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Program : B.Tech
Subject Name: Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Subject Code: BT-104
Year: 1st
Unit - 3

TOPIC - TRANSFORMER

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Transformer
A transformer is a stationary electrical apparatus that transfers power from one circuit to another by
induction. It is the only A.C. machine that possesses the highest possible efficiency.
Construction: A transformer mainly consists of two windings and a laminated core with insulation. The
winding connected to the supply is called primary winding and the winding connected to the load is called
secondary winding. The winding made on the laminated core has a specific number of turns of copper
conductors insulated from each other and from the core. The copper conductor can be of different cross
sections. The core is made up of silicon steel laminations that are normally 0.3 to 0.6 mm thick. The
laminations are insulated from each other by a thick coat of varnish. A bunch of laminations put together
forms the core that are held together by bolts and nuts or riveted. High silicon content steel has a high
relative permeability and low coefficient of Hysteresis. The use of high silicon content steel reduces
hysteresis loss and by laminating the core the eddy current loss is minimized. The cores may be of different
shapes. Depending on the shape of the core, we have core type transformers and shell type transformers.
The figures show the magnetic cores used for shell type and core type transformers.

Core type: This type of core has a single window as shown in fig.-1 and the windingssurround a
considerable part of the core. The coils are of cylindrical type and are wound in helical layers. Each layer is
insulated from theother by insulating paper. The windings are always interleaved toreduce leakage flux
i.e.half the primary and half the secondary on one limb and the other halves on the other limb. The LV
winding is always placed close to the core and the HV winding is made above LV winding. The individual
laminations of the core may be a single piece or it may be made up of two pieces.

CORE TYPE SHELL TYPE

Fig. - 1 Fig. - 2
Shell type: This type of core has two windows as shown in fig. -2 and the core surrounds a considerable part
of the winding. The individual laminations are usually made up of two pieces. The windings are always
placed only on the central limb. Usually the HV winding is placed at the center and the LV winding is
distributed equally on either sides of the HV winding. This type of winding is called Sandwich winding.
Principle of operation: The basic principle of operation of transformers is based on Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction. The transformer has two windings wound on a laminated steel core. When AC

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supply is given to the primary winding, current flows through the primary winding producing a magnetic

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flux that is alternating in nature. As the magnetic field lines always form a closed loop the flux produced
exists in the steel core. The flux that exists in the core links the primary as well as secondary winding.
Therefore according to Faraday’s law both the windings get emf induced in them.
Emf equation: Let an AC voltage 𝑽𝟏 of supply frequency 𝒇 be applied to the primary
winding. The sinusoidal flux produced by the primary will be Ф = Ф𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏𝑚𝒕
𝒅Ф 𝒅
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒎𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚, 𝒆𝟏 = −𝑵𝟏 = −𝑵𝟏
(Ф𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏𝑚𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒆𝟏 = −𝑚𝑵𝟏Ф𝒎𝑪𝒐𝒔𝑚𝒕 = −𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑵𝟏Ф𝒎𝑪𝒐𝒔𝑚𝒕 ∴ 𝒆𝟏 =
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑵𝟏Ф𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝑚𝒕 − 𝟗𝟎°)
From the above equation, the maximum value of induced emf in primary is 𝑬𝒎𝟏 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑵𝟏Ф𝒎
The rms value of the primary emf =𝑬𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑬𝒎𝟏 ∴ 𝑬𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 ×
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑵𝟏Ф𝒎 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟏Ф𝒎
𝑬𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟏Ф𝒎and𝑬𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟐Ф𝒎
Transformation ratios: Considering an ideal transformer, we have 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 and𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐
The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is called voltage transformation ratio.
It is represented by 𝑲and is also called as the turns ratio𝑽𝟐 = 𝑲𝑽𝟏

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑽 𝑬 𝑵𝟐

=
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐, 𝑲 = 𝑵𝟏
𝟐
𝟐

= 𝑽 𝑬
𝟏
𝟏

In an ideal transformer, we also have, Output = Input or 𝑽𝟐𝑰𝟐 = 𝑽𝟏𝑰𝟏

𝑰 𝑽 𝑬𝟏 𝟏
𝑵 𝑰𝟏
=
∴ = 𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝟐
𝟐
= 𝑲
𝟏
= 𝑲
𝑵 =
𝟏
𝟏
� 𝑽 𝑬𝟐
𝟐
𝟐

Hence,the currents are in the inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio.
Transformer on no-load: If the primary winding is applied with an AC supply voltage V1 and the secondary
winding is kept open, then the transformer is considered to be on no-load. Due to the applied voltage V1,
an alternating current IO flows in the primary that creates an alternating flux  .
V1

Io
IW
Фo

IM Ф

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E1

Fig. - 3

The applied voltage to the primary leads the flux by 90 o. This flux that exists in the magnetic core links with
the primary and secondary windings to induce emf’s E 1 and E2 that lag the flux by 90o.As there is no voltage

drop in the secondary winding, E2 = V2. The no-load current IO,also called as exciting current of the

transformer lags the applied voltage V1 by an angle o . It is observed in fig. - 3, that the no-load current IO

has two components - IM is the magnetising component that produces the desired flux in the core and is in

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phase with the flux  . The other component IW is called the working component or iron loss component

that overcomes the hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in the core. This component of the current
is in phase with the applied voltage.

We have the magnetising component of the no-load current, IM  IO Sin o

and the working component of the no-load current, I W  IO Cos o

The no-load current, IO= IM2  IW 2 ; The input power on no-load, W  V I Cos 
O 1 O o

The no-load power factor, Cos  WO

o
 V1 IO
Transformer on load : Whenever some variety of load is connected across the secondary winding of the
transformer, the transformer is said to be on load. The load may be resistive, R-L or R-C. As the primary
and secondary windings are made on the magnetic core using copper wires, let us assume that they possess
a resistance of R1 and R2 respectively. The leakage flux in the primary winding varies linearly with the
primary current and that in the secondary winding varies linearly with the secondary current. These leakage
fluxes may be simulated by assigning primary and secondary leakage inductances along with the respective
winding resistances. Let the reactance corresponding to the leakage inductance of primary and secondary
be represented by X1 and X2. Fig. - 4, represents the circuit of a transformer with its winding resistance and
leakage reactance

I1 = IO + KI2 R1 X1 R2 X2
I2

V1 E1 E2 V2 Z

Fig. - 4 N1 N2

The value of R1 and X1 cause a voltage drop so that E1 will be less than V1. Similarly, V2 is less than E2 due to
R2 and X2. Considering an R-L load, the current I2 lags V2 by an angle  2. The primary current I1 has two

components, the no-load current IO and the current

I11 that neutralizes the demagnetizing effect of the

secondary current I2. The additional mmf’s due to the load currents in the secondary and primary windings
create fluxes which cancel each other, leaving the original flux  .

The magnitude of I11 will be such that N1 I11 = N2 I2

1 N
or I  2 I  KI
2
1 2
N1
The primary current on 1
I1  IO  I1
load,

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 V1   E1  I1 Z1
and V2  E2  I2 Z2

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The phasor diagram for the working of a transformer with different varieties of loads are shown below -
V1
V1 V1
I1 I1
I1
I11 I11
I11
Ф1
Ф1 Ф1
ФO IO ФO IO ФO IO
Ф Ф Ф

Ф2
I2 Ф2 I2
I2

V2 V2 V2
PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR PHASOR DIAGRAM PHASOR DIAGRAM
TRANSFORMER WITH FOR TRANSFORMER FOR TRANSFORMER
RESISTIVE LOAD WITH R-L LOAD WITH R-C LOAD
Fig. - 5 Fig. - 6 Fig. - 7

The applied voltage V1 leads the magnetic flux  by 90o and the secondary voltage V2 is equal and opposite
To V1. Let a R-L load be considered which draws a secondary current I2 lagging V2 by an angle 2
The current

I11
represents the primary current that neutralizes the demagnetizing effect of secondary current I2. But
1
I1 = KI2 is opposite to I2. IO is the no-load current of the transformer which lags the applied voltage by an

angle O 1
. The primary current I1 is the phasor sum of IO and I1 which lags the applied voltage V1 by an

angle 1 . The load power factor = Cos 2 , The primary power factor = Cos 1
The input power to the transformer, P1 = V1 I1 Cos 1

The output power of the transformer, P2 = V2 I 2 Cos 2

The phasor diagram for a transformer with resistive load is shown in fig.- 5, and phasor diagram for a
transformer with R-L load is shown in fig.- 6. The phasor diagram for a transformer with R-C load is shown
in fig.- 7.
Equivalent circuit of transformer:
R1 X1 R2 X2
I 1 I2
I 11
IO
N1
IW IM
V1 E1 E2 V2 Z
RO XO
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N2

Fig. - 8 IDEAL TRANSFORMER

11

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An actual transformer has two electric circuits linked by a magnetic circuit. To simplify calculations, a
transformer is often represented by its equivalent circuit as shown in fig. - 8.The effects of the core and the
windings are represented by equivalent basic circuit elements and the transformer gets reduced to a simple
circuit. An equivalent circuit is merely a circuit interpretation of the equations that describe the behavior of
the device. The transformer windings are shown as ideal. The resistance and leakage reactance of the
primary and secondary are shown separately in the primary and secondary circuits. The effect of
magnetising current is represented by a reactance X O connected in parallel across the winding. The effect of
core loss is represented by a non-inductive resistance R O. The no-load current IO in a transformer is only 1 to
3 % of its rated primary current; hence, it may be neglected, as it is not going to cause any serious error.

Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer: If theno-load current is neglected, we get the approximate
equivalent circuit of the transformer. The equivalent circuit can be simplified by transferring the secondary
resistance and reactance to the primary side in such a way that the ratio of E 2 to E1 is not affected in
magnitude or phase. If all the secondary quantities are referred to the primary, resistance and reactance
are divided by K2, voltages are divided by K and currents are multiplied by K.
We get the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to primary as shown in fig. - 9.

1 R 1 X
R  2 X 
2 2
X 2
I1 =I21=KI2 1
K I2 = KI2
2 1
R1 2 K

1 V 1 Z
V V  2 ZL  L
2 2
1
K K

Fig. - 9
If all the primary quantities are referred to secondary, we get the equivalent circuit of the transformer
referred to secondary. When primary quantities are referred to secondary, resistance and reactance are
multiplied by K2, voltages are multiplied by K and currents are divided by K.

Voltage regulation of a transformer: It is defined as the change in the output terminal voltage of the
transformer from no-load to load condition, expressed as a fraction or percentage of the no-load terminal
voltage.

% Voltage Regulation oV2  V2

= oV2 x 100
Where oV2is the no-load secondary voltage and V2is the secondary voltage on load.
Losses in transformer: The losses occurring in a transformer are of two types-
1. Iron loss

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2. Copper loss.
These losses appear in the form of heat and produce an increase of temperature and drop in efficiency.

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Core or Iron Losses: It comprises of Hysteresis and Eddy current losses and occur in the transformer core
1.6
due to the alternating flux. We have Hysteresis loss = Ph  Kh Bm f
watts,
V
2 2 2
and Eddy current loss = Pe  K e Bm t f
watts
V
Where Kh and Ke are constants, ‘f’ is the frequency of the supply, ‘B m’ is the Maximum flux density in the
core, ‘V’ is the volume of magnetic material and ‘t’ is the thickness of the lamination.
Both the losses depend on frequency and maximum flux density in the core. Since transformers are
connected to constant frequency and constant supply voltage, both ‘f’ and ‘B m’ are constant. Hence, core
or iron losses are practically the same at all loads.
Iron or core losses, Pi = Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss = Constant losses.
Copper losses: These losses occur both in primary and secondary windings due to their ohmic resistance.
Copper loss = Pc = I12 R1 + I22 R2 = Variable losses

Where I1 = Primary current, R1 = Resistance of primary winding, I 2 = Secondary current,

R2 = Resistance of secondary winding.
Total loss in Transformer = Iron loss + Copper loss = Constant loss + Variable loss = P i + Pc
Efficiency of Transformer:
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of out put power to the input power.

Output power Output

 Efficiency  = x.KVA.Cos
or Efficiency x 
Input power Output  x.KVA.Cos  Pi  x
Losses 2
Pc
Where KVA is the out put power rating of the transformer and ‘x’ is load factor,
x = 1 for Full load, x = 0.5 for Half full load and x = 0.25 for Quarter full load.
As Iron losses are independent of load they are considered as constant.

As Copper losses are proportional to the square of the load current, the copper losses 2
x Pc
=

x.KVA.Cos
% x  2  100
( x.KVA.Cos )  Pi  x Pc
Transformer tests: The efficiency and voltage regulation of a transformer can be determined by two simple
tests - Open circuit test and Short circuit test. These tests provide the required information using which the
performance of the transformer can be ascertained without actually loading the transformer.

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Open circuit test or no-load test: In this test the secondary winding is kept open and the rated voltage of
the transformer is applied to its primary winding. The voltmeter measures the applied voltage 𝑽𝟏. The
ammeter measures the no-load current 𝑰𝑶 . The wattmeter measures the no-load input power 𝑾𝑶 . As
the no-load current is very small and flows only in the primary, the copper losses due to it are negligible.
Hence, the wattmeter reading practically gives the iron losses in the transformer.The circuit connection to
perform this test is shown in fig. - 10.

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BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING NOTES

A

1Ф, 230 V, 50 Hz, V

A.C.SUPPLY
Fig. - 10
The input power on no-load = Iron losses = 𝑷𝒊 = 𝑾𝑶 = 𝑽𝟏𝑰𝑶𝑪𝒐𝒔Ф𝑶
𝑾𝑶
𝑵𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓,
𝑪𝒐𝒔Ф𝑶 𝑽 𝑰𝑶
= 𝟏

Magnetising component of the no-load current, 𝑰𝑴 =

𝑰𝑶𝑺𝒊𝒏Ф𝑶
Working component of the no-load current, 𝑰𝑾 =
𝑰𝑶𝑪𝒐𝒔Ф𝑶 𝑽
𝑽𝟏
𝟏

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, ; 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆,𝑿𝑶 =

𝑹𝑶 = � �
𝑴
𝑾

Short circuit or Impedance test: In this test the secondary winding is short circuited and the voltage across
the primary winding is adjusted such that the rated current flows through the primary winding. The
voltmeter measures the applied voltage V1SC. The ammeter measures the full load primary current I 1. As the
applied voltage is very small the iron losses in the core will be negligible. Under short circuit condition there
is no output from the transformer. Hence, the wattmeter measures the full load copper losses W S in the
transformer windings. The circuit connection to perform this test is shown in fig. - 11

A
RO1= R1 +R21 XO1= X1 +X21
W
I1
V1SC I1
1Ф, 230 V, 50 Hz, V
A.C.SUPPLY Fig. - 12
Fig. - 11
The equivalent circuit of a transformer on short circuit as referred to the primary is shown in fig. -12, as the
no-load current is very small it is neglected.
The input power under short circuit condition = Copper losses = 𝑷𝑪 = 𝑾𝑺
If total resistance of transformer referred to primary is 𝑹𝑶𝟏; total reactance referred to primary is 𝑿𝑶𝟏
Then total impedance referred to primary is 𝒁𝑶𝟏

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BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING NOTES

𝑾 𝑽𝟏 𝑾𝑺
∴𝑹 ; ; = √𝒁𝟐 − 𝑹𝟐 𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
= 𝑺 𝒁 = 𝑺𝑪 𝑿 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓, 𝑪𝒐𝒔
𝑶𝟏
𝟐 �
𝑶𝟏
𝑰 𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟏 𝑶
𝟏
Ф𝟐
𝑽𝟏𝑺𝑪𝑰𝟏
𝟏 𝟏

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BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING NOTES

Relations for Efficiency and Voltage regulation: The efficiency of the transformer at any load factor ‘x’ and
any power factor can be determined if the KVA rating of the transformer, Iron losses and the Full load
copper losses are known. The relation given below helps in finding the efficiency from the OC and SC tests
conducted on the transformer.
x.KVA.Cos
% x  2  100
( x.KVA.Cos )  Pi  x Pc
The voltage regulation of the transformer can be calculated by using the relation given below -
If the resistance and reactance of the transformer referred to the secondary side are known then
I2 ( RO2 Cos
% Voltage Re gulation   X O2 Sin2 )
2  100

V2
(+ ve for lagging power factor and – ve for leading power factor)
V2 is the secondary voltage of the transformer on no-load.

NOTES BY -

PROF. ROOPAM SAXENA

EC DEPARTMENT

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