Mass and Volume

⚫Density
Density of a substance is the mass for unit
volume of the substance (kg/m³, g/cm³,
lbm/ft³)
⚫Specific Volume

Specific Volume of a substance is the

volume occupied by a unit mass of the
substance; it is the inverse of density.
 Specific Gravity

⚫Specific gravity of a substance is the ratio

of the density ρ of a substance of the
density ρref of a reference substance at a
specific condition.

SG = ρ / ρref
⚫The reference most commonly used for
solids and liquids is water at 4.0˚C, which
has the following density:

ρH2O(4.0˚C) = 1.000 g/cm³

= 1000 kg/m³
= 62.43 lbm/ft³
⚫ Note that the density of a liquid or solid in g/cm ³
is numerically equal to the specific gravity of the
substance. The notation

SG = 0.6 20˚
40˚

⚫ If you are given the specific gravity of a

substance, multiply it by the reference density in
any units to get the density of the substance in
the same units.
Example Problem:

⚫The density of a liquid at 30ºC is 1500

kg/m3:
What is the specific gravity of this liquid
What volume in ft3 does 140 lb of this material
occupies at 20ºC?

Answer: a). 1.5 b). 1.497 ft3

Flow Rate
 FLOW RATE

⚫The rate at which a material is transported

through a process line.

⚫The flow rate of a process stream may

be expressed as a mass flow rate
(mass/time) or as a volumetric rate
(volume /time).
Suppose a fluid (gas or liquid) flows in the
cylindrical pipe, where the shaded area
represents a section perpendicular to the
direction of flow

(kg fluid/s)

V (m3 fluid/s)
⚫ If the mass flow rate of the fluid is (kg/s)2, then every
second m kilograms of the fluid pass through the cross
section. If the volumetric flow rate of the fluid at the given
cross section is V (m3/s), then every second V cubic
meters of the fluid - in this case, the fluid that passes
through the cross section each second – are not
independent quantities but are related through the fluid
density, ρ:
ρ=m/v= /v
Thus, the density of a fluid can be used to convert a
known volumetric flow rate of a process stream to the
mass flow rate of that stream or vice versa.
Flow Rate Measurement

⚫A flowmeter is a device mounted in a

process line that provides a continuous
reading of the flow rate in the line.

Two Commonly Used Flowmeter

⚫the rotameter
⚫ the orifice meter
 ROTAMETER

The rotameter is a tapered vertical tube

containing a float; the larger the flow rate, the
higher the float rises in the tube.
 ORIFICE METER

The orifice meter is an obstruction in the flow

channel with a narrow opening through which
the fluid passes.
PARTS PER MILLION & PARTS PER BILLION

The units parts per million (ppm) and parts

per billion (ppb)3 are used to express the
concentrations of trace species (species present
in minute amounts) in mixtures of gases or
liquids.
The definitions may refer to mass ratios (usual
for liquids), or mole ratios (usual for gases) and
signify how many parts (grams, moles) of the
species are present per million or billion parts
(grams, moles) of the mixture.
If yi is the fraction of component i, then
by definition:

ppmi = yi x 106
ppbi = yi x 109
Example Problem:

⚫One pound mole of methane per minute is

fed to a heat exchanger. How many
kilograms in this per second?

Answer: 0.121 kg/s

Chemical Composition
Mole and Molecular Weight
⚫Atomic Weight of an element is the mass
of an atom on a scale that assigns 12C
(the isotope of carbon whose nucleus
contains six protons and six neutrons) a
mass of exactly 12.
⚫Molecular weight of compound is the
sum of the atomic weights of the atoms
that constitute a molecule of the
compound.
⚫Gram-mole is the amount of that species
whose mass in grams is numerically equal
to its molecular weight.
⚫If the molecular weight of a substance is
M, then there are M kg/kmol, M g/mol, and
M lbm/lb-mole of this substance.
 Mass and Mole Fraction and Average
Molecular Weight
⚫Mass fraction is the mass of the substance
divided by the total mass of all the
substances present.

XA = mass of A/ total mass (kg A/kg total or g A/g total or

lbm A /lbm total)
⚫Mole fraction is the moles of a particular
substance divided by the total number of
moles present.

yA = moles of A/ total moles (kmol A/kmol total or

mol A/mol total or
lb-moles A /lbmole total)
⚫Average molecular weight is the ratio of
the mass of a sample of the mixture (mt) to
the number of moles of all species (nt) in
the sample. If the yi is the mole fraction of
the ith component of the mixture and Mi , is
the molecular weight of this component
then
 Concentration
⚫Mass concentration is the mass of this
component per unit volume of the mixture
(kg/in³, g/cm³, lbm/ft³)
⚫Molar Concentration is the number of
moles of components per unit volume of
the mixture (kmol/m³, lb-mole/ft³)
⚫Molarity is the value of the molar
concentration of the solute expressed in
gram-moles solute/liter solution.
Example Problem No.1

⚫A gaseous fuel is reported to analyze on a

mole basis, 20% Methane, 5% Ethane and
the remainder Carbon Dioxide. Calculate
the following:
Analysis in mass percent
Analysis in volume percent
Mole fraction of each constituents
Average molecular weight

Answer: a). 8.49% CH4, 3.98% C2H6, 87.53% CO2

Example Problem No. 2

⚫Given that a water solution contains 1.704

kg of HNO3/kg H2O and has a specific
gravity of 1.382 at 20ºC, determine the
following:
Mass Percent of Nitric Acid
Lbs Nitric acid per lbs of solution
Molarity/Normality/Molality
Volume percent of water
Answers: Mass Percent of Nitric Acid=63.02%
lbs Nitric Acid per lbs of solution=0.6302
Example Problem No. 3

⚫Concentrated HCl has a density of 1.24

g/ml and has a molarity of 16M.
Determine:
% mass HCl Answer: a). 41.07%

% vol H2O b). 83.68%

Normality c).16N
Molality d). 19.12 molal
YHCl e). 0.26
The Ideal Gas Law
⚫Boyle’s Law: (at const. T
& n)

⚫Charles Law: (at const. P

& n)

⚫Avogadro’s Law: ( at const. T

& P)
Gas Law Relationships

Alternative Form
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Mole Fraction
Pressure
Fluid Pressure & Hydrostatic Head
⚫ Pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on
which the force acts

⚫ Fluid Pressure is the ratio where F is

the minimum force that would have to be
exerted on a frictionless plug in the hole to
keep the fluid from emerging.
Fluid Pressure in a tank and a pipe

Pressure at a base of a fluid column

⚫Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due to the
weight of a fluid. The force F exerted on the
base divide by the base area A. F thus equal
the force on the top surface plus the weight of
the fluid in the column.
P = F/A = (mg)/A=(ρV)g/A=ρ(Ah)g/A = ρgh
where:
⚫P is pressure
⚫A is area
⚫ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid
⚫g is the acceleration due to gravity
⚫h is the height of the fluid column
 Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute
Pressure, Gauge Pressure
⚫The typical value of the atmospheric
pressure at a sea level, 760.0 mm Hg, has
been designated a a standard pressure of
1 atmosphere.
⚫The absolute pressure of a fluid is the
pressure relative to a perfect vacuum.
⚫The pressure gauage is the pressure
realtive to atmospheric pressure.
⚫Pgauge = Pabsolute - Patmospheric
Fluid Pressure Measurement
⚫ Bourdon Gauge is a hollow
tube closed at one end and
bent into a C configuration.
The open end of the tube is
exposed to the fluid whose
pressure is to be measured.
As the pressure increases,
the tube tends to straighten,
causing a pointer attached to
the tube to rotate. It is used
to measure fluid pressure
from nearly perfect vacuum
to about 7000 atm.
 Manometers

⚫ Provides more accurate measurements from

pressure below about 3 atm
⚫ Is a U-shaped tube partially filled with a fluid of
known density.

Open-end Manometer

⚫ One end is exposed to a fluid whose pressure is

to be measured, and the other is open to the
atmosphere.
Differential Manometer
⚫Used to measure the pressure difference
between to points in a process line.
Sealed-end Manometer
⚫Has a near-vacuum enclosed at one end.
Barometer
⚫If the open end of a sealed-end
manometer is exposed to the atmosphere
(P1 = Patm)
General Manometer Equation

⚫P1 + ρ1gd1 = P2 + ρ2gd2 + ρfgh

 Differential Equation

P1 – P2 = (ρf - ρ) gh

⚫If either fluid 1 or 2 is a gas at a moderate

pressure, the density of the fluid is 100 to
1000 times lower than the density of
manometer fluid, so that the
corresponding ρgd term may be
neglected. If bothe fluids are gases then
the equation baecomes
 Manometer Formula for Gases

P1 – P2 = h

⚫If both P1 and P2 are expressed as heads

of the manometer
⚫If P2 is atmospheric pressure, then gauge
pressure at point 1 is simply the difference
in the levels of the manometer fluid.
Example Problem No. 1

⚫What will the gauge pressure be at the

bottom of the tank if a 15.0 m high tank
contains 10 m hexane (specific gravity is
0.659) and 4 m water (specific gravity is
1)?

Answer: 103.782 kPa

Example Problem No. 2

⚫The pressure gauge on a tank of CO2

used to fill soda water bottles reads 51.0
psi. At the same time the barometer reads
28.0 in Hg. What is the absolute pressure
in the tank in psia?

Answer: 64.8 psia

Example Problem No. 3

⚫A large storage tank contains oil having a

ρ=917 kg/m3. The tank is 3.66 m tall and is
open to the atmosphere where the
barometric reading is a atm. The tank is
filled with oil to a depth of 3.05 m and also
contains 0.61 m of water. Calculate the
pressure exerted at the bottom of the tank.

Answer: Pbottom=134.71 kPa

TEMPERATURE
 TEMPERATURE

⚫The temperature of a substance in a

particular state of aggregation (solid,
liquid, or gas) is a measure of the average
kinetic energy possessed by the
substance molecules.
 TEMPERATURE SCALE

It can be defined in terms of any of

these properties, or in terms of physical
phenomena, such as freezing and
boiling, that take place at fixed
temperatures and pressures.
⚫Two most common temperature scales are
defined using the freezing point (Tf) and
boiling point (Tb) of water at a pressure of
1 atm.

⚫Celsius (or centigrade) scale: Tf is

assigned a value of 0° C and Tb is
assigned a value of 100°.
Absolute zero on this scale falls at
-273.15 °C
⚫Fahrenheit scale: Tf is assigned a value
of 32°F, and Tb is assigned a value of
212°F.
Absolute zero falls at -459.67°F.

⚫The Kelvin and Rankine scales are

defined such that absolute zero has a
value of 0 and the size of a degree is the
same as a Celsius degree (Kelvin scale)
or a Fahrenheit degree (Rankine scale).
⚫The following relationships may be used to
convert a temperature expressed in one
defined scale unit to its equivalent in
another:

T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15 (3.5-1)

T(°R) = T(°F) + 459.67 (3.5-2)
T(°R) = 1.8T (K) (3.5-3)
T(°F) = 1.8T (°C) + 32 (3.5-4)
⚫PROBLEM SOLVING:

Temperature Scale:

What is -40°F in °C? °R? K?

Solution:
°F → °C T°C = 5/9 (-40° – 32°)
=5/9 (-72°)
= -40°C
⚫°C → °R
T°R = °C +459.67
= -40 + 459.67
= 419.67 °R

⚫°C → K
TK = T°C + 273.15
= -40°C + 273.15
= 233.15 K
 Example Problem No. 1
⚫It is proposed to establish a new
temperature scale based upon benzene to
be called the benzene scale (ºB). On the
new scale 0ºB (5.5ºC) will be the melting
point of benzene and 100ºB(80.1ºC) is the
boiling point. Derive its relative
relationship with the Celsius and the
Fahrenheit scale.
ANSWERS: ºB=100/74.6(ºC-5.5)
ºB=100/134.28(ºF-41.9)
End of the Discussion