CST 204 - Database Management Systems

Prof. Sarju S

30 September 2021

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► Transaction Processing Concepts - overview of concurrency control,
Transaction Model, Significance of concurrency Control & Recovery,
Transaction States, System Log, Desirable Properties of transactions.
► Serial schedules, Concurrent and Serializable Schedules, Conflict
equivalence and conflict serializability, Recoverable and cascade-less
schedules, Locking, Two-phase locking and its variations. Log-based
recovery, Deferred database modification, check-pointing.
► Introduction to NoSQL Databases, Main characteristics of Key-value DB
(examples from: Redis), Document DB (examples from: MongoDB)
► Main characteristics of Column - Family DB (examples from: Cassandra)
and Graph DB (examples from : ArangoDB)

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 Schedules

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► A schedule (or history) S of n transactions T1, T2, ..., Tn is an ordering of the
operations of the transactions.
► Operations from different transactions can be interleaved in the schedule
S.

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► Schedules in which transactions commit only after all transactions whose
changes they read commit are called recoverable schedules.
► If some transaction Tj is reading value updated or written by some other transaction Ti,
then the commit of Tj must occur after the commit of Ti.

T1 T2

R(A)

W(A)
This is a recoverable schedule since T1 commits
W(A)
before T2, that makes the value read by T2 correct.
R(A)

commit

commit

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 ► The table shows a schedule with two
transactions, T1 reads and writes A and that
value is read and written by T2.
► T2 commits. But later on, T1 fails.
► So we have to rollback T1. Since T2 has read the
value written by T1, it should also be rollbacked.
► But we have already committed that.
► So this schedule is irrecoverable schedule.
► When Tj is reading the value updated by Ti and Tj
is committed before committing of Ti, the
schedule will be irrecoverable.

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► Cascading Rollback (or cascading abort) to occur in some recoverable
schedules, where an uncommitted transaction has to be rolled back because it
read an item from a transaction that failed.
► The table shows a schedule with two
transactions, T1 reads and writes A and that
value is read and written by T2.
► But later on, T1 fails. So we have to rollback T1.
► Since T2 has read the value written by T1, it
should also be rollbacked.
► As it has not committed, we can rollback T2 as
well. So it is recoverable with cascading rollback.
► If Tj is reading value updated by Ti and commit of Tj
is delayed till commit of Ti, the schedule is called
recoverable with cascading rollback.

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► A schedule is said to be cascadeless, or to avoid cascading rollback, if every
transaction in the schedule reads only items that were written by committed
transactions.
► The table shows a schedule with two
transactions, T1 reads and writes A and commits
and that value is read by T2.
► But if T1 fails before commit, no other
transaction has read its value, so there is no
need to rollback other transaction.
► So this is a Cascadeless recoverable schedule.
► If Tj reads value updated by Ti only after Ti is
committed, the schedule will be cascadeless
recoverable.

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► Schedules in which the transactions are executed non-interleaved
► a serial schedule is one in which no transaction starts until a running transaction has
ended are called serial schedules.

T1 T2

R(A)

W(A) Example: Consider the schedule involving two

transactions T1 and T2. This is a serial schedule since
R(B)
the transactions perform serially in the order T1 —>
W(B) T2
R(A)

R(B)

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► This is a type of Scheduling where the operations of multiple transactions
are interleaved.
► Unlike the serial schedule where one transaction must wait for another to complete all
its operation, in the non-serial schedule, the other transaction proceeds without
waiting for the previous transaction to complete.
► This might lead to a rise in the concurrency problem.
► It can be of two types namely, Serializable and Non-Serializable Schedule.

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► This is used to maintain the consistency of the database.
► It is mainly used in the Non-Serial scheduling to verify whether the
scheduling will lead to any inconsistency or not.
► These are of two types:
► Conflict Serializable
► View Serializable:

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► A schedule is called conflict serializability if after swapping of non-
conflicting operations, it can transform into a serial schedule.
► The schedule will be a conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to a
serial schedule.

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Conflicting Operations
► The two operations become conflicting if all conditions satisfy:
► Both belong to separate transactions.
► They have the same data item.
► They contain at least one write operation.

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Conflicting Operations

Here, S1 = S2. That means it is non-conflict.

Here, S1 ≠ S2. That means it is conflict

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Conflict Equivalent
► In the conflict equivalent, one can be transformed to another by swapping
non-conflicting operations.
► Two schedules are said to be conflict equivalent if and only if:
► They contain the same set of the transaction.
► If each pair of conflict operations are ordered in the same way.

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Conflict Equivalent
T1 T2
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(B)
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(B)

Schedule S1 can be transformed into a serial schedule by

swapping non-conflicting operations of S1.

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► There is a simple algorithm for determining whether a particular schedule
is conflict serializable or not.
► The Algorithm can be written as:
1. Create a node T in the graph for each participating transaction in the schedule.
2. For the conflicting operation read_item(X) and write_item(X) – If a Transaction Tj
executes a read_item (X) after Ti executes a write_item (X), draw an edge from Ti to Tj
in the graph.
3. For the conflicting operation write_item(X) and read_item(X) – If a Transaction Tj
executes a write_item (X) after Ti executes a read_item (X), draw an edge from Ti to Tj
in the graph.
4. For the conflicting operation write_item(X) and write_item(X) – If a Transaction Tj
executes a write_item (X) after Ti executes a write_item (X), draw an edge from Ti to Tj
in the graph.
5. The Schedule S is serializable if there is no cycle in the precedence graph.
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 ► Draw Edge when we have
T1 T2 T3
► read_item(X) and write_item(X)
R(x)
R(y) ► write_item(X) and read_item(X)
R(x) ► write_item(X) and write_item(X)

R(y) ► T1-R(x): no W(x) in T2, T3

R(z) ► T3-R(y): no W(y) in T2, T1
W(y) T1
► T3-R(x): W(x) in T1 draw the edge T3->T1
► T2-R(y): W(y) in T3 draw the edge T2->T3
W(z)
► T2-R(z): W(z) in T1 draw the edge T2->T1
R(z)
W(x) ► T3-W(y): no R(y) or W(y) in T2, T1
W(z) T2 T3 ► T2-W(z): R(z) and W(z) in T1 draw edge
T2->T1(already there)

► As we have no Cycle/Loop in the Precedence Graph these schedule is

conflict serializable

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 ► Draw Edge when we have
T1 T2 T3
► read_item(X) and write_item(X)
R(A)
W(A) ► write_item(X) and read_item(X)
► write_item(X) and write_item(X)
W(A)

W(A)
T1

T2 T3

► As we have Cycle/Loop in the Precedence Graph this schedule is Non

conflict serializable . Is this serializable?

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 Check if the following schedules are conflict-serializable using precedence graph. If so, give
the equivalent serial schedule(s). r3(X), r2(X), w3(X), r1(X), w1(X). (Note: ri(X)/wi(X) means
transaction Ti issues read/write on item X.)

T1 T2 T3 ► Draw Edge when we have

R(x) ► read_item(X) and write_item(X)
R(x) T1 ► write_item(X) and read_item(X)
W(x)
R(x) ► write_item(X) and write_item(X)
W(x)

T2 T3

► As we have no Cycle/Loop in the Precedence Graph this schedule is conflict

serializable .

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► View Serializability is a process to find out that a given schedule is view
serializable or not.
► To check whether a given schedule is view serializable, we need to check
whether the given schedule is View Equivalent to its serial schedule.
► Lets take an example to understand what I mean by that.
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
R(A) R(A)
W(A) W(A)
View Equivalent
W(A) W(A)

W(A) W(A)

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► Two schedules S1 and S2 are said to be view equivalent if they satisfy the
following conditions:
► Initial Read
► An initial read of both schedules must be the same.
► Suppose two schedule S1 and S2. In schedule S1, if a transaction T1 is
reading the data item A, then in S2, transaction T1 should also read A.

These schedules are view equivalent

because Initial read operation in S1 is
done by T1 and in S2 it is also done by
T1.

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► Two schedules S1 and S2 are said to be view equivalent if they satisfy the
following conditions:
► Updated Read
► In schedule S1, if Ti is reading A which is updated by Tj then in S2 also, Ti
should read A which is updated by Tj.

These two schedules are not view equal

because, in S1, T3 is reading A updated
by T2 and in S2, T3 is reading A updated
by T1.

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► Two schedules S1 and S2 are said to be view equivalent if they satisfy the
following conditions:
► Final Write
► A final write must be the same between both the schedules. In schedule S1, if a
transaction T1 updates A at last then in S2, final writes operations should also be
done by T1.

These two schedules is view equal

because Final write operation in S1 is
done by T3 and in S2, the final write
operation is also done by T3.

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Page 26 Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SJCET Palai
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► Lets check the three conditions of view serializability:
► Initial Read
► In schedule S1, transaction T1 first reads the data item X.
► In S2 also transaction T1 first reads the data item X.
► Lets check for Y. In schedule S1, transaction T1 first reads the data item Y. In S2 also
the first read operation on Y is performed by T1.
► We checked for both data items X & Y and the initial read condition is satisfied in S1 &
S2.

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► Lets check the three conditions of view serializability:
► Final Write
► In schedule S1, the final write operation on X is done by transaction T2. In S2 also
transaction T2 performs the final write on X.
► Lets check for Y. In schedule S1, the final write operation on Y is done by transaction
T2. In schedule S2, final write on Y is done by T2.
► We checked for both data items X & Y and the final write condition is satisfied in S1 &
S2.

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► Lets check the three conditions of view serializability:
► Update Read
► In S1, transaction T2 reads the value of X, written by T1. In S2, the same transaction T2
reads the X after it is written by T1.
► In S1, transaction T2 reads the value of Y, written by T1. In S2, the same transaction T2
reads the value of Y after it is updated by T1.
► The update read condition is also satisfied for both the schedules.
► Result: Since all the three conditions that checks whether the two
schedules are view equivalent are satisfied in this example, which means
S1 and S2 are view equivalent.

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► https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/recoverability-in-dbms/
► https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-schedules-in-dbms/
► https://www.javatpoint.com/dbms-conflict-serializable-schedule
► https://beginnersbook.com/2018/12/dbms-view-serializability/

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► Transaction Processing Concepts - overview of concurrency control,
Transaction Model, Significance of concurrency Control & Recovery,
Transaction States, System Log, Desirable Properties of transactions.
► Serial schedules, Concurrent and Serializable Schedules, Conflict
equivalence and conflict serializability, Recoverable and cascade-less
schedules, Locking, Two-phase locking and its variations. Log-based
recovery, Deferred database modification, check-pointing.
► Introduction to NoSQL Databases, Main characteristics of Key-value DB
(examples from: Redis), Document DB (examples from: MongoDB)
► Main characteristics of Column - Family DB (examples from: Cassandra)
and Graph DB (examples from : ArangoDB)

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 Introduction to Transaction Processing

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► A Database Transaction is a logical unit of processing in a DBMS which
entails one or more database access operation.
► The operations performed in a transaction include one or more of
database operations like insert, delete, update or retrieve data.

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Page 6 Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SJCET Palai
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 ► The figure shows two processes, A
and B, executing concurrently in
an interleaved fashion.
► if the computer system has
multiple hardware processors
(CPUs), parallel processing of
multiple processes is possible, as
illustrated by processes C and D in
the figure.

Source: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/

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► Each high level operation can be divided into a number of low level tasks or
operations.
► For example, a data update operation can be divided into three tasks
► read_item() − reads data item from storage to main memory.
► modify_item() − change value of item in the main memory.
► write_item() − write the modified value from main memory to storage.

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► The low level operations performed in a transaction are −
► begin_transaction − A marker that specifies start of transaction execution.
► read_item or write_item − Database operations that may be interleaved
with main memory operations as a part of transaction.
► end_transaction − A marker that specifies end of transaction.
► commit − A signal to specify that the transaction has been successfully
completed in its entirety and will not be undone.
► rollback − A signal to specify that the transaction has been unsuccessful
and so all temporary changes in the database are undone. A committed
transaction cannot be rolled back.

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► When multiple transactions execute concurrently in an uncontrolled or
unrestricted manner, then it might lead to several problems.
► These problems are commonly referred to as concurrency problems in
database environment.
► The five concurrency problems that can occur in database are:
► Temporary Update Problem
► Incorrect Summary Problem
► Lost Update Problem
► Unrepeatable Read Problem

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► Temporary update or dirty read problem occurs when one transaction
updates an item and fails.
► But the updated item is used by another transaction before the item is
changed or reverted back to its last value.

► In this example, if transaction 1 fails for some reason

then X will revert back to its previous value.
► But transaction 2 has already read the incorrect value of
X.

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► Consider a situation, where one transaction is applying the aggregate function on some
records while another transaction is updating these records.
► The aggregate function may calculate some values before the values have been updated
and others after they are updated.

► In this example, transaction 2 is calculating the sum of

some records while transaction 1 is updating them.
► Therefore the aggregate function may calculate some
values before they have been updated and others after
they have been updated.

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► The unrepeatable problem occurs when two or more read operations of
the same transaction read different values of the same variable.

► In this example, once transaction 2 reads the variable X, a

write operation in transaction 1 changes the value of the
variable X.
► Thus, when another read operation is performed by
transaction 2, it reads the new value of X which was
updated by transaction 1.

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► In the lost update problem, update done to a data item by a transaction is
lost as it is overwritten by the update done by another transaction.

► In this example, transaction 1 changes the value of X but

it gets overwritten by the update done by transaction 2
on X.
► Therefore, the update done by transaction 1 is lost.

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► Whenever a transaction is submitted to a DBMS for execution
► The system is responsible for making sure that either all the operations in the
transaction are completed successfully and their effect is recorded permanently in the
database or that the transaction does not have any effect on the database or any
other transactions.
► Types of Failures
► A computer failure (system crash). A hardware, software, or network error occurs
in the computer system during transaction execution.
► A transaction or system error. Some operation in the transaction may cause it to
fail,
► Integer overflow or division by zero.
► Erroneous parameter values
► Logical programming error.
► User may interrupt the transaction during its execution

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► Types of Failures
► Local errors or exception conditions detected by the transaction
► During transaction execution, certain conditions may occur that necessitate cancellation
of the transaction.
► Eg: Insufficient account balance in a banking database, may cause a transaction, such as a
fund withdrawal, to be canceled.
► Disk failure
► Some disk blocks may lose their data because of a read or write malfunction or because
of a disk read/write head crash.
► This may happen during a read or a write operation of the transaction.
► Physical problems and catastrophes.
► This refers to an endless list of problems that includes power or air-conditioning failure,
fire, theft, sabotage, overwriting disks or tapes by mistake, and mounting of a wrong tape
by the operator.

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Page 17 Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SJCET Palai
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1. Once a transaction states execution, it becomes active. It can issue READ or WRITE operation.
2. Once the READ and WRITE operations complete, the transactions becomes partially committed state.
3. Next, some recovery protocols need to ensure that a system failure will not result in an inability to record
changes in the transaction permanently. If this check is a success, the transaction commits and enters
into the committed state.
4. If the check is a fail, the transaction goes to the Failed state.
5. If the transaction is aborted while it’s in the active state, it goes to the failed state. The transaction should
be rolled back to undo the effect of its write operations on the database.
6. The terminated state refers to the transaction leaving the system.
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► To be able to recover from failures that affect transactions, the system
maintains a log
► to keep track of all transaction operations that affect the values of database items,
► as well as other transaction information that may be needed to permit recovery from
failures.
► In a stable storage, logs for each transaction are maintained.
► Any operation which is performed on the database is recorded is on the
log.
► Prior to performing any modification to database, an update log record is
created to reflect that modification.

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1. [start_transaction, T]. Indicates that transaction T has started execution.
2. [write_item, T, X, old_value, new_value]. Indicates that transaction T has
changed the value of database item X from old_value to new_value.
3. [read_item, T, X]. Indicates that transaction T has read the value of
database item X.
4. [commit, T]. Indicates that transaction T has completed successfully, and
affirms that its effect can be committed (recorded permanently) to the
database.
5. [abort, T]. Indicates that transaction T has been aborted.

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► ACID Properties are used for maintaining the integrity of database during
transaction processing.
► ACID in DBMS stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.

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► By this, we mean that either the entire transaction takes place at once or
doesn’t happen at all.
► There is no midway i.e. transactions do not occur partially.
► Each transaction is considered as one unit and either runs to completion
or is not executed at all.
► It involves the following two operations.
► Abort: If a transaction aborts, changes made to database are not visible.
► Commit: If a transaction commits, changes made are visible.
► Atomicity is also known as the ‘All or nothing rule’.

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► Consider the following transaction T consisting of T1 and T2: Transfer of
100 from account X to account Y.

► If the transaction fails after completion of T1 but before completion of T2.( say, after
write(X) but before write(Y)), then amount has been deducted from X but not added to Y.
► This results in an inconsistent database state. Therefore, the transaction must be executed
in entirety in order to ensure correctness of database state.

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► This means that integrity constraints must be maintained so that the
database is consistent before and after the transaction.
► It refers to the correctness of a database.
► Referring to the example above,
► The total amount before and after the transaction must be maintained.
► Total before T occurs = 500 + 200 = 700.
► Total after T occurs = 400 + 300 = 700.
► Therefore, database is consistent. Inconsistency occurs in case T1
completes but T2 fails. As a result T is incomplete.

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► In a database system where more than one transaction are being executed
simultaneously and in parallel,
► the property of isolation states that all the transactions will be carried out and
executed as if it is the only transaction in the system.
► No transaction will affect the existence of any other transaction.

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► Let X= 500, Y = 500. Consider two transactions T and T”.

► Suppose T has been executed till Read (Y) and then T’’ starts. As a result , interleaving of operations
takes place due to which T’’ reads correct value of X but incorrect value of Y and sum computed by
► T’’: (X+Y = 50, 000+500=50, 500) is thus not consistent with the sum at end of transaction:
► T: (X+Y = 50, 000 + 450 = 50, 450).
► This results in database inconsistency, due to a loss of 50 units. Hence, transactions must take place
in isolation and changes should be visible only after they have been made to the main memory.

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► The database should be durable enough to hold all its latest updates even
if the system fails or restarts.
► If a transaction updates a chunk of data in a database and commits, then
the database will hold the modified data.
► If a transaction commits but the system fails before the data could be
written on to the disk, then that data will be updated once the system
springs back into action.

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► When multiple transactions execute concurrently in an uncontrolled or
unrestricted manner, then it might lead to several problems.
► These problems are commonly referred to as concurrency problems in
database environment.
► The five concurrency problems that can occur in database are:
► Temporary Update Problem
► Incorrect Summary Problem
► Lost Update Problem
► Unrepeatable Read Problem
► Phantom Read Problem

Page 28 Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SJCET Palai
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 Thank You

Prof. Sarju S
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
St. Joseph’s College of Engineering and Technology, Palai
[email protected] sarju-s

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