 -812.75 3.000E+05 5.95E+09 1.52E+08
Σ 1.67E+10 2.24E+08

2.3.2 Composite for Transient Loading (For Live Loads) at Support:

Effec�ve Width of slab:- = 3.000 m

Avg Depth of slab = 0.220 m
Slab Eccentricity from girder ver�cal axis = 0.000 m

Equiv Beff 400

C/S Area of Composite Sec�on: - A.cp1 = 124400 mm2 = 0.1244 m2

Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb.cp1 = 1549.42 mm

(From Top) Yt.cp1 = 410.58 mm

Moment of Iner�a:
Ixx.cp1 = 4.419E+10 mm4 = 0.0442 m4
-
Sec�on Modulus: - At Slab Top Zt.sl1 = 1.076E+08 mm3 = 0.1076 m3
At Slab Bo�om/Top Fibre Zt.cp1 = 2.319E+08 mm3 = 0.2319 m3
At Bo�om Fibre Zb.cp1 = 2.852E+07 mm3 = 0.0285 m3

141
 Moment of Iner�a about Y - axis: - Iyy.cp1 = 6.622E+10 mm4 = 0.0662 m4

B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB I IZZ Iyy

400. 220.0 3.549E+0
Slab 88000 1850 162800000 300.58 8.31E+09 6.60E+10
0 0 8
2.333E+0
Top Flange 350 20 7000 1730 12110000 180.58 2.28E+08 7.15E+07
5
4.913E+0
Web 12 1700 20400 870 17748000 -679.42 1.43E+10 2.45E+05
9
Bo�om 3.000E+0
450 20 9000 10 90000 -1539.42 2.13E+10 1.52E+08
Flange 5
Σ 4.42E+10 6.62E+10
2.3.3 Composite for Permanent Loading (For SIDL):

Effec�ve Width of slab:- = 3.000 m

Avg. depth of
= 0.220 m
slab:-

Equiv Beff 200.0

A.cp2 = 80400 mm2 = 0.0804 m2

C/S Area of Composite Sec�on: -

Center of Gravity: - (From Base) Yb.cp2 = 1384.93 mm

(From Top) Yt.cp2 = 575.07 mm
mm4
Moment of Iner�a: - Ixx.cp2 = 3.788E+10 0.0379 m4
=

mm3
Sec�on Modulus: - At Slab Top Zt.sl2 = 6.584E+07 0.0658 m3
=

142
 mm3
At Slab Bo�om/Top Fibre Zt.cp2 = 1.066E+08 0.1066 m3
=
mm3
At Bo�om Fibre Zb.cp2 = 2.734E+07 0.0273 m3
=

mm4
Moment of Iner�a about Y - axis: - Iyy.cp2 = 3.322E+10 3.322E-02 m4
=

B D Area YB AYB YB-NAB I IZZ Iyy

8140000 1.775E+0
Slab 200.0 220.0 44000 1850 465.07 9.69E+09 3.30E+10
0 8
1211000 2.333E+0
Top Flange 350.0 20.0 7000 1730 345.07 8.34E+08 7.15E+07
0 5
1700. 1774800 4.913E+0
Web 12.0 20400 870 -514.93 1.03E+10 2.45E+05
0 0 9
Bo�om 3.000E+0
450.0 20.0 9000 10 90000 -1374.93 1.7E+10 1.52E+08
Flange 5
Σ 3.79E+10 3.32E+10

2.3.4 Summary of Section Properties at Support:

Steel Only for Dead Composite 1 for Live Composite 2 for

Load Load SIDL
Area (mm2) 36400 124400 80400
Y*(From Base) (mm) 822.747 1549.42 1384.93
Ixx (mm4) 1.667E+10 4.419E+10 3.786E+10
Iyy (mm4) 2.24E+08 6.622E+10 3.322E+10
Zp (mm3) 2.23E+07 - -
Z1(A-A) (mm3) - 1.076E+08 6.584E+07
Z2(B-B) (mm )3
1.817E+07 2.319E+08 1.066E+08
Z3(C-C) (mm3) 2.026E+07 2.852E+07 2.734E+07

143
Effec�ve Girder Sec�on Proper�es
3.1 Check for local buckling – calculation of effective section properties

Top flange plate: b t

Outstand welded with web 169 20 Table 2 & Fig 5 : IRC-22

Actual member bw/tw 8.45
Limi�ng Class 2 - bw/tw, 9.4ε 7.94
Hence, class 3
The sec�on of top flange is considered as plas�c a�er deck slab is
hardened in accordance with clause 603.1.3 (1) of IRC:22-2015.

Web plate: d t
Web plate 1700 12
Actual member bw/tw 141.67
Limi�ng Class 3 - bw/tw, 126ε 106.49
Hence, class 4
Ineffec�ve excess width of web 422
Effec�ve width 1278

CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE WIDTH OF WEB

Calculation of beff for midspan section with gross cross section properties:

Fig. 4b Effec�ve Width of Slender Web

Distribution of effective width:

The distribu�on of the effec�ve width is done in accordance with Table 4.1 of EN 1993-1-5:2006.
The effec�ve width is divided in two parts i.e., a) 0.4 dc from the top of the web & b) 0.6 dc from the
elas�c neutral axis.

Ineffec�ve excess width of web = 422 mm

144
Effec�ve width of web in compression zone, dc = 475.25 mm
Start of ineffec�ve web from top of web, 0.4dc = 190.10 mm
End of ineffec�ve web from top of web = 612.10 mm

Hence,
Hence,Plate girder
Plate sec�on
girder is Class
sec�on - 3 : -Semi-compact
is Class (a�er (a�er
3 : Semi-compact deduc�ng the excess
deduc�ng the width
excessofwidth of
web)
web)

Calculation of Ix-x:
No y Io +Ay2
Sl. No. A (mm2) Ay (mm3) Ay2 (mm4) Io (mm4)
. (mm) (mm4)
Deduc�ons for ineffec�ve web :
1. Web plate 1 5064 1318.9 6.68E+06 8.81E+09 7.52E+07 8.88E+09
Composite Sec�on (T-Loading) Σ 119336 1.86E+08 3.29E+11 5.19E+09 3.34E+11

Composite Sec�on (P-Loading) Σ 75336 1.05E+08 1.78E+11 5.02E+09 1.83E+11

Girder only Σ 31336 2.33E+07 2.76E+10 4.84E+09 3.24E+10

3.2 Summary of reduced Section Properties at Mid Span:

Composite (T- Composite (P-

Girder Only
Loading) Loading)

Area (mm2) 31336.00 119336.00 75336.00

Y*(From Base) (mm) 742.57 1559.20 1389.36
Izz (mm )
4 1.51E+10 4.38E+10 3.78E+10
Iyy (mm4) 2.24E+08 6.62E+10 3.32E+10

yt- slab top (mm) - 400.80 570.64

yi-girder top (mm) 997.43 180.80 350.64
yb-girder bo�om (mm) 742.57 1559.20 1389.36
Zt(A-A) (mm3)-Slab Top - 1.09E+08 6.62E+07
Zi(B-B) (mm )-Girder Top
3 1.52E+07 2.42E+08 1.08E+08
Zb(C-C) (mm3)-Girder Bo�om 2.04E+07 2.81E+07 2.72E+07

3.3 Calculation of reduced Section Properties at Support:

No Ay2 Io +Ay2
Sl. No. A (mm2) y (mm) Ay (mm3) Io (mm4)
. (mm4) (mm4)
Deduc�ons for ineffec�ve web :
1318.9 8.81E+0 8.88E+0
1. Web plate 1 5064 6.68E+06 7.52E+07
0 9 9

145
 3.29E+1 3.34E+1
Composite Sec�on (T-Loading) Σ 119336 1.86E+08 5.19E+09
1 1
1.78E+1 1.83E+1
Composite Sec�on (P-Loading) Σ 75336 1.05E+08 5.02E+09
1 1
2.76E+1 3.24E+1
Girder only Σ 31336 2.33E+07 4.84E+09
0 0

Composite (T- Composite (P-

Girder Only
Loading) Loading)
Area (mm2) 31336.00 119336.00 75336.00
Y*(From Base) (mm) 742.57 1559.20 1389.36
Izz (mm4) 1.51E+10 4.38E+10 3.78E+10
Iyy (mm4) 2.24E+08 6.62E+10 3.32E+10

yt- slab top - 400.80 570.64

yi-girder top 997.43 180.80 350.64
yb-girder bo�om 742.57 1559.20 1389.36
Zt(A-A) (mm3)-Slab Top - 1.09E+08 6.62E+07
Zi(B-B) (mm3)-Girder Top 1.52E+07 2.42E+08 1.08E+08
Zb(C-C) (mm3)-Girder Bo�om 2.04E+07 2.81E+07 2.72E+07

3.4 Summary of reduced Section Properties at Splice:

y Ay2 Io +Ay2
Sl. No. No. A (mm2) Ay (mm3) Io (mm4)
(mm) (mm4) (mm4)
Deduc�ons for ineffec�ve web :
1318. 8.88E+0
1. Web plate 1 5064 6.68E+06 8.81E+09 7.52E+07
9 9
3.34E+1
Composite Sec�on (T-Loading) Σ 117464 1.86E+08 3.29E+11 5.19E+09
1
1.83E+1
Composite Sec�on (P-Loading) Σ 73464 1.05E+08 1.78E+11 5.02E+09
1
3.24E+1
Girder only Σ 29464 2.33E+07 2.76E+10 4.84E+09
0

Composite (T- Composite (P-

Girder Only
Loading) Loading)
Area (mm2) 29464.00 117464.00 73464.00
Y*(From Base) (mm) 789.11 1583.89 1424.51
Izz (mm4) 1.41E+10 3.93E+10 3.41E+10
Iyy (mm ) 4 1.47E+08 5.02E+08 3.31E+10

146
 yt- slab top - 376.11 495.49
yi-girder top 950.89 156.11 315.49
yb-girder bo�om 789.11 1583.89 1424.51
Zt(A-A)(mm3)-Slab Top - 1.04E+08 6.88E+07
Zi(B-B)(mm3)-Girder Top 1.48E+07 2.52E+08 1.08E+08
Zb(C-C)(mm3)-Girder Bo�om 1.78E+07 2.48E+07 2.39E+07

147
4.0 Design of Shear Connector

Shear studs and transverse reinforcement for the composite girders are calculated as per cl.606 of
IRC:22-2015.

4.1 ULS Capacity - [cl.606.4.1 of IRC:22-2015]

G1-Support
V Aec Y Ixx VAecY/Ixx
t m 2
m m 4
t/m
SIDL 29.9 0.044 0.465 0.038 16.1
LL & FPLL 40.1 0.088 0.301 0.0442 24.0
G1-Splice
V Aec Y Ixx VAecY/Ixx
t m2 m m4 t/m
SIDL 27.8 0.044 0.43 0.0342 15.4
LL & FPLL 29.6 0.088 0.28 0.0397 18.2
G1-Midspan
V Aec Y Ixx VAecY/Ixx
t m2 m m4 t/m
SIDL 6.8 0.044 0.47 0.0378 3.7
LL & FPLL 27.9 0.088 0.30 0.0438 16.8

Max VL = 40.1 t/m

Heigh of the Stud = 100.00 mm
Taking Stud dia = 22.00 mm
Grade of concrete = 40.00 Mpa
Ul�mate strength = 115.00 kN
No. of Stud = 2
SL1, Spacing = 573 mm

For Full Shear Connec�on - [cl.606.4.1.1 of IRC:22-2015]

Grade of Steel reinforcement in deck slab Fe 500

Grade of concrete of deck slab and haunch M 40

@ 100
Longitudinal Reinf. In deck slab φ 12
c/c @ Support loca�on
@ 200 @ Midspan - at L/2 loca�on
φ 12
c/c symmetrically from both end
@ 125
Transverse Reinf. In deck φ 20
c/c

148
Transverse Reinforcement In haunch φ0 @ 0 c/c

G1-Support G1-Splice G1-midspan

Area of logitudinal reinf., Asl (mm ) 2
3392.9 1696.5 1696.5
Eff. area of concrete, A ec (mm ) 2
660000 660000 660000
fy (MPa) 500.0 500.0 500.0
fck (MPa) 40.0 40.0 40.0

γm 1.25 1.25 1.25 [Table 1: IRC:22-2015]

H1 (t) 135.7 67.9 67.9

H2(kN) 950.4 950.4 950.4

at splice/
Min H = 135.7 t at support Min H = 67.9
midspan
Ul�mate strength = 11.5 t Ul�mate strength = 11.5
No. of Stud = 2 No. of Stud = 2
Zero moment to Maximum moment 15000 mm
338. at splice/
SL2, Spacing = 169.5 mm at support =
9 midspan

4.2 SLS Fatigue Capacity – [cl.606.4.2 of IRC:22-2015]

G1-Support G1-Splice
VR Aec Y Ixx VAecY/Ixx VR Aec Y Ixx VAecY/Ixx
t m 2
m m 4
t t m 2
m m 4
t
0.039
22 0.088 0.301 0.0442 13.2 19.4 0.088 0.277 11.92
LL 7

Max Vr = 13.2 t/m

Assuming No. of Cycle = 1E+07
Ul�mate strength = 28 kN [Table 8 of IRC:22-2015]
No. of Stud = 2
SR, Spacing = 425 mm
Max Spacing allowed = 355 mm [cl.606.9 of IRC:22-2015]
Max Spacing allowed = 400 mm [cl.606.9 of IRC:22-2015]
Min Spacing allowed = 75 mm [cl.606.9 of IRC:22-2015]

Clear distance from edge of compression to c/l of nearest stud should = 5 m [cl.606.9 of IRC:22-2015]
not be greater than 0 m

149
Shear Stud Provided: φ22 of 100mm ht. @ 169mm c/c in 2 rows

4.3 Transverse Shear Check [cl.606.10 of IRC:22-2015]

L = 450 mm
Ast = 50.3 cm2/m (Assumed similar reinforcement in top and bo�om layers)
VL= 401 kN/m < 1799 kN/m OK
< 5687 kN/m OK

Min Ast Required = 2.0 cm2/m OK

150
Main Girder Design-ULS

5.0 ULS Bending Capacity Check of Composite Girder

5.1 Check for External Girder (G1)

5.1.1 Section Compactness Cl.603.1.1 of IRC:22-2015
For top flange, Mid Span
b/t�= 8.45

7.94
> 9.4ε
As shear studs are connected, Top flange = Plastic Cl.603.1.3.1 of IRC:22-2015
For web,
dw/tw = 106.50

106.49

> 126ε
Slender
Sec�on is Slender

5.1.2 Bending Moment Capacity: Ultimate Stage Mid Span Annex-1_Cl.I.1.1 & I.2 of IRC:22

η 1.00

γm 1.10

γc 1.50

λ 0.80

αcc 0.67
fy = 350.00 MPa
fck = 40.00 MPa
α 22.26
As = 31336 mm2
Af= 7000 mm2
beff = 3000 mm
bf = 350 mm
ds = 220 mm
CG of steel beam sec�on from top of girder = 997.43 mm
dc = 1107 mm
Plas�c Neutral Axis Posi�on = In Steel top Flange

151
Neutral Axis Depth,xu= 222 mm
kN-
Moment Capacity , Mp = 10648
m Pass
Ra�o M/Mcap 0.98

5.1.3 Lateral Torsional Buckling Resistance Moment Check for Steel Girder (Construction stage)
Mid Span Cl.I.5 of IRC:22
Elas�c modulus, E = 200000 MPa
Poisson's ra�o,μ = 0.30
Shear modulus, G = 76923 MPa
Effec�ve length for lateral torsional buckling, L LT = 2500 mm Spacing of top plan
bracing (temporary
Iy = 2.24E+08 mm4 during construction)
Torsional constant, It = 2.82E+06 mm4
β f= 0.282
hy= 1720 mm
Warping constant, Iw = 1.34E+14 mm6
k= 0.75 Considered partially fixed
kw = 1
Average thickness of bo�om flange, t 2 20
α 0.72
yg= -247 mm
y j= -374 mm
c1 = 1.052 Table C1 of IRC:24-2010

c2 = 0.382 Table C1 of IRC:24-2010

c3 = 0.753 Table C1 of IRC:24-2010

Mcr 31592 kN-m

Ze = 1.52E+07 mm3
Zp = 1.91E+07 mm3
βb= 0.79
fy = 350 MPa

0.41
=

152
αLT = 0.49 (for welded section)

= 0.64

=
0.89

Design buckling resistance, Mel (buckling) = 4309 kN-mPASS

Ra�o M/Mcap 0.90

153
6.0 ULS Shear Capacity of Steel Girder

6.1 Check for External Girder (G1) Cl.603.3.3.2 (1) of IRC:22-2015

6.1.1Plas�c Shear Resistance
Shear Area, Av = 20400 mm2
fyw = 350 MPa
γ m0 1.10

= 4122 kN

6.1.2 Shear Buckling resistance: Simple post cri�cal method Cl.603.3.3.2.2 of IRC:22-2015

68.22 Cl.509.4.2.1 of IRC:24-2010

Resistance to shear buckling shall be

verified
Spacing of transverse s�ffeners, c = 1500 mm
d/tw = 141.67
c/d = 0.88

10.87
kv =

= 97.92 MPa

= 1.44

= 99 MPa

Vn= = 2023 kN

154
6.3 External Girder (G1)
Vd = Vn/γ m,0 1839 kN
Design Shear, V 1221 kN
Ra�o V/Vd 0.66

Reduce Moment Resistance

Cl.603.3.3.3 of IRC:22-2015

Since the span is simply supported. Therefore loca�on of maximum shear and moment are non-
coexistent. At the loca�on of max. BM, the ra�o V/Vd <0.6. Thus, no reduc�on of moment capacity
is envisaged.

Summary: At Service During erec�on

Mcap (kNm) 10648 4309
Vcap (kN) 1839

155
 6 Limit State of Fa�gue
For fa�gue assessment, fa�gue Load as given in Clause 204.6 of IRC:6-2014 is used. The 40T fa�gue
vehicle is moved over the girders and the envelope of bending moment for various girders are
shown below :

156
 Check for low fatigue

Fa�gue assessment is not required if following condi�ons are sa�sfied Cl.605.5 of IRC 22.2015

i)

ii)

iii)

f = 51.86
Nsc = 2000000 Cl. IRC:6-2017

Y� = 1
Ym� = 1.25 Table 3 of IRC:22.2015

Mmidspa
n = 1.458E+09 N-mm

Detailed fa�gue assessment is required

Nominal fa�gue stress

tf = 20 mm
ffn = 92 Table 5 of IRC:22.2015
Assuming con�nuouslongitudinal fillet weld with no stop start and good maintenance
and inspec�on to details
ff = 124.86 N/mm2 Cl.605.3 of IRC 22

μr = 1.06 >1 Cl.605.2 of IRC 22

Cl.605.4 of IRC 22
= 99.89 N/mm2

Ze = 2.81E+07 mm3
Md = 2.808E+09 N-mm
Adequate from fa�gue considera�on

157
Shear fa�gue stress

312.0
Maximum shear force = 0 kN

= 15.29 N/mm2

110.5 N/mm Cl.605.3 of IRC 22

= 0 2

N/mm Cl.605.4 of IRC 22

= 88.40 2

Sec�on provided is Safe from fa�gue considera�on

158
7.0 Design of S�ffeners

7.1 Summary of stiffeners

S�ffeners Width (mm) Thickness (mm)

Intermediate 75 10
100 10
Bearing
100 10

7.2 Intermediate web stiffener: Longitiudnal Girder G1

fy = 350
c = 1500 mm
d = 1700 mm

= 0.845
kv = 10.87
Minimum web thickness required, tw = 9 mm Cl.6.1.7.1
c/d = 0.88 < 1.41
Is ≥ 2.289E+06 mm4

Trying intermediate s�ffener of 75 X 10 mm

t = 10 mm
d = 75 mm
Isprovided = 3.542E+06 mm4 Hence OK

7.2.1 Check for outstand

Outstand of s�ffener = 75 mm
Permissible limit, 14tq = 118.322 mm
Pass
7.2.2 Check for buckling

S�ffeners not subjected to external loads or moments should be Cl.6.6.7.2.5

checked for s�ffener force:

V < Vcr No force in s�ffener

159
7.3 Load bearing stiffener: at bearing location Cl.6.6.5
End is panel is checked as a beam spanning between the two flanges
7.3.1 Check for shear capacity of end panel
Under pure shear,Vn=Vp = 4122.28 kN Cl.6.6.5.3

Vcr = 2023 kN

Hq
= 3677.10 kN

R� = 1838.55 kN
Vd = 3306.64 kN
Pass End panel can carry the shear force
from anchor of tension field forces

7.3.2 Check for moment capacity of end panel

Assumed that end post consist of single
s�ffener

M� = Hq.d/10 = 625.11 kN-m

y = 750 mm
I = 3.375E+09 mm4
Mq = 1431.82 kN-m
Pass End panel can carry moment from
anchor of tension field forces
Force Fm due to M� = 416.74 kN
Total compressive at bearing = 1637.67 kN

7.3.3 Bearing check

Area of s�ffener, Aq should be > 4117.56 mm2 Cl.6.6.7.5.2

Using Count B (mm) t (mm)

4 100 10
2 100 10

600 mm
Area = 0 2

160
 7.3.4 Check for outstand

Count B (mm) t (mm) 14tq

4 100 10 118.32 Pass

2 100 10 118.32 Pass

7.3.5 Buckling Check

Area of Effec�ve sec�on = 11760 Cl.6.6.7.1.5
2.387E+0
MOI of effec�ve sec�on = 7 mm4
Radius of gyra�on, rx = 45.05 mm
Le = 1190 mm Table 6.3
(Flange is restrained against rota�on and lateral deflec�on)
lambda = 26.42
Euler's buckling stress, fcc = 2829 N/mm2
Effec�ve slenderness ra�o, λ = 0.35
Imperfec�on factor, α = 0.49
φ = 0.5*[1+α(λ-0.2)+λ2] = 0.60
fcd = 293.5 N/mm2
(for buckling curve "c" & fy = 350 N/mm2)
Buckling resistance = 3452.06 kN
Sec�on Pass in buckling

7.3.6 Check stiffener as load bearing stiffener

Cl.6.6.7.4
b1 = 0 (Assumed for simplicity, conservative approach)
n2 = 50 mm
tw = 12 mm
fyw = 350 N/mm2
γ m0 = 1.10
= 190.91 kN

Designed force for s�ffener = 1446.76 kN

Bearing capacity of s�ffener = 1909.09 kN
Pass

161
8.0 Serviceability limit state- design checks

Stress Limitation
(Stresses in N/mm2 and Moment in KN.m)
Posi�ve
Nega�ve
Self Deck CWLL+FPL Win Diff. Temp. Stress
Stress SIDL SURF. Temp. Σ
wt slab L d Shrink Gradien
Grad ra�o
t
M 439.8 2292.3 569 786 2971 230 -
σt Slab 0.57 0.79 3.62 0.28 -0.12 3.25 -1.04 8.40 0.44
σb slab 0.35 0.49 1.63 0.13 0.59 -9.19 3.70 6.89 0.36
σtgirder 28.97 150.99 5.28 7.30 12.25 0.95 8.90 -9.19 3.70 218.34 0.70
-
σb girder 21.57 -112.41 -20.93 -28.92 -105.67 -8.17 -2.40 6.34 -8.47 -308.55 0.95

Deck CWLL+FPL Diff.

Stress Unit Self wt SIDL SURF. Wind Σ
slab L Shrink
V kN 4 0 37 8.4 186 2.4 -
σ b girder N/mm2 0.20 0.00 1.81 0.41 9.12 0.12 - 11.66

Stresses in N/mm2 fbc fbt Іb fec fet Cl. 604.3.1 of IRC 22

Girder Top 218.34 -9.19 11.66 219.28 22.19

Safe
Girder Bo�om 8.47 -300.07 11.66 21.90 300.75

Limi�ng Stress (Cl. 604.3.1 of IRC 22-2015)

Compressive Tensile
N/mm2 N/mm2
Slab/Reinf
. 19.2 400
Girder 315 315

162
 8.1 Deflection Checks/Precamber Requirement

Allowable deflec�on for total load = 50 mm

Allowable deflec�on for live load and impact = 37.5 mm

S.No Component Deflec�on mm

1 SW Girder 10.31
2 Deck slab weight 64.47
3 SIDL 6.4
4 Surfacing 5.6
5 CWLL 16.6
6 FPLL 2

105.382
Deflec�on due to total loads = 3 mm Pre-Camber is required
Deflec�on due to live load and impact = 18.6 mm Live load deflec�on is ok

Pre-camber calcula�on

S.No Component Deflec�on mm

1 SW Girder 10.3
2 Deck slab weight 64.5
3 SIDL 6.4
4 Surfacing 5.6

86.7
Pre-camber to be provided = 8 mm

163
9.0 EFFECTS DUE TO SELF WEIGHT OF GIRDER AND DECK SLAB

C/S Area of cross girder = 0.034 m2

No. of Cross Girder per span = 3
Addi�onal UDL on girder due to cross girder = 0.40 kN/m

UDL of steel girder midspan sec�on (w2) 2.86 kN/m

UDL of steel girder support sec�on (w1) 2.86 kN/m
Unit weight of green concrete on ext girder (G1)= w3 18.88 kN/m
Weight of 40mm thk. permanent formwork on G1 =w4 1.5 kN/m

9.1A BM/SF Calcs due to self weight of steel girder + cross girder:

Length of doubler plate = 0 m

Effec�ve Span = 30 m

Including addi�onal weight for

Max SF = 58.64 kN s�ffeners/connec�ons/bracings = 20%
Max BM = 439.80 kNm

9.1B Deflec�on due to self weight of steel girder + cross girder:

Weighted Average UDL = 3.26 kN/m
Deflec�on = 10.31 mm

164
9.1C BM/SF Calcs due to self weight of green concrete and permanent formwork:

Effec�ve Span = 30 m

Max SF = 305.64 kN
Max BM = 2292.30 kNm
Deflec�on= 64.47 mm

165
9.2 Force due to Uniform Temperature Difference (TU) - NOTE: +ve Stress is tension
-ve moment is sagging
±35 o
Uniform temperature difference = C
The structure being simply supported, uniform temperature will not have any effects on
design of the superstructure.

9.3 Force due to Temperature Gradient (TG) -

9.3.1 For External Girder (G1)
9.3.1.1 Girder Inputs
m= 7.5
Deck Slab Width = 3.00 m
Deck Slab Thickness = 0.22 m
Total Height of the sec�on h = 0.22 m
C.G. from top Yt = 0.41 m
C.G. from bo�om Yb = 1.55 m
M.O.I. of the Sec�on I = 0.04 m4
Area of the Sec�on A = 0.12 m2
Modulus of Elas�city Es = 2.00E+08 kN/m2
Modulus of Elas�city of Concrete Ec = 1.65E+07 kN/m2
Coefficient of thermal expansion of steel α = 1.20E-05 /oC
Sec�on Modulus at the top of slab Zs = 0.11 m3
Sec�on Modulus at the bo�om of slab ZT = 0.23 m3
Sec�on Modulus at the bo�om of girder ZB = 0.03 m3

9.3.1.2 Stress due to Rise in Temperature Cl. 215.3 , IRC-6:2010

h TC
o

0.2 18.0 T1 18.50 h1 0.13

0.3 20.5 T2 4.0 h-h1 0.09

166
 stress by
e Ar
Ttop Tbot TAvg Assuming End
Sl d from ea
b (m) (Degr (Degr (Degre Restraint
No (m) top (m
ee) ee) e) Es**T
(m) 2
)
(kN/m2)

1 0.400 0.132 0.052 0.05 18.50 4.00 11.3 27000.0

2 0.400 0.088 0.043 0.04 4.00 3.28 3.6 8734.4
3 0.350 0.020 0.010 0.01 3.28 3.11 3.2 7672.1
4 0.012 0.380 0.127 0.00 3.11 0.00 1.6 3737.7
5 0.012 0.209 0.105 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0
6 0.012 1.111 0.555 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0
7 0.000 0.020 0.010 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0

Distance Stress
of CG due to Stress
Restrained of force Restrained axial force due to BM
Sl Final Stress
Force from moment Release Release
No (MPa)
(kN) CG of MT(kNM) P/A(kN/m2) M/Z(kN/m2)
Girder,
e (m)

1 1425.6 0.4 511.4 -14500.0 -5523.0 3.3

2 307.5 0.2 72.6
3 53.7 0.2 9.7 -14500.0 -2563.6 -9.2
4 17.0 0.0 0.7
5 0.0 -0.3 0.0
6 0.0 -1.0 0.0
7 0.0 -1.5 0.0 -14500.0 20842.3 6.3
1803.8 594.5

167
 9.3.1.3 Stress due to Fall in Temperature Cl. 215.3 , IRC-6:2010

h ToC
0.2 4.4 T1 -4.88 h1 0.132
0.3 6.8 T2 -8.0 h-h1 0.088

stress by
e
Ttop Tbot TAvg Assuming End
Sl b d from Area
(Degree (Degr (Degr Restraint
No (m) (m) top (m2)
) ee) ee) Es*α*T
(m)
(kN/m2)
1 0.400 0.132 0.044 0.05 -4.88 0.00 -2.4 -5856.0
2 0.400 0.088 0.044 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0
3 0.350 0.020 0.013 0.01 0.00 -0.40 -0.2 -480.0
4 0.012 0.380 0.247 0.00 -0.40 -8.00 -4.2 -10080.0
5 0.012 0.209 0.105 0.00 -8.00 -8.00 -8.0 -19200.0
6 0.012 1.111 0.555 0.01 -8.00 -8.00 -8.0 -19200.0
7 0.000 0.020 0.010 0.00 -8.00 -8.00 -8.0 -19200.0

168
 Dist
anc
e of
CG
Distance
of of Restr Stress Stress
forcCG of ained due to due to
Restr
Sl Restrained e force mom Restrainedaxial BMdue to FinalStress due to
Stress
Final Stress
Sl ained momentforce
MT force ReleaseStressBM Release
axialRelease
No Force(kN) fro
from CG ent (MPa)
Force (kNM) P/A(kN/m2) M/Z(kN/m2)
m of MT Release M/Z (MPa)
(kN)
CGGirder, (kN P/A (kN/m2
of e (m) M) (kN/m2) )
Gird
er,
e
(m)
1 -309.2 0.4 -113.3 5326.8 -1430.8 -1.0
2 0.0 0.2 0.0
3 -3.4 0.2 -0.6 5326.8 -664.1 3.7
4 -46.0 -0.1 3.5
5 -48.3 -0.3 15.2
6 -255.9 -1.0 249.3
7 0.0 -1.5 0.0 5326.8 5399.4 -8.5
-662.6 154.0

9.4 Differential Shrinkage Strain (SC) - NOTE: +ve Stress is tension

9.4.1.1 External Girder Inputs at Mid Span -ve moment is sagging
m = 15
Total Height of the sec�on (slab thk) h = 0.22 m
Differen�al shrinkage strain εDS = 0.00006 cl.6.4.2.6- IRC 112
Grade of Concrete = M40
Aslab =c/s area Ac = 0.044 m2
Area of sec�on in terms of steel = 0.08 m2
Modulus of Elas�city of Concrete (for long term) Ec = 1.65E+07 kN/m2
Modulus of Elas�city of Steel Es = 2.00E+08 kN/m2
Assumed
Creep Factor φ = 1.10 conservatively
C.G from top Ycg = 0.57 m
Eccentricity ecc = 0.46 m
Sec�on Modulus at the top Zs = 0.07 m3
Sec�on Modulus at the bo�om ZT = 0.11 m3
Sec�on Modulus at the bo�om ZB = 0.03 m3

9.4.1.2 Design forces due to Diff. Shrinkage Strain at Mid Span

169
 Restrained stresses (in terms of steel) εDS x Es x f = 12100.0 kN/m2

Restrained force P= εDS x Ec x Aslab x f = 532.4 kN

Restrained moment M= P x ecc = 245.2 kN-m

Force release stress Pre,s = 0.44 MPa

Force release stress Pre,t = 6.62 MPa
Force release stress Pre,b = 6.62 MPa

Moment release stress Mre,s = 0.25 MPa

Moment release stress Mre,t = 2.28 MPa
Moment release stress Mre,b = -9.02 MPa

9.4.1.3 Check for combine stresses at Mid Span

Top Deck = -0.8 + 0.4 + 0.2 = -0.1 MPa

Top Girder = 0.0 + 6.6 + 2.3 = 8.9 MPa
Bo�om of Girder = 0.0 + 6.6 + -9.0 = -2.4 MPa

170
 9.5 Analysis Result

9.5.1 Unfactored primary forces from the analysis

Mid- span Support

BM (kN-m) 439.80 0
Self Wt
SF(kN) 4 58.64
BM (kN-m) 2292.30 0
Deck Slab
SF(kN) 0 305.64
BM (kN-m) 569 0
SIDL
SF(kN) 37 112
BM (kN-m) 655 0
Surfacing
SF(kN) 7 81
Hog BM (kN-m) -38 -39
CWLL Sag BM (kN-m) 2775 0
SF(kN) 167 217
BM (kN-m) 196 0
FPLL
SF(kN) 19 45
BM(kN-m) 383 0
Wind with LL
SF(kN) 4 48
BM(kN-m) 461 1
Wind w/o LL
SF(kN) 5 57
BM(kN-m) 504 -2
Construc�on Load
SF(kN) 0 68
Other than the results for self weight of steel elements and deck slab, all other results are
Note : considered
identical to the IRC:SP:120-2018 worked out example
9.5.2 Ul�mate Limit State

Factor for cri�cal load case

Basic Cons. Stage
Loads Mid Span Support Mid Span
SF
Factor BM (kN-m) SF (kN) BM (kN-m) (kN) Factor BM (kN-m)
Self Weight 1.35 593.7 5.4 0.0 79.2 1.05 461.8
Deck Slab 1.35 3094.6 0.0 0.0 412.6 1.05 2406.9
SIDL 1.35 768.2 50.0 0.0 151.2 0.00 0.0
Surfacing 1.75 1146.3 12.3 0.0 141.8 0.00 0.0
CWLL+FPLL 1.50 4456.5 279.0 0.0 393.0 0.00 0.0
Wind With LL 0.90 344.7 3.6 0.0 43.2 0.00 0.0
Wind w/o LL 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.05 484.1
Temp Differences 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.0

171
 Construc�on Load 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.05 529.2
1220.
Σ 10403.9 350.2 0.0 9 3882.0

9.5.3 Serviceability limit state- design checks

At midspan
Loads
BM (kN-
Factor m) SF (kN)
Self Weight 1 439.8 4.0
Deck Slab 1 2292.3 0.0
SIDL 1 569.0 37.0
Surfacing 1.2 786.0 8.4
CWLL+FPLL 1 2971.0 186.0
Wind With LL 0.6 229.8 2.4
Wind w/o LL 0 0.0 0.0
Temp Difference 0 0.0 0.0
Σ 7287.9 237.8

9.0 Comparison with Design with Carbon Steel

The make-up of midspan sec�on for design with E 350 grade Carbon Steel is compared with the same
for design with two grades of Ferri�c grades of Stainless Steel, namely IRS 350 CR and IRS 450 CR.

Grade of Steel E 350 (IS 2062) IRS 350 CR IRS 450 CR

Yield Stress 350 MPa 350 MPa 450 MPa
Web 1700 x 12 1700 x 12 1600 x 12
Top Flange 500 x 20 350 x 20 300 x 20
Bo�om Flange 500 x 20 & 450 x 20 450 x 20 350 x 20
Cross-sec�onal Area (mm2) 49400 36400 32200
Spacing of Top Lateral 4280 2500 2500
Bracing (mm)
Approx Tonnage of the Span 71 59 54

172
12. LIFE CYCLE COSTING

A bridge represents a long-term, mul�- year investment. Following its planning, design, and
construc�on, a bridge requires periodic maintenance and possibly repair or rehabilita�on
ac�ons to ensure its con�nued func�on and safety. It is logical to consider the whole life cost
instead of the ini�al cost to evaluate a par�cular bridge op�on. Life cycle cos�ng (LCC)
presents a ra�onal method for carrying out the same.
Eventually the owner has to decide that a bridge must be replaced, effec�vely designa�ng the
end of its useful life. This end typically comes decades and some�mes even centuries a�er
the ini�al construc�on was completed. In simplest terms, the �me between a bridge’s
construc�on and its replacement or removal from service is its service life. The sequence of
ac�ons and events and their outcomes–e.g., construc�on, usage, aging, damage, repair,
renewal–that lead to the end of the service life and the condi�on of the bridge during its life
compose the life cycle. Owners must make decisions about what management strategy to
follow, what materials and designs to use, what repairs to make and when they should be
made, based on their expecta�ons about what the subsequent costs and outcomes will be.
LCC is a set of economic principles and computa�onal procedures for comparing ini�al and
future costs to arrive at the most economical strategy for ensuring that a bridge will provide
the services for which it was intended
LCC is essen�ally a technique for considering the economic efficiency of expenditures. Given
a certain set of requirements that a bridge must meet–e.g., traffic volumes to be carried,
maximum vehicle loads, geotechnical and climate condi�ons – the lowest-cost set of ac�ons
mee�ng those requirements is preferable to other sets of ac�ons. The bridge resul�ng from
those ac�ons represents a more efficient use of scarce resources – i.e., public funds and �me–
than other alterna�ves. It is this considera�on of all resources used to produce the bridge’s
services that dis�nguishes LCC from discounted cash-flow analysis, a computa�onally similar
technique used by financial analysts to compare streams of revenue and expenditure.
LCC is a process for evalua�ng the total economic worth of a usable project segment by
analyzing ini�al costs and discounted future cost, such as maintenance, reconstruc�on,
rehabilita�on, restoring, and resurfacing costs, over the life of the project segment. US NCHRP
Report 483 provides some guideline to work out LCC of a project. It is users’ discre�on to
consider the costs involved with ac�vi�es (e.g. dismantling at the end of service life) along
with the ini�al and periodic maintenance cost.
A simplified calcula�on is presented with the worked out example with Stainless Steel. It is
compared with a design with Carbon Steel presented in IRC:SP:120. The rates considered are
the prevailing rates during the first quarter of 2023.
30m Two lane Steel-Concrete Composite Superstructure with IRS 350 CR grade Stainless
Steel, the worked out example in this document.
The basic quan��es are:
Steel (IRS 350 CR Grade) = 59 MT
M40 Grade Concrete = 135 CuM
S.S Reinforcement Bars = 16.5 MT

173
The ini�al cost of Construc�on
Sl Item Unit Quan�ty Rate Amount
no
1 Structural Steel MT 59 2,42,500 1,43,07,500
2 Concrete CuM 135 7,800 10,53,000
3 Reinforcement MT 16.5 1,25,000 20,62,500
TOTAL 1,74,23,000
== 174.23 lakh

Yearly O&M cost is considered as 1% of construc�on cost increasing at 3% per annum

Thorough Inspec�on and Minor repair is considered every 10 years at 3% of construc�on
cost escalated at 3% per annum.
Discoun�ng Rate for Future Expenses = 10%
The 50 years and 100 years NPV works out to 202.52 and 203.57 lakh respec�vely

30m Two lane Steel-Concrete Composite Superstructure with IS:2062 E-350

- BO grade
Carbon Steel, the worked out example in IRC SP:120.
The basic quan��es are:
Steel (E 350 BO Grade) = 71 MT
M40 Grade Concrete = 135 CuM
Reinforcement Bars (1786) = 16.5 MT
Considering the bridge is located in a coastal region, coa�ng system type 4 (as per Annexe D
of IRC:24 is envisaged. A�er 15 years, it is considered that two coats of Aluminium Paint will
be applied every 5 years.
The ini�al cost of Construc�on
Sl Item Unit Quan�ty Rate Amount
no
1 Structural Steel MT 71 2,08,000 1,47,68,000
2 Concrete CuM 135 7,800 10,53,000
3 Reinforcement MT 16.5 89,000 14,68,500
4 Pain�ng MT 71 9,500 6,74,500
TOTAL 1,79,64,000
== 179.64 lakh

Yearly O&M cost is considered as 1% of construc�on cost increasing at 3% per annum

Thorough Inspec�on and repair is considered every 5 years at 5% of construc�on cost
escalated at 3% per annum.

174
Pain�ng is considered every 5 Years star�ng from year 15. Pain�ng rate at 00 year is
considered as Rs 5,500 per MT escala�ng at 8% per annum.
Discoun�ng Rate for Future Expenses = 10%
The 50 years and 100 years NPV works out to 240.45 and 251.18 lakh respec�vely.
The calcula�ons are done for the superstructure only as the intent of this exercise is to
examine the difference between carbon steel and stainless steel. The results are summarized
in the following table.
Steel Tonnage Ini�al Cost 50 years 100 50 years 100 years
Grade (Rs Lakh) NPV years NPV to NPV to
NPV Ini�al Cost Ini�al Cost
SS 350 CR 59 174 203 204 1.16 1.17
SS 450 CR 54 172 199 201 1.16 1.17
MS E350 71 180 240 251 1.34 1.40

It can be observed that a�er 100 years of service, the O&M expenses for the Carbon Steel
bridge works out to 40% of the construc�on cost at present prices. It is also expected that it
will be the end of service life and a replacement have to be procured.
On the other hand for a Stainless Steel bridge the same O&M expense works out to only about
17% of the construc�on cost. The bridge will remain opera�onal for another twenty to fi�y
years. At the end of its service 90 to 95% of the Stainless Steel will be recycled.
This exercise demonstrates the economic advantage of adop�ng stainless steel if one
considers the whole life of the structure.
With the present concern for environment primarily Carbon Emission through the life cycle
of any constructed facility, Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is being considered as more appropriate
while evalua�ng different materials of construc�on, design, construc�on process. LCA takes
three factors:

• Economic
• Environmental
• Social
LCA can be simple to extremely complex. ISO 14040 series provides basic guidelines.
Essen�ally in LCA of a bridge or any project, the economic, environmental as well as social
impact of the following

• Extrac�on of the relevant raw materials, e.g. quarrying, mining

• Refinement and conversion to process materials, e.g. steelmaking or cement
produc�on
• Manufacturing and packaging processes, e.g. steelwork fabrica�on or making precast
concrete products

175
 • Transporta�on and distribu�on between each stage
• Waste at each stage
• On-site construc�on impacts, e.g. water and energy use, temporary works,
shu�ering, worker commu�ng, etc
• Opera�on during the life�me including maintenance, refurbishment, replacement,
etc.
• At the end of its useful life, demoli�on, final transporta�on, waste treatment and
disposal.Any recycling or recovery opera�ons built into the life cycle should lead to a
propor�onate reduc�on in the adverse environmental impact and should be accounted for.
Structural Steel because of its strength, durability and recyclability stands out a construc�on
material for sustainable construc�on. Carbon Steel is however suscep�ble to corrosion.
Stainless Steel being corrosion resistant ensures long service life of bridges and a suitable
material for sustainable construc�on.

176
12. REFERENCES

1) IRC:24-2010 : Standard Specifica�ons and Code of Prac�ce for Road Bridges

Sec�on V: STEEL ROAD BRIDGES (LIMIT STATE METHOD)
2) IRC:22-2015 : Standard Specifica�ons and Code of Prac�ce for Road Bridges
Sec�on VI: Composite Construc�on (Limit States Design)
3) IS 800:2007 : Indian Standard: GENERAL CONSTRUCTION IN STEEL — CODE OF
PRACTICE
4) EN 1993-1-4-2006 : Eurocode 3 - Design of steel structures - Part 1-4: General
rules - Supplementary rules for stainless steels
5) IS 6911 : 2017 : Indian Standard: STAINLESS STEEL PLATE, SHEET AND STRIP
SPECIFICATION
6) EN 10088 Stainless steels - Part 1-4

177