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ISSUE: March 2015

Practical Power Flow Controller Brings Benefits Of Power Electronics To The Grid
by Kalyan K. Sen, Sen Engineering Solutions Pittsburgh, Penn.

The use of electrical energy is increasing worldwide and so are its various sources from traditional to renewable.
In order to accommodate the increasing demand for electricity, new alternative energy sources such as solar,
wind and so on can be built. While such projects can be accomplished in a matter of months, these new sources
also create demand for greater capacity in the power grid’s transmission system. This is due to the fact that
alternative energy sources are frequently located away from population centers.

Unfortunately, the conventional approach to expanding the transmission system consists of building new high-
voltage transmission lines, which may take years to complete. Therefore, the immediate solution is to utilize the
existing transmission system more efficiently. One way is to identify the underutilized transmission lines and
increase their power flows to the lines’ rating limits. This can be achieved using a full power electronics-based
solution, an electromechanical solution or a hybrid of the two.

This article discusses the evolution of the power electronics inverter-based solution, explaining its interesting
capabilities and also why its adoption to date has been limited. Then a new solution known as the SMART Power
Flow Controller (SPFC) is introduced.[1,2] The SPFC offers the choice of either a low-cost electromechanical
design using impedance-regulating transformers and mechanical load tap changers (LTCs) or a power
electronics-based design that replaces the mechanical LTCs with thyristor-based LTCs.

At the heart of the SPFC is the Sen Transformer (ST), a new family of impedance-regulating transformers.
Successful installation of an ST will give utilities the capability of a full-featured power flow controller that
increases power flow in an underutilized line, decreases power flow in an overloaded line, controls the active
and reactive power flows as desired, or limits fault currents, just to name a few. The almost instantaneous
addition of transmission capacity will result in the acceleration of the adoption of alternative energies, thereby
reducing the carbon footprint.

The power flow control techniques described in this article are applicable in electric transmission lines as well as
various other applications such as motor drive, flicker control, harmonic mitigation, and so on.

Principles Of Power Flow

An electric power grid is a network of interconnected transmission and distribution lines that carries electrical
energy from the generating points (power sources) to the points of use (loads) as shown in Fig. 1. In normal
operation, the supply of electricity is matched with its demand at the loads and power losses in various
components such as transmission lines, transformers, generators, etc.; throughout the process, the highest
reliability is maintained. The flow of electricity in a particular line depends largely on its impedance. If the
impedance of a line is larger compared to that of the lines connected in parallel, the current and the resulting
power flow through the high-impedance line is lower compared to that in the neighboring lines and vice versa.

Sometimes it is desirable to decrease the impedance of a particular line so that more current can flow through
the line up to the allowable limit. This results in higher line utilization, meets greater customer needs,
integrates new sources of energy, and avoids building of new transmission lines, at least for the time being.

Sometimes it is the opposite when it is desirable to increase the impedance of a particular line so that less
current can flow through the line. This is particularly important when a line becomes overloaded with a level of
current that can trip it or a fault current that must be limited. If an overloaded line trips, its current will be
redirected in the available lines proportionately, depending on the lines’ impedances. This may cause a
previously underloaded line to become overloaded and tripped, which may create a possible cascaded failure of
the grid, resulting in a blackout.

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 Power Flow Along Uncontrolled Paths
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Power Load
Source Transmission
Line

Power
Transformer Transformer Load
Source
Fig. 1. Part of a large interconnected transmission system supplying electric power from the
power sources to the loads.

Power flow in a line is inversely proportional to its reactance. The control of power flow in a line has been
practiced for decades using a variable inductive/capacitive reactance in series with the line. Considering the line
is inductive in nature, a series-connected inductor decreases the power flow in the line by increasing the
effective line reactance between its two ends. A series-connected capacitor increases the power flow in the line
by decreasing the effective line reactance between its two ends.

This series-connected reactance does not need to be a physical inductor or capacitor; it can be a compensating
voltage source that leads the prevailing line current by 90º and acts as a virtual inductor; the same
compensating voltage source can be programmed to lag the prevailing line current by 90º to act as a virtual
capacitor.[3] The advantage of using an emulated series capacitor over an actual series capacitor is the
avoidance of creating any resonance with the line inductance.

This concept was further advanced to “emulate a series impedance” by placing the series-connected
compensating voltage as shown in Fig. 2. The figure shows a simple power transmission system with a sending-
end voltage (Vs), a receiving-end voltage (Vr), the voltage (VX) across the line reactance (X), a series-
connected compensating voltage (Vs’s), the modified sending-end voltage (Vs’), and the line current (I). The
active and reactive power flows at the receiving-end are Pr and Qr, respectively.

Fig. 2. A simple power transmission system with series-connected compensating voltage, Vs’s.[4]

The impedance emulation allows the modified sending-end voltage (Vs’) to be at a specific magnitude and a
specific phase angle required for specific active and reactive power flows in the transmission line. For the
desired amount of active and reactive power flows, the compensating voltage is of a specific magnitude (Vs’s)
and at a specific phase angle with respect to the line voltage. The compensating voltage (Vs’s) is at any phase
angle with respect to the prevailing line current (I) from 0º to 360º and, therefore, exchanges with the line both
active power (Pexch) and reactive power (Qexch).
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These exchanged active and reactive powers (Pexch and Qexch) emulate in series with the line a capacitor (C) or
an inductor (L) and a positive resistor (+R) or a negative resistor (R). If the compensating voltage is
decomposed, the in-phase or out-of-phase component with respect to the line current emulates a positive
resistor or a negative resistor. A positive resistor (+R) absorbs active power from the line; a negative resistor
(R) delivers active power to the line.

The quadrature component with respect to the line current emulates an inductor if the voltage leads the current
or a capacitor if the voltage lags the current. An inductor (L) absorbs reactive power from the line and, in the
process, decreases the power flow of the line; a capacitor (C) delivers reactive power to the line and increases
the power flow of the line.

The impedance emulation technique offers an independent control of active and reactive power flows that can
optimize the power flows as desired. It not only increases power flow in underutilized lines, it also limits power
flow in overloaded lines that might have tripped and led to a cascaded failure, even a possible blackout. It can
maximize the revenue-generating active power flow while minimizing the reactive power flow that results in
lower losses and higher efficiency in the grid, and lower wholesale electric market costs to loads. Note that the
reactance emulation technique either increases or decreases both active and reactive power flows
simultaneously; therefore, the line cannot be optimized for the highest active power flow at the lowest reactive
power flow.

For over 100 years, the traditional solutions in power system applications have been the voltage regulator (VR)
and the phase angle regulator (PAR), each of which uses a transformer and mechanical LTCs. The response
time in this case is dependent on the speed of the mechanical LTCs, which is typically in seconds. But due to the
availability of high-power semiconductor switches, it is now feasible to design power system compensators,
such as VR, PAR, and the reactance regulator (RR) that leverage the speed and functionality of power
semiconductors for high-voltage transmission system applications.

Such power electronics-based solutions can be divided into two categories—those using (1) inverters and those
using (2) thyristor-controlled switches. The inverter-based system provides a response time in milliseconds. The
thyristor-based system is a hybrid system that can be used where the needed response time is less demanding
and is measured in cycles rather than milliseconds.

When comparing the traditional mechanical LTC-based solution with the two types of power electronics-based
solutions, there are tradeoffs to be made. In particular, as the response speed of the solution increases from
slow (seconds) to medium speed (cycles) to fast (milliseconds), there is a corresponding increase in the
solution’s cost (installation and maintenance), complexity, component obsolescence and non-portability.

In the traditional approach of converting ac power into dc, transmitting it in dc, and converting it back to ac,
where mercury valves were used, they are being replaced with thyristor-controlled switches. There is also a
concerted effort to use inverter-based solutions in these applications. Advances in power electronics have made
it possible to develop flexible alternating current transmission systems (FACTS) controllers, which are defined
as “alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronic based and other static controllers to
enhance controllability and increased power transfer capability.”[8]

These controllers have shown that the transmission lines can be used to their fullest extent through
independent control of active and reactive power flows. FACTS controllers can increase power flow through
desired transmission paths, which improves line utilization. Also, grid congestion is avoided by redirecting the
excess power flows from overloaded lines to underloaded lines.

In the last two decades, a great deal has been learned about the true needs of the utility for its everyday use
and they are:

 High reliability with the lowest number of components that are free from becoming obsolete;
 Fast enough response for utility applications;
 Easy relocation to wherever the controller is needed the most, since the need for power flow
control may change with time due to new generation, load, and so on;
 Lowest installation and operating costs, high power density, small footprint and portability; and
 Interoperability so that components from various suppliers can be used, resulting in a global
manufacturing standard, ease of maintenance, and ultimately lower cost to consumers.
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The objective of this article is to explain how a practical solution to enhance the controllability in an electric
power system satisfies both functional and cost requirements.

Evolution Of The SMART Power Flow Controller

In 1998, a power electronics inverter-based power flow controller was demonstrated for the first time at
American Electric Power’s Inez substation. In the most general form, this type of controller can be programmed
to operate as an impedance emulator; however, in a special case, it can be programmed to operate as a
reactance emulator as well.

The reactance emulation technique allows the active and reactive power flows to change simultaneously,
meaning both powers either increase or decrease as shown in Fig. 3; therefore, the line cannot be optimized for
the highest active power flow that generates the most revenues at the lowest reactive power flow.

400
350 Active Power (MW)
300 Reactive Power (Mvar)
250
200
150
100
50
0
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (s)
Fig. 3. Simultaneous power flow control by reactance regulation.[5]

In contrast with reactance emulation, the impedance emulation technique allows the active and reactive power
flows to change independently, meaning as desired, as shown in Fig. 4. While maintaining unity power factor
load, the active power flow in the line is varied at different levels, such as 145 MW, 65 MW, 240 MW, and 145
MW, respectively. While increasing or decreasing both active and reactive power flows simultaneously with the
use of a series reactance compensator is undesirable, controlling the active and reactive power flows
independently is highly desirable. This independent control can be accomplished using either an inverter-based
unified power flow controller (UPFC) or a transformer/LTCs-based Sen Transformer (ST).

400
350 Active Power (MW)
300
250
Reactive Power (Mvar)
200
150
100
50
0
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (s)

Fig. 4. Independent power flow control by impedance regulation.[5]

Fig. 5 shows the circuit diagram of a UPFC used in this application. The UPFC consists of two units—shunt and
series: the shunt unit consists of an inverter and a transformer that is connected in shunt to the line; the series
unit consists of an inverter and a transformer that is connected in series with the line. The inverters are
connected together with a joint dc link capacitor. The series-connected compensating voltage (Vs’s = Vs’ – Vs) is
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of variable magnitude and phase angle and it is also at any phase angle with the prevailing line current.
Therefore, it exchanges active and reactive powers with the line. The exchanged active power (Pexch) flows
bidirectionally through the shared link to and from the same transmission line under compensation.

Fig. 5. Unified power flow controller (UPFC).[4]

In the last two decades, a great deal has been learned about the true needs of a utility for its everyday use and
they are (a) high reliability, (b) low installation and operating costs, (c) component non-obsolescence, and (d)
easy relocation to adapt to changing power system’s needs. The inverter-based UPFC is capable of providing
responses in the range of milliseconds. However, experience has shown that the response time needed in most
utility applications is seconds rather than milliseconds (see Figs. 3 and 4 again.) In other words, the fast
response cannot be utilized in order to assure continued operation under contingencies (i.e. all the possible
variations in the number of lines connected as a network at different times.) Nevertheless, the cost of a UPFC is
about the same, whether it is used in slow-response or fast-response applications.

Therefore, it is desirable to redesign the independent power flow controller to meet the functional requirements
of providing responses in seconds, which will make it less expensive than the inverter-based solution. This was
the thinking behind the development of the ST, which costs a fraction of what the UPFC costs. Moreover, the
ST, in its basic form, uses time-tested components, such as a transformer and mechanical LTCs that are proven
to be reliable.

The ST uses a shared magnetic link between primary and secondary windings as shown in Fig. 6. A three-phase
voltage is applied in shunt to three primary windings that are Y-connected and placed on each limb of a three-
limb, single-core transformer. On the secondary side, three induced voltages from three windings that are
placed on three different limbs are combined, through series connection of the associated windings, to produce
the compensating voltage (Vs’s) for each phase. The number of active turns in the three windings can be varied
with the use of LTCs. As a result, the composite voltage becomes variable in magnitude and variable in phase
angle in the range of 0º to 360º.

Fig. 6. Sen Transformer (ST).[4]

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The dynamic performance of an ST is limited by the speed of operation of the mechanical LTCs, which is in
seconds—a level of performance that is acceptable in most utility applications. However, if faster response is
desired, the mechanical LTCs can be upgraded with power electronics-based LTCs as shown in Fig. 7. This
version is used in a thyristor-controlled Sen Transformer (TCST).

Fig. 7. Thyristor-controlled load tap changer.

Fig. 7 shows the schematic diagram of a thyristor-controlled load tap changer (LTC). A transformer winding is
tapped at various places. Each of the tapped points is connected to one side of a back-to-back thyristor (triac)
switch. The other side of each triac switch is connected at point A. Depending on which thyristor is on, a
variable number of turns between the on-switch and one end of the winding become active; the voltage
between points A and B can be varied between zero and the full-winding voltage with available steps in
between.

The simulated transient responses of Pr and Qr in a transmission line with the use of a transformer and
mechanical LTCs-based ST and an inverter-based UPFC are shown together in Fig. 8. The natural power flows
until t = 5 s. Then, a series-connected compensating voltage (Vs’s) of magnitude 0.2 p.u. is applied at a phase
angle of 300º at t = 5 s and at a phase angle of 240º at t = 14 s. While keeping the phase angle at 240º, the
magnitude of the compensating voltage is increased to 0.4 p.u. at t = 23 s. The power flow in the line due to
the application of the UPFC is changed smoothly whereas that due to the application of the ST is changed in
multiple steps. Regardless of how the transitions take place, the steady-state power flow is the same in both
cases.

Fig. 8. ST simulation results superimposed on UPFC simulation results.[6]

Preliminary examination of an ST and a UPFC shows that the available control region, represented by the active
and reactive (P-Q) plane for the two power flow controllers is virtually the same as illustrated in Fig. 9. The ST
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is more than 99% efficient, since power flow through the ST encounters only one stage of loss (see Fig. 6
again.) In contrast, there are four stages of losses in the UPFC —two in the inverters and two in the coupling
transformers (see Fig. 5 again.)

Fig. 9. Range of active and reactive power flow with the operation of an ST and a UPFC.[7]

A comparison of the sizes and footprints of the Westinghouse-built UPFC and the ST is shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10. A Westinghouse-built UPFC at the AEP Inez substation[8] (left image) versus a
comparably rated ST (right image).

The objectives of a SMART power flow controller (SPFC), shown in Fig. 11, are as follows.

S—specific (design a power flow controller that meets utilities’ needs);

M—measurable (high reliability, high efficiency, low carbon footprint, low cost, component non-obsolescence,
high power density, small footprint and portability);

A—attainable (demonstrated theory by Westinghouse, which was cost-prohibitive for commercialization if

inverter-based UPFC is used);

R—relevant (for efficient power grid);and

T—timely (contemporary for national grid modernization.)

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If the requirement is to reduce the reactive power flow within a permissible limit while maintaining the voltage
stability and to increase the revenue-generating active power flow in an existing underutilized transmission line
up to the line’s rating limit, the SPFC controls the flows of active power and reactive power independently.
Flexible power routing with the use of the SPFC creates immediate capacity to absorb alternative energy
sources into the grid.

If the requirement is to avoid grid

Powercongestion, the SPFC
Flow Along redirects thePath
a Controlled excess power flow from an overloaded line
to underloaded lines, instead of tripping the overloaded line when the power flow is needed the most. If the
requirement is to not trip an overloaded line in order to avoid a possible cascaded failure of the grid and a
resulting blackout, the SPFC limits the power flow in the overloaded line at the maximum allowable level.

Controlled Path
SMART
Power
Flow
Controller

Power Load
Source Transmission
Line

Power
Transformer Transformer Load
Source
Fig. 11. Power flow along a controlled path.

Conclusion
The power industry’s pressing need for the most economical ways to transfer bulk power along a desired path
may relieve grid congestion in certain U.S. markets during peak hours and integrate renewable energy from
wind, solar, and so on. Apart from building new transmission lines, it may be quicker and cheaper to utilize the
existing transmission system infrastructure by harnessing the dormant capacity of the underutilized lines. This
can only be possible through an independent control of active and reactive power flows in the transmission lines.
Independent control of active and reactive power flows leads to

 Reduction in reactive power flow, resulting in a reduction of losses in generators, transformers, and
transmission lines, which increases the overall system efficiency, thus low carbon footprint;

 Freeing up the generators, transformers, and transmission lines to carry more active power;

 Power flow through the desired transmission paths that have high impedances, low power flow, and low
line utilization;

 Avoidance of grid congestion by redirecting excess power flow from an overloaded line to underloaded
lines, instead of tripping the overloaded line and creating possible blackouts when power flow is needed
the most;

 Delayed construction of new, expensive, high-voltage electric transmission lines.

The SMART Power Flow Controller is proposed to enhance the controllability in the power grid on the basis of
functional requirements and affordability. The Sen Transformer technology meets the immediate need of the
utility in terms of maximizing the revenue-generating active power flow while providing the highest efficiency.
The ST uses transformers and mechanical LTCs and offers high reliability, high efficiency, low cost, component
non-obsolescence, high power density, small footprint and portability. The power electronics-based technology
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has the capability of providing fast (subcycle) dynamic response for a given transmission line impedance,
although in a power flow controller the dynamic response of at least a few line cycles is necessary to operate
safely under contingencies.

Most utility applications allow regulation of the power flow in the line(s) in a “slow” manner as permitted by the
speed of operation of the mechanical LTCs. Applications that require faster response time can make use of a
thyristor-controlled Sen Transformer that replaces the mechanical LTCs used in an ST, with power electronics-
based LTCs. Both types of ST cover a wide range of requirements for power flow control in electric transmission
lines. If needed, the power electronics inverter-based Unified Power Flow Controller can be used for the fastest
response time in milliseconds.

References

1. “Introducing the SMART Power Flow Controller - An Integral Part of Smart Grid,” by M. L. Sen and K. K.
Sen, paper no. 103, IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference, Oct. 2012, London, Canada.

2. “SMART Power Flow Controller for Smarter Grid Applications,” by K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, paper no.
15PESGM1910, to be presented at the IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, Jul. 2015,
Denver, USA.

3. “Static synchronous series compensator: a solid-state approach to the series compensation of

transmission lines,” by L. Gyugyi, C. D. Schauder and K. K. Sen, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 12,
no. 1, pp. 406-417, Jan. 1997.

4. “Introduction to FACTS Controllers: Theory, Modeling, and Applications,” by K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen,
IEEE Press and John Wiley & Sons, Chapters 1-2 and 9, 2009.

5. “Comparison of field results and digital simulation results of voltage-sourced converter-based FACTS
controllers,” by K. K. Sen and A. J. F. Keri, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 300-306,
Jan. 2003.

6. “A tap-changing algorithm for the implementation of Sen transformer,” by M. O. Faruque and V.

Dinavahi, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 1750-1757, July 2007.

7. “Comparison of the Sen transformer with the unified power flow controller,” by K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen,
IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 1523-1533, Oct. 2003.

8. “Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems,” by N. G.

Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, New York: IEEE Press, 2000.

About The Author

Currently the chief technology officer of Sen Engineering Solutions, Kalyan K.
Sen has spent 28 years in academia and industry. Sen who was selected to be
a Westinghouse Fellow Engineer, was a key member of the FACTS development
team at the Westinghouse Science & Technology Center in Pittsburgh. He
contributed in all aspects (conception, simulation, design, and commissioning)
of FACTS projects at Westinghouse. Sen conceived some of the basic concepts
in FACTS technology. He has more than 25 patents and publications in the
areas of FACTS and power electronics, including a book and two book chapters.
He is a licensed Professional Engineer in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.

Sen received BEE, MSEE, and PhD degrees in electrical engineering, from
Jadavpur University, Tuskegee University, and Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
respectively. In addition, he received an MBA from Robert Morris University. A
senior member of IEEE, Sen has served the organization in many positions. In
2003, he reestablished the Pittsburgh Chapters of the Power & Energy Society
and the Industry Applications Society. Both Chapters received the “Outstanding
Large Chapter” awards for their activities in 2004. Under his chairmanship, the
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Pittsburgh Section received the “Outstanding Large Section” award for its activities in 2005. He has been
serving as an IEEE PES Distinguished Lecturer since 2002. Currently, he is serving as the founding Chair of IEEE
Pittsburgh Power Electronics Society Chapter.

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