Basic Definitions

What is Mechanics?
Mechanics is the science of motion, which is a change in
the position of a body with respect to time. Mechanics
studies the interactions between a moving body and the
forces acting on it. Hence:
Classical Mechanics:
Is the science Deals with the motion of objects through
absolute space & time in the Newtonian sense.

The Coordinate System:

In order to define the position of a body in space, it is
necessary to have a reference system. In mechanics we
use a coordinate system. The basic type of coordinate
system is the Cartesian or rectangular coordinate
system. The position of a point in such system is
specified by three numbers or coordinates, x, y, and z.
In case of a moving point, the coordinates change with
time; that is, x, y, and z are functions of the quantity t.

The particle (or mass point):

The particle is a thing that has mass but does not have
spatial extension. It is an approximation of a very small
body, or one whose size is relatively unimportant in a
particular discussion. The earth, for example, might be
treated as a particle in Celestial mechanics.
 Physical Quantities:
The observational data of physics are expressed in terms
of certain fundamental entities called physical quantities,
for example, energy, time, force, and so on.
It has been found that it is possible to define all of the
physical quantities of mechanics in terms of three basic
ones, namely length, time and mass.

Basic Units in (SI System):

1- The Unit of Length (meter):
The meter is the distance that light travels during a time
interval of exactly 1/299,792,458 second
2- The Unit of Time (second):
It is the time required for exactly 9,192,631,770
oscillations of a particular atomic transition of the
isotope cesium 133.
3- The Unit of Mass (kilogram):
It is the mass of a cylinder of platinum-iridium that kept
at the Bureau of Metric Standards.

Changing units:
Recall: the prefixes of the SI Units:
Factor 109 106 103 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12

Prefix Giga- Mega- Kilo- Centi- Milli- Micro- Nano- Pico-

Symbol G M K c m μ n p
Check point:

- How many microns make up 1Km?

103m 106μm
1Km = 1Km (1) = 1Km ( ____ ) ( _____ ) = 109 μm
1Km 1m

Dimensions:
The dimension of any physical quantity can be written as
[M]α [L]β [T]γ where α, β, and γ are powers of their
respective dimension. For example, the dimension of
acceleration a is
⎡L /T ⎤ −2
a=⎢ = [ L ][T ]
⎣ T ⎥⎦

Note:
The dimension of a quantity ≠ its units

Dimensional Analysis:

1- Dimensional analysis is a powerful tool that can be

used to determine whether the result of a calculation has
even the possibility of being correct or not. I.e, for any
equation:
the dimensions on the LHS = the dimension of all physical
quantities on the RHS.
Check point:

Is the following relation correct or not?

1/ 2
⎛ gRe2 ⎞
vc = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Rc ⎠

2- Dimensional analysis can also be used as to obtain a

rough relationship between physical quantities.
Consider the simple pendulum; It consists of a small mass
m attached to the end of a massless string of length l.
When displaced from its equilibrium position it swings
because gravity g tries to bring back the mass to its
minimum height above the ground. The time it takes to
perform one complete cycle of its motion is called its
period τ.
The question now is:
In the absence of friction, air resistance and all other
dissipative forces, how does the pendulum period τ
depend on any physical parameters that characterize the
pendulum and its environment?
Let assume that
τ ∝ mα l β g γ
whose dimensional relationship must be

[T] 1 = [M]α [L]β ([L]γ [T] −2γ)

Matching the dimensions of RHS with LHS we find that;

 α = 0, γ = -1/2 and, β + γ = 0, or β = 1/2. Thus, we conclude
that

l
τ∝
g

Note:

When trigonometric functions are involved, their lack

of dimensionality prevents dimensional analysis.
 1.3. Vectors:

Physical Vectors
Scalars
quantities

‰ A scalar can be completely ‰ A vector needs both magnitude

defined by magnitude. and direction to be defined.

‰ Examples: mass, density, ‰ Examples: displacement,

volume, and energy. velocity, acceleration, and force.

‰ Its value is independent of ‰ Its value is coordinate system

any chosen coordinates. dependent.

‰ Mathematically, scalars obey ‰ Mathematically, vectors need a

the normal algebraic rules of special treatment known as
addition, multiplication and so on. Vectors Algebra.

Note:

It is customary to use a distinguishing mark,

such as an arrow ( A ) or bold litter (A), to
indicate a vector.
 Vector Algebra
A given vector A can be specified either by:
- Its magnitude (A) and its
direction (angle) relative to
some arbitrarily chosen
coordinate system.

- or by the set of its components,

or projections onto the coordinate
axes , i.e. in 2D:( Ax , Ay).

Rules of Vector Algebra:

1- Equality of Vectors; Æ
B
The equation
A=B
or Æ
(Ax, Ay, Az) = (Bx, By, Bz)
is equivalent to the three equations
Ax=Bx Ay=By Az=Bz

Note:
Two vectors are equal if, and only if, their respective
components are equal.

2- Vector Addition:
The addition of two vectors is defined by the equation
 A + B = (Ax + Bx, Ay + By, Az + Bz) (1)

3- Vectors addition has two important properties:

Commutative Law A+B = B+A

Associative Law A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C

4- Vector Subtraction:
Subtraction of a given vector B from the vector A is
equivalent to adding -B to A.

5- The Null Vector:

The vector O = (0,0,0) is called the null vector.

6- Multiplication by a Scalar:
If c is a scalar and A is a vector,
cA = c(Ax, Ay, Az) = (cAx, cAy, cAz) = Ac
Geometrically, the vector cA is parallel to A and is c
times the length of A. When c = -1, the vector -A is one
whose direction is the reverse of that of A.

Joining (2) & (6), we get what called the distributive law:

c(A + B) = c(Ax + Bx, Ay + By, Az + Bz)

= (c(Ax + Bx), c(Ay + By), c(Az + Bz»
= (cAx + cBx, cAy + cBy, cAz + cBz)
= cA + cB
7- Magnitude of a Vector;
The magnitude of a vector A, denoted by |A| or by A, is
defined as,

A= A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 (2)

8- The Unit Vectors:

A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is unity. Unit
vectors are often assigned by the symbol e, The three
unit vectors
ex = (1,0,0) ey = (0,1,0) ez = (0,0,1)

z
The common used unit vectors
for Cartesian coordinates are
i, j, and k, where, k
i y
x
ex = i ey = j ez = k j

1.4. The Scalar Product:

Given two vectors A and B, the scalar or ” dot " product ,
A.B is the scalar defined by the equation

A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz (3)

Main properties of the scalar product:
‰ It is commutative,

A.B = B.A (4)

‰ It is distributive,

A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C (5)

‰ It is a scalar, so its value is independent of choice of

coordinates. If vector A is expressed as (A, 0, 0) and the
vector B as (B cosθ, B sinθ, 0), then,

Α . Β = ΑxΒx = Α(Β cos θ) = |A| |B| cosθ (6)

‰ Hence, The geometrical interpretation of A . B is that it

is the projection of A onto B times the length of B.

‰ The cosine of the angle between the two vectors is

given by:
A .B A .B
cos θ = = (7)
AB AB

‰ If A. B = 0 , and neither A nor B is null, then (cosθ = 0)

and A is ⊥ to B.
Similarly; i.i =j.j = k.k= 1
i.j =j.k = k.i= 0
1.5. The Vector Product:
Given two vectors A and B, the vector or ” cross "
product , A x B is a vector whose components are given by
the equation

A x B = (AyBz – AzBy , AzBx – AxBz , AxBy – AyBx ) (8)

Main properties of the vector product:

‰ It is anti-commutative,

AxB=–BxA (9)
‰ It is distributive,

A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C (10)

‰ Multiplication by a Scalar:

n (A x B) = (n A) x B = A x (n B) (11)

‰ It is a vector, so it can be expressed in ijk form as;

A x B = i (AyBz – AzBy ) + j (AzBx – AxBz ) + k (AxBy – AyBx )

Each term between brackets is equal to a determinant,

Ay Az Az Ax Ax Ay
A×B = i +j +k
By Bz Bz Bx Bx By
 i j k
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Or; (12)
Bx By Bz

‰ The magnitude of the cross product can be calculated

by squared both sides of (8). This can be reduced to;

| Α x Β | = ΑΒ(1− cos2 θ)1/2 = |A| |B| sinθ (13)

Where θ is the angle between A and B.

Note:

The cross product of two parallel vectors is null.

Hence,
i x i =j x j = k x k= 0

‰ The direction of the resultant vector is ⊥ to the plane

containing A and B. Therefore, from (13) we can write

Α x Β = (A B sinθ) n (14)

Where n is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A

and B. The sense of n is given by the right –hand rule.
Hence,
i x j =k , j x k =i , k x i= j
Note:

The cross product A x B has

1- A magnitude of A B sinθ which is equal to the area
of the parallelogram with sides A and B shown by
the shaded area in the Figure.
2- A direction ⊥ to the plane containing A and B.

AxB

B
θ
θA
1.7. Triple Products:
The expression

Ax Ay Az
A.(B × C) = Bx By Bz
(15)
Cx Cy Cz

is called scalar triple product of A, B and C.

While, the expression

A x (B x C) = B(A.C) – C(A.B) (16)

is called the vector triple product of A, B and C.

Note:

Eq. (16) can be remembered easily as

The “ back minus cab” rule.

1.9. Derivative of a vector:

Previously we were concerned mainly with vector algebra.
Now, we will begin to study the calculus of vectors and its
use in the description of the motion of particles.
Consider a vector A, whose components are functions of a

single variable u which is usually the time t, i.e,

A(u) = i Ax(u) + j Ay(u) + k Az(u)

The derivative of A with respect to u is defined by

dA dAx dAy dA
=i +j +k z (17)
du du du du

Note:

The derivative of a vector is a vector whose components

are ordinary derivatives.

Some vector calculus rules: (18)

d d A dB d dA dB
a- ( A + B ) = + c- ( A.B) = .B + A.
du du du du du du
d dn dA d dA dB
b- ( nA ) = A + n d- ( A × B) = ×B + A×
du du du du du du
Notice that it is necessary to preserve the order of the
terms in the derivative of the cross product.
1.10. Velocity & Acceleration In rectangular
coordinates:
In a given reference system, the position of a particle can
be specified by a single vector. This vector is called the
position vector of the particle.
In rectangular coordinates, the position vector is simply

r=ix+jy+kz (19)

For a moving particle, these components are functions of

the time.
The time derivative of r is called the velocity, (v), which is
given by;

dr
v= = i x& + j y& + k z& (20)
dt

The vector dr/dt expresses both the direction and the rate
of motion.

As Δt approaches zero,
the point P' approaches P,
and the direction of the
vector Δr/Δt approaches the
direction of the tangent to
the path at P, which is dr/dt.
Note:

The velocity vector is always tangent to the path of

motion.

The magnitude of the velocity is called the speed (v). In

rectangular components the speed is just

v=
ds
dt
(
= v = x& 2 + y& 2 + z& 2 )
1/ 2
(21)

where s is the distance.

The time derivative of the velocity is called the

acceleration (a). Hence;

dv d 2 r
a= = = i &x& + j &y& + k &z& (22)
dt dt 2
 Some different types of motion

Projectile Motion Circular Motion Rolling Wheel

The 2
r = r1 + r2 where;
position r = i bt + j (ct-
gt
) r = i b sin ω t + j b cos ω t r1 = i b ω t + j b
2
vector r2 = i b sin ω t + j b cos ω t
The v = v1 + v 2
v = i b + j (c-gt ) v = i bω cosω t − j bω sinω t
velocity = i (bω + bω cosω t ) − j b ω sin ω t

The
a = −j g a = − i bω 2 sin ω t − j bω 2 cos ω t a = −i bω 2 sinω t − j b ω 2 cos ω t
acceleration
a = −ω 2 r

Parabola Circle Cycloid

The path
1.11. Velocity and Acceleration in Plane Polar
Coordinates:

To express the position of a particle moving in a plane, it is

often convenient to use polar coordinates : r, θ.
Using Vectors, the position of the particle can be written as

the product of the radial distance r by a unit radial vector er:

r = r er
which are both functions of the time.

If we differentiate with respect to t, we get the velocity ;

dr de
v= = r&e r + r r (23)
dt dt
A study of the figure shows that;

Δer ≅ | Δer| eθ
≅ |er| Δθ eθ
≅ Δθ eθ

Dividing by Δt and taking the limit gives;

de r dθ
= eθ
Hence, we can rewrite eq.( 23 ) as dt dt

v = r&er + rθ& eθ (24)

where, r& is known as the radial component of the velocity

vector, and rθ& as the transverse component.

To find the acceleration vector, we take the derivative of the

velocity with respect to time. This gives

a=
dv
dt
( ) (
= &r& − rθ& 2 e r + rθ&& + 2r&θ& eθ ) (25)

where, the radial component of the acceleration vector is

ar = &r& − rθ& 2 (26)

and the transverse component is

aθ = rθ&& + 2r&θ& =
1 d 2&
r dt
rθ ( ) (27)

Note:

Path r θ dr/dt dθ/dt ar aθ

Circle const. vari. 0 θ& bθ& 2 bθ&&
(b) toward the center ⊥r
Radial line vari. const. r& 0 &r& 0

If r and θ both vary, then the general expression (25) gives the
acceleration.
1.12 Velocity and Acceleration in Cylindrical &
Spherical Coordinates:

Cylindrical Coordinates
The position vector of a particle can be described in cylindrical
coordinates (R, φ , z) as

r = ReR + zez (28)

In view of the facts that;

deR /dt = eφ dφ /dt ,
deφ /dt = -eR dφ /dt and
dez /dt = 0
the velocity and acceleration vectors
can be given by the following equations:

v = R& e R + Rφ& eφ + z&e z (29)

a= R( R ) ( )
&& − Rφ&2 e + Rφ&& + 2 R& φ& e + &z&e
φ z (30)

Spherical Coordinates

The position vector of a particle can be described in Spherical

coordinates (r, θ , φ ) as

r = rer (31)
where the direction of er is specified by the two angles φ and θ.
Thus we introduce two more unit vectors, eφ and eθ, as shown in
the Figure .
Because any vector can be expressed
in terms of its projections onto the
x,y,z axes as;

er = i(er .i) + j(er .j) + k (er .k ) (32)

The relationships between the ijk

and er eφ eθ can be derived as the followings;

er = i (sinθ cosφ ) + j(sinθ sin φ ) + k (cosθ )

eθ = i (cosθ sin φ ) + j(cosθ sin φ ) − k (sinθ )
eφ = −i(sin φ ) + j(cosφ )

Using the differentiating of the above equations, the velocity

and acceleration vectors can be given by

v = r&e r + rφ& sin θ eφ + rθ& eθ (33)

( ) ( )
a = &r& − rθ& 2 − rφ 2 sin 2 θ e r + rθ&& + 2r&θ& − rφ&2 sin θ cosθ eθ
(
+ rφ&&sin θ + 2r&φ& sin θ + 2rθ&φ& cosθ e ) φ
(34)
2.1 Newton's laws of Motion:

In 1687, Isaac Newton laid down three fundamental laws of

motion, which are:
1st . Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform
motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that
state by forces impressed upon it.

2nd . The change of motion is proportional to the net force

impressed and is made in the direction of that force.

3rd . To every action there is always an equal reaction;

‰ Newton's First law (Inertial Reference Systems):
The first law describes a common property of matter, known
as inertia.
What is Inertia?
It is the resistance of a matter to change its state of
motion.
This means that; in the absence of applied forces, matter
simply persists in its current velocity state-forever.

Inertial Frames of Reference:

- A mathematical description of the motion of a particle
requires the selection of a frame of reference, or a set of
coordinates according to which the position, velocity, and
acceleration of the particle can be specified.

- Uniformly moving reference frames (e.g. those considered

at 'rest' or moving with constant velocity in a straight line)
are called inertial reference frames.

- If we can neglect the effect of the earth’s rotations, a

frame of reference fixed in the earth is an inertial
reference frame.

- Newton’s laws are only applicable to inertial reference

frames.

‰ Newton's Second and Third Laws (Mass and Force):

- The physical quantity that measures inertia is called mass.
- The more massive an object is, the more resistive it is to
acceleration.
Suppose we have two masses m1, m2 on a frictionless surface.
Now imagine someone pushing the two masses together, and
then suddenly releasing them so that they fly apart,
achieving speeds v1 and v2. The ratio of the two masses can
be expressed as;
m2 v1
=
m1 v 2

Or; Δ(m1v1 ) = −Δ(m2 v 2 )

The (-) appears because the final velocities v1 and v2 are in
opposite directions. If we divide by Δt and take limits as Δt ~
0, we obtain

d
(m1v1 ) = − d (m2 v 2 ) (35)
dt dt

According to Newton's 2nd law, this “change of motion” is

proportional to the force caused it;

F∝
d
(mv )
dt
Defining the unit in the SI system, Newton's 2nd law can be
expressed in the familiar form:

F=
d
(mv ) = ma (36)
dt
Note:

The force F on the left side of Equation (36) is

the net force Fnet acting upon the mass m.
Equation (35) is equivalent to

F1= -F2 (37)

Which is Newton's 3rd law, that states; two interacting

bodies exert equal and opposite forces upon one another.

Linear Momentum:
Since, the product of mass and velocity, mv, is called linear
momentum, P, the 2nd law can be rewritten as;

dp
F=
dt
(38)
which means that;
The time rate of change of an object’s linear momentum is
proportional to the applied force, F.

Similarly, Equation (35), which describes the behavior of two

mutually interacting masses, is equivalent to
d
(p1 + p 2 ) = 0
dt
or
( p1 + p2 ) = cons. (39)

In other words, Newton's 3rd law implies that the total

momentum of two mutually interacting bodies is a constant.
2.2. Motion with Constant Force (Rectilinear
Motion):
When a moving particle remains on a single straight line, the
motion is said to be rectilinear. In this case, we can choose
the x-axis as the line of motion. The general equation of
motion is then
F (x, x&, t ) = m&x& (40)

The simplest case is when F is constant. In this case a is

constant ;
F
&x& = = constant = a (41)
m
Integrating with respect to time:

x& = v = at + v0 (42)

x = 12 at 2 + v0t + x0 (43)

where v0 is the velocity and x0 is the position at t = 0. from

(42) & (43 ) we obtain;

2a( x − x0 ) = v 2 − v0
2
(44)

There are a number of fundamental applications for such

case.
For example, the acceleration of a body falling freely near
the surface of the Earth, neglecting air resistance, is nearly
constant.
2.3 Forces that Depend on Position (The Concepts
of Kinetic and Potential Energy):
If the force is independent of velocity or time, then the
differential equation for rectilinear motion is simply

⎛ dx dx& ⎞
( )
F x = mx = m⎜
&& ⎟ = mv
dv
⎝ dt dx ⎠ dx
2
d ( v ) dT (45)
= 12 m =
dx dx

The quantity T = 2 mv is called the kinetic energy of the

1 2

particle. Taking the integral of (45 ):

x
W = ∫ F ( x ) dx = T − T0 (46)
x0

Where W is the work done on the particle by the impressed

force F(x). This work is equal to the change in the kinetic
energy of the particle.

Let us define another function V(x) such that;

x x
W = ∫ F ( x ) dx = − ∫ dV = −V ( x ) + V(x0 ) = T − T0 (47)
x0 x0

The function V(x) is called the potential energy. From (47);

T0 + V(x0 ) = T + V (x ) ≡ E (48)

E is known as the total mechanical energy of the particle.

Note:

1- E the sum of the kinetic and potential energies

is constant throughout the motion of the particle.

2- The force is a function only of the position x.

Such a force is said to be conservative.

3- v=0 when V(x)= E . This point known as

“the turning point”

Exp (2.3.1): Free Fall

The motion of a freely falling body is an example of
conservative motion. In this case:
dV
F =− = − mg
Hence; dx
V = mgx + C

We can choose C = 0, which means that V = 0 when x = 0. The

energy equation is then
1
2 mv 2 + mgx = E
For instance, let the body be projected upward with initial
speed v0 from the origin x=0. These values give;
1
mv 2 + mgx = 12 mv02 + 0
so; 2

v 2 = v02 − 2 gx
The turning point of the motion, which is in this case the
maximum height, is given by setting v = 0. This gives
 v02
h = xmax =
2g (49)

Exp (2.3.3): Morse Function

The potential energy of a vibrating diatomic molecule as a
function of x is given by;

[
V ( x ) = V0 1 − e − ( x − x 0 ) / δ ] −V
2
0

Show that x0 the separation of the two atoms is min, and its
value is V(x0)=-V0 .

Solution:
V(x) is min when its derivative (w.r.t) x is zero;
dV ( x)
F ( x) = − =0
dx
2
V0
δ
(1 − e − ( x − x0 ) / δ
)(e − ( x − x0 ) / δ
)= 0
1 − e − ( x − x0 ) / δ = 0
ln(1) = −( x − x0 ) / δ
∴ x = x0

Substituting in the main equation, the value of the min V(x)

can be found as;
V(x0)=-V0
2.4. Velocity-Dependent Forces (Fluid Resistance and
Terminal Velocity):
The force that acts on a body often is a function of the
velocity of the body. For example, the viscous resistance
exerted on a body moving through a fluid depends on its
velocity. In such case, the differential equation of motion may
be written in either of the two forms
dv
F0 + F(v) = m
dt
or dv (50)
F0 + F(v) = mv
dx
Here F0 is any constant force that does not depend on v.
Since, F(v) is a complex function and must be found through
experimental measurements, it can be replaced by the following
approximation :
F(v) = c1v − c2v v
or F(v) = −v(c1 + c2 v ) (51)

where c1 and c2 are constants whose values depend on the size

and shape of the body. For spheres in air,

c1 = 1.55 × 10-4D & c2 = 0.22 D2

where D is the diameter of the sphere in meters.

For small v the linear term in F(v) can be used , while the
quadratic term dominates at large v.
Note:

1- The absolute-value sign is necessary on the last

term of (51) because the force of fluid resistance
is always opposite to the direction of v.

To decide whether the case is linear or quadratic, the ratio of

the latter to the former usually used;

c2 v v 0.22 v v D 2
= = 1.4 × 10 3 v D (52)
c1v 1.55 × 10 - 4 vD

If the value of v will make the ratio exceeds 1 then it is a

quadratic case, otherwise, it is a linear one.

‰ Horizontal Motion through a Fluid

1- With Linear Resistance (Exp.2.4.1)
Suppose a block is projected with initial velocity v0 on a smooth
horizontal surface and that there is air resistance such that
the linear term dominates.
Then, in the direction of the motion, F0 = 0, and F(v) = -c1v. The
differential equation of motion is then;
dv
− c1v = m
dt
By integrating,
v
mdv m v
t = −∫ = − ln( )
cv
v0 1
c1 v0
Solving for v as a function of t gives;
v = v0e− c1t / m
A second integration gives
t
x = ∫ v0e − c1t / m dt
0

or
x=
mv0
c1
(
1 − e − c1t / m )
Showing that the block approaches a limiting position given by;
xlim = mv0 / c1

2- With Quadratic Resistance (Exp.2.4.2)

If the parameters are such that the quadratic term dominates,
then
dv
− c2v 2 = m
dt
Similarly we can get t, v and the position x as a function of time.

‰ Vertical Fall through a Fluid (Terminal Velocity):

1- Linear case:
For an object falling vertically in a resisting fluid, the force F0
in (50) is the weight of the object, -mg. For the linear case of
fluid resistance, the differential equation of motion is;
dv
− mg − c1v = m
dt
Integrating and solving for v, we get
mg mg
v=− +( + v0 )e − c1t / m
c1 c1
After a sufficient time (t >> m/c1), the velocity approaches a
limiting value ( -mg/c1). This limiting velocity of a falling body is
called the terminal velocity (vt). Hence the terminal speed is;

mg
vt =
c1
Note:

At the velocity vt the force of resistance is just equal

and opposite to the weight of the body so that the
net force is zero, and so the acceleration is zero.

The value of vt/g is known as the characteristic time of the

motion (τ). I.e ,
vt m
τ= =
g c1
2- Quadratic case:
In this case F(v) ∝ v2 and the differential equation of motion is;
dv
− mg − c2v 2 = m
dt
Similarly, the terminal speed is ;

mg
vt =
c2
And the characteristic time is;

vt m
τ= =
g c2 g
3.1 Introduction to Oscillations:

‰ In order to describe the complicated forms of

periodic motion around us, usually we start by an analysis
of the simplest form of oscillations, the simple harmonic
motion.
‰ The main two characteristics of the simple harmonic
motion are;
(1) It obeys the Superposition principle . Which means it
is described by a second-order, linear differential
equation with constant coefficients. Thus, if two
particular solutions are found, their sum is also a solution.
(2) It has Amplitude-independent periods .That is, the
periodic time of the motion, is independent of the
maximum displacement from equilibrium (the amplitude) .

3.2. Linear Restoring Force: Harmonic Motion

- Consider a mass m on a frictionless surface attached to

a wall by means of a spring.
- Let Xe is the unstretched length of
the spring. This position represents
the equilibrium position where the
potential energy is a minimum.
- If the mass is pushed or pulled away from this position,
the spring will be either compressed or stretched, and
then exert a force on the mass.
- This force will always attempt to restore it to its
equilibrium position.
- To calculate the motion of the mass, we need an
expression for this restoring force .
According to Hooke's law The spring's restoring force is
given by ;
F(x) = -kx (53)

where k is the spring constant. In fact, this law is valid

only for small displacements from equilibrium, where the
restoring force is linear.
Newton's second law of motion can now be written as
k
&x& + x=0 (54)
m

Equation (54) can be solved in many ways. But we are

looking for a solution which can show that the motion is
both periodic and bounded. Sine and cosine functions
both can exhibit that sort of behavior. Thus, a possible
solution is;
x = A sin(ω0t + φ0 ) (55)

where ω0 =
k
m (56)

is the angular frequency of the system.

The motion represented by Eq. (55) is shown in the
following Fig.;

The motion exhibits the following features:

(1) The motion repeats itself after a time T0 known as the

period of the motion. Which is the time required for a
phase advance of 2π , and is given by
ω0 (t + T0 ) + φ0 = ω0t + φ0 + 2π
Or;
2π
T0 =
ω0
(2) The motion is bounded; that is, it is confined within
the limits − A ≤ x ≤ + A . Where, A is called the amplitude
of the motion and it is independent of ω0 .

(3) The phase angle φ0 is the initial value of the sine

function. It determines the value of the displacement x
at time t = 0. I.e, x (t = 0) = A sin(φ0 )
(4) The term frequency , f0 , refer to the reciprocal of
the period of the oscillation or
1 ω0
f0 = =
T0 2π
(57)
1 k
f0 =
2π m

The unit of frequency (cycles per second, or s-l) is called

the hertz (Hz).

(5) Constants of the Motion A and φ0 , can be determined

from the initial conditions as follows:

x (0) = A sin(φ0 ) = x0
x& (0) = ω0 A cos(φ0 ) = v0 (58)
ω 0 x0
∴ tan φ0 =
v0

Assuming that the mass initially displaced from

equilibrium to a position x0 where it is then released with
initial velocity v0 .

3.2.1 Simple Harmonic Motion as the Projection

of a Rotating Vector

Imagine a vector A rotating at a constant angular velocity

ω0 . Let this vector denote the position of a point P
moves in uniform circular motion. The projection of A
traces out simple harmonic motion.
Suppose the vector A makes an
angle θ with the x-axis at some
time t, as shown in the Figure.
Since

θ& = ω0 and θ = ω0t + θ 0

Thus, the projection of P onto the
x-axis is given by

x = A cos θ = A cos(ω0t + θ 0 )

Or with the equivalence expression:

x = A sin(ω0t + φ0 )

Where φ0 −θ0 = π/2

Or we could use a sum of sine and cosine functions to
represent the general solution for harmonic motion:
x = A sin φ0 cos ω0t + A cos φ0 sin ω0t
= C cos ω0t + D sin ω0t
(59)

Note that:

C
tan φ0 = , A2 = C 2 + D 2
D
3.2.2 Effect of a Constant External Force

When a light spring supports

a block of mass m vertically,
the total force acting on the
mass is given by adding the
weight mg to the restoring force.
I.e,

F(x) = -k(X - Xe)+ mg (60)

where the positive direction is down.

Example (3.2.1):
Suppose that X-Xe=D1 .
If the block is furthermore pulled downward a distance
D2 from the equilibrium position and then released at
time t = 0, find:
(a) the resulting motion.
(b) the velocity of the block when it passes back upward
through the equilibrium position.
(c) the acceleration of the block at the top of its
oscillatory motion.
Solution:
First, for the equilibrium position we have
Fx = 0 = -kD1 + mg
This gives us the value of the spring constant k:
mg
k=
D1
From this we can find the angular frequency of
oscillation:
k g
ω0 = =
m D1
We will express the motion in the form
x = C cos ω0t + D sin ω0t
Then,
x& = −Cω0 sin ω0t + Dω0 cos ω0t

From the initial conditions (58) we find

x0 = D2 = C & v0 = 0 = Dω0 D=0
The motion is, therefore, given by

⎛ g ⎞
(a)
x = D2 cos⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟
⎝ D1 ⎠
Note that the mass m does not appear in the final
expression. The velocity is then
g ⎛ g ⎞
x& = − D2 sin ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟
D1 ⎝ D1 ⎠
and the acceleration
g ⎛ g ⎞
&x& = − D2 cos⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟
D1 ⎝ D1 ⎠
As the block passes upward through the equilibrium
position, (one-quarter period), its velocity is;

g
(b) x& = − D2 (center)
D1

At the top of the swing, (one-half period), the

acceleration is;

g
(c)
&x& = D2 (top)
D1
In the case Dl = D2 the downward acceleration at the top
of the swing is just g. This means that the block, at that
particular instant, is in free fall; that is, the spring is
exerting zero force on the block.

Example (3.2.2):
The Simple Pendulum

The simple pendulum consists

of a small mass m swinging at
the end of a light string of
length l. The motion is along
a circular arc defined by the
angle θ, as shown in the Fig.
The restoring force is ; Fs = -mg sin θ.
Therefore, the differential equation of motion is;
m&s& = −mg sin θ

Since s = lθ and, for small θ, sinθ =θ, we can write the

differential equation of motion as follows:

g g
&s& + s=0 or θ&& + θ = 0 (61)
l l

Although the motion is along a curved path, the

differential equation is mathematically identical to that
of the linear harmonic oscillator;
k
&x& + x = 0
m
Thus, for the angles that the approximation sin θ = θ is
valid, we can conclude that the motion is simple harmonic
with angular frequency
g
ω0 = (62)
l

and period
2π l
T0 = = 2π
ω0 g (63)
3.3. Energy Considerations in HM:

Consider a particle under the action of a linear restoring

force Fx = -kx. Let us calculate the work done by an
external force Fext in moving the particle from the
equilibrium position (x = 0) to some position x. We have,
Fext = -Fx = kx, so

x x
k 2
W = ∫ Fext dx = ∫ kx dx = x
0 0
2
This work is stored in the spring as potential energy: V(x),
where
V ( x) = 12 kx 2
The total energy, is given by the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies, namely,

E = 12 mx& 2 + 12 kx 2 (64)

The total energy is constant if there are no other forces

except the restoring force acting on the particle.
This constant energy E is totally in the form of kinetic
energy at the center, where x = 0 and x& = ± vmax ,and it is
all potential energy at the extrema, where x& = 0 & x = ± A
Thus, we can write;
E = 12 mvmax
2
= 12 kA2 (65)
Example (3.3.1):
The Energy Function of the Simple Pendulum
The potential energy of the simple pendulum is given by
the expression
V = mgh
where h is the vertical distance from the reference level.
From the figure we see that h = l - l cosθ, so

V(θ) = mgl (1 - cosθ)

For small θ we have approximately cosθ=1− θ 2/2. This gives

V (θ ) = 12 mglθ 2
or, equivalently, because s = lθ,
mg 2
V (s) = 1
2 s
l
Thus, the total energy is given by

mg 2
E = 12 ms& 2 + 12 s (66)
l

3.4. Damped Harmonic Motion :

Consider an object of mass m
is supported by a light spring
of constant k. We assume that
there is a viscous retarding
force (-cv) that is a linear
function of the velocity.
The differential equation of motion is, therefore,
m&x& + cx& + kx = 0
Or,
c k
&x& + x& + x = 0 (67)
m m

If we introduce the damping factor (γ) defined as

c
γ= (68)
2m
Eq.( 67 ) may rewritten as

&x& + 2γx& + ω02 x = 0 (69)

Simple sine or cosine solutions do not work, because of

the presence of the velocity-dependent term.
The suitable solution for this case is;

x (t ) = A1e − (γ −q ) t + A2 e − (γ + q ) t (70)
where
q = γ 2 − ω02 (71)
There are three possible situations:

I. q real > 0 (Overdamping)

II. q real = 0 (Critical damping )
III. q imaginary (Underdamping)

I. Overdamped case: Both exponents in Eq. (70) are real.

The constants A1 and A2 are determined by the initial
conditions. The motion is an exponential decay with two
different decay constants, (γ - q) and (γ + q). The mass
will be prevented from oscillating by the strong
damping force.

II. Critical damping case: Here q = 0. The two exponents

in Eq. (70) are each equal to γ. The general solution for
such case is given by;
x (t ) = Ate −γ t + Be −γ t

As in case I, the motion is

a returning to equilibrium
with no oscillation.

III. Underdamping case: If the constant γ is small

enough that q in Eq. (71) is imaginary. The motion, in this
case, is oscillatory but with an ultimate death. Let
introduce the constant ωd such that;
q = iωd
Then;
k c2
ωd = ω − γ =
2
0
2
− (72)
m 4m 2

Which is known as the angular frequency of the under-

damped oscillator.
The solution for the underdamped oscillator could be;

x (t ) = Ae −γ t cos (ω d t + θ 0 ) (73)
Or; x (t ) = Ae −γ t sin (ωd t + φ0 )

Note:

The solution for the underdamped oscillator is

nearly the same as that of the undamped oscillator but
with two differences:
1- The presence of the real exponential factor e-γ t leads
to a gradual death of the oscillations.
2- The underdamped oscillator vibrates a little more
slowly than the undamped oscillator does. I.e, ωd < ω0
because of the presence of the damping force.

The period of the underdamped oscillator is given by

2π 2π
Td = =
ωd ω02 − γ 2 (74)

Thus, in one complete period

the amplitude diminishes by
− γ Td
a factor e

Energy Considerations:

The total energy of the damped harmonic oscillator is

given by the sum of the kinetic and potential energies:
 E = 12 mx& 2 + 12 kx 2

For the undamped oscillator E is constant. To find E in

the damped harmonic oscillator let us differentiate the
above expression with respect to t:
dE
= mx&&x& + kxx& = (m&x& + kx) x&
dt

Using the differential equation of motion Eq. (67), we can

write;
dE
= −cx& 2 (75)
dt

Because this is always either zero or negative, the total

energy continually decreases.

Quality Factor:

The ratio of the energy stored in the oscillator to that

lost in a single period of oscillation is characterized by a
parameter Q, called the quality factor.
This factor is related to ωd by the relation;

ωd
Q=
2γ (76)
3.6. Forced Harmonic Motion:(Resonance)

Let us exert an external periodic force upon a damped

harmonic oscillator. When the driving frequency is close
to the natural frequency ω0 of the oscillator, a
remarkable phenomenon, called resonance , occurs.
Suppose that the applied force has the form of F0eiωt .
Thus, the equation of motion is
m&x& = − kx − cx& + F0eiωt (77)
Mathematically, the variable x is now a complex number.
Therefore, for the steady-state condition, we shall try a
solution of the complex exponential type;

x (t ) = Ae i (ωt −φ ) (78)

where the amplitude A and phase difference φ are

constants to be determined. Substituting from (78 ) into
Eq.( 77 ), and equating the real and imaginary parts,
yields the two following equations

A( k − mω 2 ) = F0 cos φ
cωA = F0 sin φ

From these two equations, we can obtain the following

relations;
 cω
tan φ =
k − mω 2
We can then solve for A, the amplitude of the steady-
state oscillation, as a function of the driving frequency;
F0
A(ω ) =
(k − mω ) 2 2
+ c 2ω 2
In terms of ω0 =k/m and γ = c/2m, we can write the above
expressions in another form as follows:

2γω
tan φ =
ω02 − ω 2 (79)

F0 / m
A(ω ) =
(ω 2
0 )
− ω 2 + 4γ 2ω 2
2 (80)

A plot of A(ω) versus ω shows

that the amplitude presumes
a maximum value at a certain
applied frequency ωr called
the amplitude resonant frequency,
or resonant frequency for short.
To find ωr we calculate dA/dω
from Eq. (80 ) and set the result
equal to zero. Thus;
 ωr2 = ω02 − 2γ 2
or; (81)
ωr2 = ωd2 − γ 2
When the damping is weak:
If γ << ω0 , the resonant frequency ωr , the freely running
damped oscillator frequency ωd , and the natural
frequency ω0 of the oscillator are essentially identical.
I.e; ωr ≈ ωd ≈ ω0

When the damping is strong:

If γ2 > ω02/2 , no amplitude resonance occurs, because
the amplitude then becomes a totally decreasing function
of ω0.

3.6.1. Amplitude at the Resonance Peak

The steady-state amplitude at the resonant frequency,

which we call Amax , is obtained from Eqs. (80) and (81).
The result is
F0 / m
Amax = (82)
2γ ω02 − γ 2
In the case of weak damping, we can neglect γ2 and write

F0
Amax ≈
2γmω0
In mechanical systems large resonant amplitudes may or
may not be desirable.
3.6.2. Sharpness of the Resonance: (Quality
Factor)
Let us consider the case of weak damping (ωr ≈ ωd≈ ω0).
Then, the expression for steady-state amplitude, Eq.
(80), can be written as:
Amaxγ
A(ω ) ≈
(ω0 − ω )2 + γ 2
The above equation shows that when |ω0–ω|=γ , or
equivalently, if ω = ω0 ± γ ,then

A2 = 12 Amax
2

This means that 2γ is a measure of the width of the

resonance curve Δω at half-energy points.
Recall, that the quality factor Q is given as;
ωd
Q=
2γ
Or, for weak damping case;
ω0
Q≈
2γ
Thus, the width of the resonance curve Δω is;
ω0
Δω = 2γ ≈ (83)
Q
Note:

A high Q results in sharp resonance.

3.6.3. Phase Angle:
The phase difference between the applied driving force
and the steady-state response is given by Eq. (79);

2γω
tan φ =
ω02 − ω 2 (84)

The plot of this relation shows

φ as a function of the driving
frequency ω.

1- For small ω: the phase

Difference is zero (φ =0)
and remains small. So;
the response is in phase with the driving force.

2-Near the resonance frequency:

Actually at ω = ωr, the phase angle φ increases to π /2 and
so; the response is 90o out of phase at this frequency.

3-For large values of ω: the value of φ approaches π,

hence; the motion of the system is just 180o out of
phase with the driving force .
3.6.4. Electrical-Mechanical Analogs
There is an exact analogy between a moving mechanical
system of masses and springs with frictional forces and
an electric circuit containing; inductance, capacitance,
and resistance. In fact, inductance L and charge q are
analogous to mass m and displacement x, respectively,
and potential difference is analogous to force. Similarly,
we see that the reciprocal of C is analogous to the
stiffness constant k of a spring, and the resistance R is
in analogy with the damping constant c for a mechanical
system. The following table summarizes the situation:

Mechanical Electrical
Displacement x Charge q
Velocity dx/dt Current dq/dt
Mass m Inductance L
Stiffness constant k Reciprocal of capacitance C-1
Damping constant c Resistance R
Force F Potential difference V
 General Motion of a Particle in 3D

4.1.General Principles:
In 3D, the vector form of the equation of motion is ;
dP
F= (85)
dt
where p = mv is the linear momentum of the particle.
This vector equation is equivalent to three scalar
equations in Cartesian coordinates;
Fx = m&x& Fy = m&y& Fz = m&z&
There is no general method for obtaining an analytic
solution to the above equations of motion. In order to
develop a powerful analytical technique that can be
applied in such case, we need to introduce some main
principles;

1- The Work Principle:

If we take the dot product of both sides of Eq. (85) with
the velocity v:
dP d ( mv )
F⋅v = .v = .v
dt dt
But d (v.v)/dt = 2 v.v& , then;

d 1 dT
F⋅v = ( 2 mv.v) =
dt dt
in which T is the kinetic energy. Substituting by v = dr/dt,
then integrating, we obtain;
 ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ dT = ΔT (86)

The line integral, on the left-hand side, represents the

work done on the particle by the net force F as the
particle moves along its trajectory from point A to point
B. The right-hand side of the equation is the net change
in the kinetic energy of the particle. Hence, Eq. (86)
states that;
The work done on a particle by the net force acting on
it, in moving from one position in space to another, is
equal to the difference in the kinetic energy of the
particle at those two positions.

2- Conservative Forces

If the force acting on a particle were conservative, it

could be defined as the derivative of a scalar potential
energy function V, i.e; F = -dV(r)/dr.
Hence the work done by such a force in moving a particle
from point A to point B is

∫ F. dr = − ∫ dV (r ) = − ΔV = V ( A) − V ( B) (87)

Thus, we no longer need a detailed knowledge of the

motion of the particle from A to B to calculate the
work done on it by a conservative force.
All what we need to know is the potential energy at
the endpoints of the motion.

But the work done was also equal to the change in kinetic
energy of the particle,
W=ΔT = T(B) - T(A)
Therefore, we find that;

Etot = V(A) + T(A) = V(B) + T(B) = constant (88)

This is known as the conservation of total energy

principle, which is applicable only in case of conservative
force.

What is the conservative force?

A conservative force is a force whose work is path-
independent.
In other words, in moving an object from point A to point
B, the total work done is independent of the path that
the object took.
Therefore, when F is conservative the work, W, is zero
for any simple closed path:

∫ F .dr = 0
The most familiar conservative forces are gravity, the
electric force, and spring force.
4.2.The Del Operator;
We can now express a conservative force F vectorially as

∂V ∂V ∂V
F = −i −j −k (89)
∂x ∂y ∂z
This equation can be written as;

F = −∇ V (90)

Where we have introduced the vector operator del;

∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
The expression ∇ V is also called the gradient of V and is
sometimes written grad V.
Taking the curl for both sides of Equation (90), gives;

curl F = ∇ × F = −(∇ × ∇V ) = 0
since the curl of any grad is identically zero.

Hence, the condition that a force be conservative is;

⎛ ∂ F ∂F ⎞ ⎛ ∂ F ∂ F ⎞ ⎛ ∂Fy ∂Fx ⎞
∇ × F = i⎜⎜ z − y ⎟⎟ + j⎜ x − z ⎟ + k ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ ∂y ∂ z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠

Similarly, if ∇ × F = 0 , then F can be derived from a

scalar function V by the operation F = −∇ V .
4.3. Independent (Separable) Forces:

Suppose that we have a force where the coordinates x, y,

and z are independent variables:

F = iFx(x) + jFy (y) + kFz(z)

Forces of this type are separable. The curl of such a

force is identically zero:
i j k
∇ × F = ∂ / ∂x ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂z
Fx ( x) Fy ( y ) Fz ( z )

Therefore, the force is conservative because each

partial derivative is of the mixed type and vanishes
identically. In this case the equations of motion for each
component can be solved by the methods described under
rectilinear motion in Chapter 2.

4.3.1. (Projectile Motion)

‰ No Air Resistance

For simplicity, we first consider the case of a projectile

moving with no air resistance. Only one force, gravity,
acts on the projectile, and, as we shall see, it affects
only its vertical motion.
Choosing the z-axis to be vertical, we have the following
equation of motion:
d 2r
m 2 = −k mg (91)
dt
Let us assume g is constant.
Then, the force is conservative
and of the separable type.
Let v0 is the initial speed of the
projectile, and the origin of the
coordinate system is its initial
position.

We can calculate the velocity of the projectile at any

instant of time by integrating Eq. (91);
dr
v= = −k gt + v 0 (92)
dt

In terms of unit vectors:

The initial velocity is

v 0 = i v0 cos α + k v0 sin α (93)

Hence, the velocity at any instant is

v = i v0 cos α + k (v0 sin α − gt ) (94)

And the position vector is;

(
r = i (v0 cos α )t + k (v0 sin α )t − 12 gt 2 ) (95)
In terms of components: the components of the velocity
at any instant v are;

v x = (v0 cos α )
(96)
vy = 0
v z = (v0 sin α − gt )
And the components of the position of the projectile at
any instant are;
x = (v0 cos α ) t
y=0
(97)
z = (v0 sin α ) t − gt
1
2
2

Since the only applied force is conservative, the speed of

the projectile can be calculated as a function of its
height, z, using the conserved energy equation Eq. (42);

v 2 = v0 − 2 gz
2
(98)

Using the first of Equations (97) to solve for t and then

substitute the resulting expression in the third of
Equations (97), we get;
⎛ ⎞ 2
z = (tan α ) x − ⎜⎜ 2
g
⎟⎟ x (99)
⎝ 2v0 cos α ⎠
2
We can now see that the path of the projectile is a
parabola as it is shown in the previous Figure.
Main properties of the projectile motion:
(1) The maximum height:
Using Eq. (98) and noting
that at maximum height zmax
the vertical component of
the velocity of the α

projectile is zero so that

its velocity is in the R
horizontal direction and
equal to the constant horizontal component, v0 cos α.
Thus;
v02 cos2 α = v0 − 2 gzmax
2

Then;
v02 sin 2 α
z max = (100)
2g

(2) The time it takes to reach maximum height:

The time it takes to reach maximum height can be
obtained by setting vz=0 in the last of Equations (96);
v0 sin α − gt max = 0
Hence;
v sin α (101)
t max = 0
g
(3) The flight time:
We can obtain the total time of flight T of the projectile
by setting z = 0 in the last of Equations (97), which yields
2v sin α
T= 0 (102)
g

This is twice the time it takes the projectile to reach

maximum height.

(4) The range:

Substituting the total time of flight, T, into the first of
Equations (97), gives the range of the projectile ;

v02 sin 2α
R= (103)
g

At α= 45° , R has its maximum value

v02 (104)
Rmax =
g

‰ With Air Resistance

In this case, the motion does not
conserve total energy, which
continually diminishes during the
flight of the projectile.
Contrary to the case of zero air
resistance the path of the
projectile is not a parabola, but
rather a curve that lies below the corresponding
parabolic trajectory.
4.4. The Harmonic Oscillator in 2D and 3D:

Consider the motion of a particle

attached to a set of elastic springs
as shown in the Figure.
This is the three-dimensional
generalization of the linear
oscillator studied earlier.
The differential equation of the
motion simply can be expressed as;

d 2r
m 2 = − kr (105)
dt

4.4.1 The Two-Dimensional Isotropic Oscillator

First, we will consider the motion of the isotropic oscillator, in
which the restoring force is independent of the direction of
the displacement. In the case of motion in a single plane, 2D, Eq.
(105) is equivalent to the two component equations
m&x& = − kx m&y& = − ky
These are separated, so their solutions can be in the form
x = A cos(ω t + α ) y = B cos(ω t + β )

With ω = k / m . The constants A, B, α, and β are determined

from the initial conditions .
To find the equation of the path, we eliminate the time t
between the x & y equations.
We then have a quadratic equation in x and y;

x2 2 cos Δ y 2
− xy + = sin 2
Δ
A2 AB B2
Where Δ = β−α is the phase difference.

Recall: The general quadratic equation;

ax2 + bxy + cy2 + dx + ey = f
represents;
An ellipse, if b2 - 4ac < 0
A parabola, if b2 - 4ac = 0
or A hyperbola, if b2 - 4ac > 0

In our case the discriminant

is equal to -(2sinΔ/AB)2, which is
negative, so the path is an ellipse.

If the phase difference Δ is equal

to π/2, then the equation of the path
reduces to the equation
x2 y2
2
+ 2 =1
A B

which is the equation of an ellipse whose axes coincide with the

coordinate axes.
If the phase difference Δ is equal 0 or π, then the equation of
the path reduces to that of straight line;
B
y=± x
A

Similarly for 3D isotropic oscillator the motion will take place

totally in a single plane, and the path of the particle in that
plane is an ellipse.

4.4.2. 3D Non-isotropic Oscillator:

If the magnitudes of the components of the restoring force
depend on the direction of the displacement, we have the case
of the non-isotropic oscillator. The differential equations for
this case can be written as;

m&x& = − k1 x m&y& = −k 2 y m&z& = −k3 z

Here we have three different frequencies of oscillation, ω1 , ω2

and ω3 , and the motion is given by the solutions

x = A cos(ω1 t + α )
y = B cos(ω 2 t + β )
z = C cos(ω3 t + γ )

The resulting oscillation of the particle lies completely within a

rectangular box (whose sides are 2A, 2B, and 2C) centered on
the origin.
If ω1 , ω2 and ω3 are commensurate-that is,
ω1 ω2 ω3
= =
n1 n2 n3
Where n1, n2 and n3 are integers, the path is closed, i.e. the
particle returns to its initial position and the motion is
repeated. Such a path called Lissajous figure.
On the other hand, If ω1 , ω2 and ω3are not commensurate, the
path is not closed and the path will completely fill the
rectangular box.

4.4.3. Energy Considerations

For the general 3D case, it is easy to verify that
V ( x, y , z ) = 1
2 k1 x 2 + 12 k 2 y 2 + 12 k3 z 2
because Fx = -dV/dx = -k1 x, and similarly for Fy and Fz.
If k1 =k2 = k3 = k, we have the isotropic case, and
V ( x, y , z ) = 1
2 ( )
k x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 12 kr 2

The total energy in the isotropic case then given by;

E = 12 mv 2 + 12 kr 2 (106)
 Lissajous Figures

ω1 : ω2 = 1:2 ω1 : ω2 = 3:2 ω1 : ω2 = 5:4

4.5. Motion of Charged Particles in Electric
& Magnetic Fields:

When a charged particle is surrounded by other electric

charges, it will experience a force. This force F is caused
by the electric field E, which arises from these other
charges. We write
F = qE (107)
where q is the electric charge. The equation of motion of
the particle is then
d 2r
m 2 = qE
dt
or, in component form,
m&x& = qEx m&y& = qE y m&z& = qEz
Let us consider a case of a uniform constant electric field
which is directed along the z-axis. Then Ex = Ey = 0, and E =
Ez. The differential equations of motion of a particle of
charge q moving in this field are then
qE
&x& = 0 &y& = 0 &z& = z = cons.
m
These are of the same form as those for a projectile in
a uniform gravitational field.
Therefore, the path is a parabola, if vx and vy if are not
both zero initially. Otherwise, the path is a straight line, as
with a body falling vertically.
According to the electromagnetic theory, if E is due to
static charges then;
∇×E = 0 (108)

This means that motion in such a field is conservative, and

that there exists a potential function Φ such that;
E = −∇ Φ (109)
From (107) and (109), the force F caused by the electric
field E may be rewritten as;
F = qE = −∇qΦ

Then, the potential energy of a particle of charge q in such

a field is then qΦ. The total energy, hence, is constant and
is equal to
2 mv + qΦ
1 2
(110)

In the presence of a static magnetic field B, called the

magnetic induction, the force acting on a moving particle is
conveniently expressed by means of the cross product,
namely,
F = q (v × B ) (111)

where v is the velocity and q is the charge. The differential

equation of motion of a particle moving in a purely magnetic
field is then
d 2r
m 2 = q (v × B ) (112)
dt
Note:

Equation (112) states that the acceleration of the particle

is always ⊥ to the direction of motion. This means that the
tangential component of the acceleration is zero, and so the
particle moves with constant speed.

The path is a helix , and if

there is no component of the
velocity in the z direction, the
path is a circle.

4.6. Constrained Motion of a Particle

When a moving particle is restricted geometrically, i.e. it
must stay on a certain definite surface or curve, the motion
is said to be constrained.

Examples of constrained motion:

- A piece of ice sliding around a bowl. (one-sided constraint)
- A bead sliding on a wire. (complete constraint)
4.6.1. The Energy Equation for Smooth Constraints
The total force acting on a particle moving under constraint
can be expressed as the vector sum of the net external
force F and the reaction force of the constraint R. The
equation of motion may, therefore, be written
dv
m = F+R (113)
dt

If we take the dot product with the velocity v, we have

dv
m .v = F.v + R .v (114)
dt
In the case of a smooth constraint, the reaction R is normal
to the surface while the velocity v is tangent to the
surface.
Hence, R is ⊥ to v, and R . v = 0.
Eq.(114) then reduces to
d 1
( 2 mv.v ) = F.v
dt
Therefore, if F is conservative, we can integrate, as in Eqs.
(86) & (87), and show that the total energy of the
constrained particle is constant.

EXAMPLE 4.6.1

A particle is placed on top of a smooth sphere of radius a.

If the particle is slightly disturbed, at what point will it
leave the sphere?
Solution:
The forces acting on the
particle are the downward
force of gravity mg and the
reaction R of the spherical
surface. The equation of
motion is
dv
m = mg + R
dt
According to the chosen coordinate the potential energy is
then mgz, and the energy equation is;
2 mv + mgz = E
1 2

But from the initial conditions (v = 0 for z = a) we have

E = mga, so;
2 mv + mgz = mga
1 2

As the particle slides down, its speed is given by;

v 2 = 2 g (a − z )
Taking radial components of the equation of motion, we can
write the force equation as
mv 2 z
− = mg cos θ + R = −mg + R
a a
Hence,
R=
mg
(3z − 2a )
a

Thus, R vanishes when z = 23 a . At this point the particle

leaves the sphere.
EXAMPLE 4.6.2

Constrained Motion on a
Cycloid
Consider a particle sliding
under gravity in a smooth
cycloidal channel. Such
motion represented by the
parametric equations
x = A(2φ + sin 2φ )
y = A(1 − cos 2φ )

where φ is the parameter. Now the energy equation for the

motion is
(
E = 12 mv 2 + V ( z ) =
m 2
2
)
x& + y& 2 + mgz

Doing some algebra, we can express the energy in terms of

φ as;
E = 8mA2φ 2 cos 2 φ + 2mgA sin 2 φ
Let s = 4A sin φ , then, the energy equation can be written as
⎛ mg ⎞ 2
E = 12 ms& 2 + 12 ⎜ ⎟s
⎝ 4A ⎠
This is just the energy equation for harmonic motion in the
single variable s. Thus, the particle undergoes periodic
motion whose frequency is independent of the amplitude
of oscillation.
5.1. Accelerated Coordinate Systems:
Recall: Uniformly moving reference frames (e.g. those
considered at 'rest' or moving with constant velocity in a
straight line) are called inertial reference frames.

Sometimes it is necessary, to employ a coordinate system

that is not inertial.

Let us first consider the case of a coordinate system that

undergoes pure translation.
Assume Oxyz are the primary
fixed coordinate axes, and
O'x'y'z' are the moving axes. In
the case of pure translation,
the respective axes Ox and
O'x', and so on, remain parallel.
The position vector of a
particle P is denoted by r in the fixed system and by r' in
the moving system. The displacement OO' of the moving
origin is denoted by R0. Thus, from the triangle OO'P, we
have
r = R0 + r' (115)

Taking the first and second time derivatives gives

v = V0 + v' (116)
a = A0 + a' (117)
in which V0 and A0 are, respectively, the velocity and
acceleration of the moving system, and v' and a' are the
velocity and acceleration of the particle in the moving
system.
If the moving system is not accelerating, i.e. it is also
inertial, so that A0 = 0, then
a = a'
In this case we cannot specify a unique coordinate system,
because Newton's laws will be the same in both systems.
For example, Newton's second law in fixed system F = ma
becomes F' = ma' in the moving system.

On the other hand if the moving system is accelerating,

then Newton's second law becomes
F = mA0 + ma'
or
F - mA0 = F' (118)

where (-mA0) is known as the inertial term or inertial force.

Such "force" is not due to interactions with other bodies;
rather, it happens as a result of the acceleration of the
reference system.

5.2. Rotating Coordinate Systems

In this section, we show how velocities, accelerations, and

forces transform between an inertial frame of reference
and a noninertial one that is rotating.
Assume that the axes of the both coordinate systems have
a common origin. Let the rotation of the rotated system
takes place about some specific axis of rotation, whose
direction is designated by a unit vector, n.
The angular velocity of the
rotating system then is;
ω = ωn
The direction of the velocity
vector is given by the right-
hand rule.
The position of any point P in
space can be designated by
the vector r in the fixed
system and by the vector r' in
the rotating system.

Because the coordinate axes of the two systems have the

same origin, these vectors are equal, that is,

r = r' (119)
or;
ix + jy+ kz = i'x' + j'y'+ k' z'
When we differentiate with respect to time to find the
velocity, we must keep in mind the fact that the unit
vectors i', j', and k' are not constant. Thus, we can write the
velocity vector v in the fixed system as;
di ′ dj ′ dk ′
v = v ′ + x′ + y ′ + z ′ (120)
dt dt dt
Where v' is the velocity in the rotating system.
From the definition of the cross product, we can write;
d i′ d j′ d k′
= ω × i′ , = ω × j ′ and = ω × k′ .
dt dt dt
Hence;

di′ dj′ dk ′
x′ + y′ + z′ = x′(ω × i′) + y′(ω × j′) + z ′(ω × k ′)
dt dt dt
= ω × r′

This is the velocity of P due to rotation of the coordinate

system. Accordingly, Eq. (120 ) can be rewritten as

v = v′ + ω × r ′ (121)

Taking the first time derivatives gives the acceleration in

the fixed system in terms of the position, velocity, and
acceleration in the rotating system;

& × r′ + 2ω × v′ + ω × (ω × r′)
a = a′ + ω (122)

If the moved system is undergoing both translation and

rotation, the general equations for transforming from a
fixed system to a moving and rotating system will be:

v = v′ + ω × r′ + V0 (123)

And;
 & × r′ + 2ω × v′ + ω × (ω × r′) + A 0
a = a′ + ω (124)

‰ The term 2ω × v' is known as the Coriolis acceleration,

which appears whenever a particle moves in a rotating
coordinate system except when the velocity v' is parallel to
the axis of rotation.

‰ The term ω×(ω× r') is called the centripetal acceleration.

which is the result of the
particle being carried
around a circular path in the
rotating system. It is always
directed toward the axis
of rotation and is
perpendicular to the axis
as shown in the figure.

‰ The term ω & × r ′ is called

the transverse acceleration,
because it is perpendicular
to the position vector r'. It appears whenever the rotating
system has an angular acceleration, i.e. if the angular
velocity vector is changing in either magnitude or
direction, or both.
5.3. Dynamics of a Particle in a Rotating System:

It is well known that the equation of motion of a particle in

an inertial frame of reference is ;
F = ma
where F is the sum of all real, physical forces acting on the
particle.
According to Eq.(124) , we can write the equation of motion
of a particle in a noninertial frame of reference as ;

& × r′ − 2mω × v′ − mω × (ω × r′) − mA 0 = ma′

F − mω (125)

All inertial forces have names corresponding to their

relevant accelerations. Thus;

‰ The force -m ω & × r ′ is called the transverse force,

because it is perpendicular to the position vector r'. It is
present only if there is an angular acceleration (or
deceleration) of the rotating coordinate system.

‰ The force -2mω×v' is the

Coriolis force, which appears
whenever a particle moves in a
rotating coordinate system. Its
direction is always perpendicular
to v', thus it seems to deflect the
moving particle at right angles to
its direction of motion.
‰ The force - mω×(ω× r') is the centrifugal force, which is
the result of the particle being carried around a circular
path in the rotating system. It is directed outward away
from the axis of rotation and is perpendicular to that axis.
If r' is perpendicular to ω, the magnitude of the centrifugal
force is mr'ω2.

A no inertial observer in an
accelerated frame of
reference must include all, or
some, of these inertial forces
along with the real forces F
to calculate the correct
motion of the particle.
In other words, such an
observer writes the
fundamental equation of
motion as;
F' = ma'

in which the sum of the

vector forces F' acting on the
particle is given by

F' = Fphysical + F'trans + F'Cor + F'cel1trif – mA0

F (or Fphysical) forces are the only forces that a no inertial

observer claims are actually acting upon the particle.
5.4. Effects of Earth's Rotation

‰ Consider a coordinate system that is moving with the

Earth. Because the angular speed of Earth's rotation is 2π
radians per day, the effects of such rotation is relatively
small.
‰ Nevertheless, it is the spin of the Earth that makes the
equatorial radius is some 13 miles greater than the polar
radius, i.e. equatorial bulge.

5.4.1. Static Effects: The Plumb line

Let us describe the motion of the plumb bob in a local

frame of reference whose origin is at the position of the
bob. Our frame of reference is attached to the surface of
the Earth, so it is undergoing
translation as well as rotation.

‰ The translation of the frame

takes place along a circle whose
radius is ρ = re cosλ, where re is
the radius of the Earth and λ is
the geocentric latitude of the
plumb bob. Hence;
A0 =ω2ρ =ω2 re cosλ (126)

‰ Its rate of rotation is ω, the same as that of the Earth

about its axis. Let us now examine the terms of Eq. (124):
‰ The force - ma' is zero, because the bob is at rest in the
local frame of reference, i.e. a' = 0.

‰ The Coriolis force -2mω × v' is zero, because v'= 0.

‰ The transverse force -m ω

& × r ′ is zero, because ω is
constant.

‰ The centrifugal force - m ω×(ω× r') is zero, because the

origin of the local coordinate system is centered on the
bob. I.e, r'= 0.

The only surviving terms in Eq. (124) are the real forces F
and the inertial term –mA0, which arises because the local
frame of reference is accelerating. Thus,

F – mA0 = 0 (127)

In other words, the rotation of the Earth causes the

acceleration A0 of the local frame. The bob does not hang on
a line pointing toward the center of the Earth because the
inertial force –mA0 throws it outward, away from Earth's
axis of rotation. The magnitude of this force is;

mω2 re cosλ

It is a maximum when λ = 0 at the Earth's equator and a

minimum at either pole.
The tension T in the string balances out the real
gravitational force mg0 and the inertial force –mA0, i.e;

(T + mg0) – mA0 = 0 (128)

Now, when we hang a plumb bob,

we normally think that the
tension T balances out the local
force of gravity, which we call
mg. We can see from the Figure
that:

mg = mg0 – mA0
or
g = g0 –A0 (129)

As can be seen the inertial reaction –mA0, directed away

from Earth's axis, causes the direction of the plumb line to
deviate by a small angle ε away from the direction toward
Earth's center.
We can easily calculate the value of the angle ε. From the
Figure we have;

sin ε sin λ
=
mω 2 re cos λ mg

or, because ε is small

 ω 2 re
sin ε ≈ ε = sin 2λ (130)
2g

Thus, ε vanishes at the equator (λ = 0) and the poles

(λ =±90). The maximum deviation of the direction of the
plumb line from the center of the Earth occurs at λ = 45°
ω 2 re
where; ε max = ≈ 0 . 1o

2g

5.4.2. Dynamic Effects:

1- Falling Body
A body that is dropped from a height h above the ground,
as it falls, it will drift to the east. The eastward drift is
given by:
⎛ 8h 3 ⎞
x′ = ω ⎜⎜
1
3
⎟⎟ cos λ (131)
⎝ g ⎠
For a height of 100 m at latitude of 45°, the drift is 1.55 cm

2- Deflection of a Rifle Bullet

If we fire a projectile to east with high initial speed v0 , the
projectile will bend to the south. If H is the horizontal
range of the projectile, the transverse deflection is then;
ωH 2
Δ≈ sin λ (132)
v0

This is the same for any direction in which the projectile is

initially aimed, provided the trajectory is flat.
6.1. Newton’s Law of Gravitation:

‰ During his study of the motions of the planets and of

the moon, Newton discovered the fundamental charter of
the gravitational attraction between any two bodies. In
1687, Newton published the law of gravitation which may
be stated as follows:
Every particle of matter in the
universe attracts every other
particle with force (Fg) that is
directly proportional to the product
of the masses (m1, m2) of the
particles and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance
between them (r).
Or;
Gm1m2
Fg = (131)
r2
G is a fundamental physical constant called the
gravitational constant. The numerical value of G (in SI
units ) is
G = 6.67×10-11 N.m2/kg2

‰ Equation (131) tells us that if the distance r is doubled,

the force is only one-fourth as great, and so on. Although
many of the stars in the night sky are more massive than
the sun, they are so far away that their gravitational
force on earth is negligible.
‰ Gravitational forces always act along the line joining
the two particles, which form an action-reaction pair. Even
when the masses of the particles are different, the two
interaction forces have equal magnitude.

‰ Gravitational forces combine vectorially. If each of two

masses exerts a force on a third, the total force on the
third mass is the vector sum of the individual forces of
the first two. This property is often called superposition
of forces.

‰ The earth's gravitational force on a body of mass m at

any point outside the earth is given by ; Fg = GmEm/r2,
where mE is the mass of the earth and r is the distance of
the body from the earth's center. Therefore, we can
express the gravitational potential energy (U) in more
general form as;

GmE m
Ug = − (132)
r
6.2. Kepler’s laws and the motion of planets:

‰ One of the great intellectual events of the 16th and

17th centuries was the threefold realization;
1- that the earth is also a planet,
2- that all planets orbit the sun,
3- and that the apparent motions of the planets as seen
from the earth can be used to determine the orbits of the
planets precisely.
The first and second of these ideas were published by
Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543. The determination of
planetary orbits was carried out between 1601 and 1619 by
the German astronomer and mathematician Johannes
Kepler.

‰ By trial and error, Kepler discovered three observed

laws that accurately described the motions of the planets.
Two hundred years later, Newton discovered that each of
Kepler's laws can be derived using Newton's laws of
motion and the law of gravitation.

First law: Law of Ellipses.

Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the sun at
one focus of the ellipse.
The following Figure shows the geometry of the ellipse
with its main properties;
* The longest dimension 2a is
the major axis, with half-
length a known as the semi-
major axis.
* S and S' are the foci (plural
of focus). The sun is at S, and
the planet is at P.
* The sum of the distances from S to P and from S' to P is
the same for all points on the curve.
* The distance of each focus from the center of the
ellipse is ea, where e is a dimensionless number between 0
and 1 called the eccentricity. If e = 0, the ellipse is a
circle. The actual orbits of the planets are somewhat
circular; their eccentricities range from 0.007 for Venus
to 0.248 for Pluto. The earth's orbit has e = 0.017.
* The point in the planet's orbit closest to the sun is the
perihelion, and the point most distant from the sun is the
aphelion.

Scecond law: Law of Equal Areas

A line from the sun to a given planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal times.
In a small time interval dt, the
line from the sun S to the
planet P turns through an angle
dθ. The area swept out is the
dA = ½ r2 dθ .The rate at which
area is swept out, dA/dt, is
called the sector velocity :

dA 1 2 dθ
= 2r
dt dt
The real meaning of Kepler's second law is that the sector
velocity has the same value at all
points in the orbit. When the planet
is close to the sun, r is small and dθ/dt
is large; when the planet is far from
the sun, r is large and dθ/dt is small.

Third law: Harmonic Law

The square of the period of a planet is directly
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the
plant’s orbit.
This law can be expressed as;
T 2 = ka 3

If the distance measured in astronomical units (1AU=1.5

×108 km) and periods are measured in Earth years then:
k=1.
EXAMPLE (6.6.1):
Find the period of a comet whose semi-major axis is 4 AU.
Solution:
With T measured in years and a in astronomical units, we
have
T2 = a3= (4)3 =64 yrs2
T = 8 yrs
However, using Newton’s laws of motion and the inverse-
square law of gravity, one can found (see problem 6.5) that
the constant k in SI unit is equals to;

4π 2
k=
Gms
Where ms is the sun's mass.
Kepler’s 3rd law can be then rewritten as

a3 / 2
T = 2π (133)
Gms
Note:

The period does not depend on the eccentricity e. I.e.

an asteroid in an elliptical orbit with semi-major axis
a will have the same orbital period as a planet in a
circular orbit of radius a. The key difference is that
the asteroid moves at different speeds at different
points in its elliptical orbit, while the planet's speed
is constant around its circular orbit.

Example : Comet Halley

Comet Halley moves in an elongated elliptical orbit around
the sun. At perihelion, the comet is 8.75 × 107 km from the
sun; at aphelion it is 5.26 × 109 km from the sun. Find the
semi- major axis, eccentricity, and period of the orbit.
Solution:
- The length of the major axis is;
2a = 8.75 × 107 + 5.26 × 109
So; a = 2.67 × 109 km

- Since the comet-sun distance at perihelion is given by

a - ea = a (1- e) = 8.75 × 107
Then; e = 0.967
- From Eq. (133),

( 2.67 × 1012 ) 3 / 2
T = 2π = 2.38 × 10 9 s = 75.5 years
(6.67 ×10 )(1.99 ×10 )
−11 30