Fig.

Space Form and Structure

Lecture 2
Principles of Structure: Loads & Forces

Fig. 2
In the previous lecture…
• In the previous lecture we discussed the module outcomes
aims and objectives
• we also started to consider the difference between buildings
which are all structure and buildings which have structure
beneath an envelope

Today we will discuss:

• the loads and resultant forces which act upon a building: live
loads and dead loads
• the concept of stability and equilibrium in building structures

Reading Material: European Building Construction Illustrated,

(F. Ching), pages 2.08 - 2.11 and 2.20 – 2.21

(fig.1 and 2) Kunsthaus Graz, Austria, 2003, Peter Cook and Colin Fournier: http://bubblemania.fr/wp-content/uploads/KUNSTHAUS-GRAZ-AUTRICHE0069.png
 Fig. 3

Bamboo Pavilion Expo Shanghai

MUDI Architects, Shanghai, China, 2010

Structure can be defined as: a system or organization made up of interrelated parts functioning as a whole; the way in
which the different parts of something link or work together, or the fact of being linked together.

(fig. 19) Heinsdorff, M, ‘Bamboo Pavilion for the Expo Shanghai’, DETAIL Review of Architecture and Construction Details, Timber Construction, Volume 6, 2010, pages 616 – 622,
Institute for International Architecture, Munich
Building Envelope
The building envelope or external envelope is normally constructed
from a variety of different elements: external walls, cladding and
suuprts, insulation glazing and the roof form the building envelope.

The external envelope performs many roles. Fig. 3

The envelope offers protection against:

• climatic factors – rain, snow
• heat loss
• solar gain (overheating from direct sunlight)
• noise pollution
• It can also be designed to permit natural light and introduce and
control natural ventilation

(fig. 14) Sendai Mediateque, Toyo Ito, https://www.designboom.com/architecture/toyo-ito-designboom-interview/

Structure which is also envelope
Some building types are all structure. In such buildings the
envelope is an integral part of the primary structural system.
We call such structures form active. Form active structures are very
efficient.

Fig. 3

The Pantheon, Rome, 609 AD

The Pantheon has an envelope of masonry, lime mortar

and concrete which is also the primary structure of the
building.
 Fig. 3

Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, France, 1163 – 1260 AD

The masonry walls which form the envelope of Notre Dame cathedral are also the building’s primary structure.
Internally, the masonry vaults and arches form the internal spaces.

(fig. 5 and 6) Notre Dame Cathedral: https://www.travelcaffeine.com/notre-dame-cathedral-paris-tips-review/

 Fig. 3

The structure is constructed from heavy stereotomic solid elements of cut and carved stone, bonded with lime mortar;
the arches and vaults achieve long span spaces where large numbers of people may comfortably congregate.
The Building volume is therefore mostly open plan space. It uses as little structural material as possible to achieve this.

(fig. 7 and 8) Notre Dame Cathedral: https: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Cathedral-of-Notre-Dame-in-Paris-section-top-and-plan-view-bottom-after-the_fig12_330202346

Structure which is hidden

Most modern buildings are constructed with an external envelope

which is hung upon or constructed upon a primary structure.
In such buildings the primary structure supports the weight of the
roof, floors and the external envelope. Fig. 3

Such Non-form active structures are commonly built with timber,

concrete or steel frames beneath a system of cladding or external
masonry or concrete where the envelope does not support the
floors or roof.
Kunsthaus Graz, Austria, 2003
Architect: Sir Peter Cook and Colin Fournier

(fig. 9 Kunsthaus Graz, Austria, 2003, Peter Cook and Colin Fournier: http://www.designcurial.com/news/organic-architecture---11-best-buildings-4540983/2
 Fig. 3

Kunsthaus, Graz, Austria, 2003, Architect: Sir Peter Cook and Colin Fournier

The structure in the Kunsthaus Graz is hidden beneath an envelope of acrylic cladding panels.
Although different in form, material and character: the roof structures of the historic buildings which form the site context
of the Kunsthaus are also hidden beneath an envelope of red clay tiles

(fig. 10 and 11) Kunsthaus Graz, Austria, 2003, Peter Cook and Colin Fournier: http://www.designcurial.com/news/organic-architecture---11-best-buildings-4540983/2
 Fig. 3

Kunsthaus Graz, Austria, 2003, Architect: Sir Peter Cook and Colin Fournier

A lightweight tectonic steel frame supports the lightweight acrylic cladding system, the frame closely follows the organic
form of the envelope.
An efficient structural system will use the minimum of materials required to support the weight and loads and forces within
a building, saving material resources and associated embodied carbon and energy consumption.

(fig. 12 and 13) Kunsthaus Graz, Austria, 2003, Peter Cook and Colin Fournier: http://bubblemania.fr/wp-content/uploads/KUNSTHAUS-GRAZ-AUTRICHE0069.png
 Fig. 3

Simplistically: the primary structure of a

building primarily transfers the loads and
forces from the floors, partitions, external
envelope and the envelope’s secondary
frame down to the ground.

Sendai Mediatecheque Building, Sendai, Japan

Toyo Ito (Architect) and Associates, 2001

(fig. 14) Primary structural model from Sendai Mediateque, Toyo Ito https://kmckitrick.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/0-money-shot.jpg
 Fig. 3

Sendai Mediatecheque Building, Sendai, Japan

Toyo Ito (Architect) and Associates, 2001

(fig. 15) Primary structural model from Sendai Mediateque, Toyo Ito https://www.moma.org/collection/works/1034
 Fig. 3

Sendai Mediatecheque Building, Sendai, Japan

Toyo Ito (Architect) and Associates, 2001

(fig. 16, 17 and 18) Interior images of the Sendai Mediateque, Toyo Ito https://www.archdaily.com/118627/ad-classics-sendai-mediatheque-toyo-ito/5038054128ba0d599b000970-ad-
classics-sendai-mediatheque-toyo-ito-image
 Fig. 3

Guggenheim Museum
Frank Gehry Architect, Bilbao, Spain, 1997

The underlying structure of a building may be completely hidden from view or obscured however all structures are subject
to similar influences and as such, all structural forms follow certain rules.

(fig. 20) Guggenheim Structure, Bilbao: https://www.guggenheim-bilbao.eus/en/the-building

(fig. 21 and 22) Guggenheim Structure, Bilbao: http://soa.utexas.edu/news/archive/090910/images/0331_enews.jpg
Factors and issues to be considered when designing building structures
Building structures are designed to defy gravitational pull; they are required to resist the loads and forces acting
upon them.

Questions: which factors and issues must designers consider when creating structural forms?
Working within the following categories identify and list the different types of loads which could act upon
building structures. Fig. 3

A Examples of loads which act upon building structures which are specific to the site context / place:

B Examples of loads which act upon building structures which are specific to the building use / brief:

C Examples of loads which act upon building structures which are specific to the building construction:

Work in pairs or threes to discuss and agree your response

Factors and issues to be considered when designing building structures
Building structures are designed to defy gravitational pull; they are required to resist the loads and forces acting
upon them.

Questions: which factors and issues must designers consider when creating structural forms?
Working within the following categories identify and list the different types of loads which act upon building
structures. Fig. 3

A Examples of loads which act upon building structures which are specific to the site context / place:
• climatic conditions, snow, sleet, hail stones, rain, wind, earthquakes…..
B Examples of loads which act upon building structures which are specific to the building use / brief:
• the physical weight of the building users (occupants), furniture, equipment and any associated activities:
movement of materials, dancing etc.
C Examples of loads which act upon building structures which are specific to the building construction:
• the weight and form of the building superstructure (the entire envelope, building elements and structure above
ground level.)
Structures must be stable
A structure can be said to have stability when it is capable of
achieving equilibrium through geometrical balance.
Structures require stability, balance and they must be strong, and
durable.

Fig. 3

• A beam is known as a ‘simple’ structural element.

• A beam will normally span from one supporting element to
another; in this case the beam is spanning from post to post
Structures must be stable

Fig. 3

Question:
This simple structure achieves equilibrium with gravitational loads
acting upon it: is it stable?

We cannot yet state that this structure is stable, we must consider

all possible loads and forces.
Structures must be stable

Fig. 3

Question:
Stability. What happens when we apply a new load to one side of Wind
the structure? load
Loads and Forces

Fig. 3

Question:
Stability. What happens when we apply a new load to one side of Wind
the structure? load

• If a lateral load (a strong gust of wind for e.g.) is applied our

simple structure will become unstable The unstable structure
fails to remain in the previous state of equilibrium.
Cross Bracing

Fig. 3

This structure achieves equilibrium and resists our applied wind Wind
load. Bracing: the cross bracing prevents the racking caused by load
the applied live load.
Cross Bracing

Fig. 3

However we cannot say that it is yet truly stable as loads could act
upon the structure from all directions
Cross Bracing

Cross bracing transfers lateral loads throughout framed structures

to avoid structural failure. Fig. 3

Bracing elements can act in both tension and compression (either

compressed or stretched.)

Some architects and engineers choose to express structural

elements in their architecture.

Convention Centre, Agordo, Italy,

Architects: Emanuele Bressan and Andrea Botter

(fig. 22) https://www.dezeen.com/2019/10/04/congress-and-exhibition-centre-bressan-botter-italy/

Cross Bracing

Bracing needs to be manufactured from a material capable of Fig. 3

resisting compressive and tensile forces. Steel and timber have
the physical properties to resist compressive and tensile forces.

The bracing needs to be located to:

• stabilise the construction;
• permit people to access the building and spaces;
• Where possible allow for unobstructed glazing / apertures to be
constructed CentreCentre,
Convention Pompidou, Paris,
Agordo, France,
Italy, 1977 Bressan and
Emanuele
Richard
Andrea BotterRodgers, Renzo Piano + Peter Rice

(fig. 23 and 24) Pompidou Centre, Paris https://www.dezeen.com/2019/11/26/renzo-piano-high-tech-architecture/

Stability in framed buildings
Look again at the Guggenheim building by Architect Frank Gehry.
The building has a complex system of structural frames following
the parabolic curves of the envelope.
The underlying structure of a building may also be hidden from
view or obscured however all structures are subject to similar Fig. 3
influences and as such, all structural forms follow certain rules.

ConventionGuggenheim Museum
Centre, Agordo, structure Bressan and
Italy, Emanuele
Frank Gehry Architect, Bilbao, Spain 1997
Andrea Botter

(fig. 25 and 26) References: Guggenheim Structure, Bilbao: http://soa.utexas.edu/news/archive/090910/images/0331_enews.jpg

Stability in framed buildings

In the Shanghai Bamboo Pavilion designed by MUDI Architects,

the triangulated arrangement of the primary structural supports
carry the cladding panels and secondary frames within the wall Fig. 3

and roof envelope.

This triangulated primary structure braces the overall building,

providing stability to the form.

Bamboo
Convention Pavilion
Centre, Shanghai
Agordo, Italy,Expo
Emanuele Bressan and
By Botter
Andrea MUDI Architects, Shanghai, China, 2010

(fig. 27) Heinsdorff, M, ‘Bamboo Pavilion for the Expo Shanghai’, DETAIL Review of Architecture and Construction Details, Timber Construction, Volume 6, 2010, pages 616 – 622,
Institute for International Architecture, Munich
(fig. 28) https://inhabitat.com/shanghai-expo-bamboo-german-chinese-house-glows-like-a-lantern/german-chinese-house-construction-2/
Stability in framed buildings

Fig. 3

In the Sendai Mediatecheque by Architect Toyo Ito, the framed

tubular supporting columns supporting the floor and roof plates
are not strictly vertical, they twist in form with a complex
triangulated framework which braces the overall structure
stabilising the building form.

Sendai Mediatecheque Building, Sendai, Japan

Toyo Ito and Associates, 2001

(fig. 29) https://www.archdaily.com/118627/ad-classics-sendai-mediatheque-toyo-ito/5038052128ba0d599b000968-ad-classics-sendai-mediatheque-toyo-ito-image

Bibliography

MacDonald, A., Structure & Architecture, Second Edition, Elsevier: Architectural Press, Oxford, UK, 2008, ISBN 978-0-
7506-4793, pages 1 - 21

Ching, F., Building Construction Illustrated, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, Canada, 2007, ISBN 978-0---
470-08781-7, pages 2.08 - 2.12
Fig. 3