Emergence of Psychology

Bhagavad Gita

Structure:
• The Bhagavad Gita is part of the Mahabharata, specifically in the Bhishma Parva.
• Composed of 18 chapters (Yogas) and 701 slokas (verses).
• It is a dialogue between Lord Krishna (symbolizing divine intellect) and Arjuna (symbolizing
the individual self), set on the battlefield of Kurukshetra.
• Two key chapters:
o Arjuna Vishada Yoga (Sorrow of Arjuna): Focuses on Arjuna's existential crisis and
emotional turmoil, representing human conflicts.
o Moksha Sanyasa Yoga (Renunciation): Concludes with the resolution of inner
conflict and the attainment of liberation.
Core Themes:
1. Dharma (Duty):
o Central to maintaining psychological balance.
o Encourages individuals to act based on ethics, responsibility, and moral decision-
making.
o Reflects on fulfilling one’s role in life without selfish motives.
2. Karmayoga (Path of Action):
o Emphasizes selfless action without attachment to outcomes.
o Serves as a therapeutic tool to resolve internal conflicts and restore functionality.
 3. Jnanayoga (Path of Knowledge):
o Focuses on self-realization and understanding the true nature of self and reality.
o Encourages rational thinking and the pursuit of knowledge.
4. Bhaktiyoga (Path of Devotion):
o Highlights devotion and surrender to a higher power or divine entity.
o Encourages emotional bonding with the divine, promoting transcendence and
spiritual growth.
Psychological Model:
• The Bhagavad Gita uses the Chariot Metaphor to represent human life and the psyche:
o Chariot (Body): Represents the physical self.
o Krishna (Intellect): The charioteer, symbolizing higher cognitive abilities.
o Arjuna (Self): Represents the ego and consciousness.
o Horses (Senses): Uncontrolled desires and senses that need guidance.
o Reins (Mind): Represents the mind controlling the senses.
o Battleground (Life): Symbolizes daily struggles and life challenges.
• The model highlights the importance of integrating intellect, mind, and self for optimal
functioning.

Buddhism

Four Noble Truths:

1. Dukkha (Suffering):
 o Suffering is inherent to life.
o Encompasses pain, dissatisfaction, and impermanence.
2. Samudaya (Origin of Suffering):
o The root cause is Tanha (craving or desire).
o Desires are categorized into:
▪ Greed: Overattachment to material and emotional gains.
▪ Ignorance: Misunderstanding of reality.
▪ Hatred: Destructive emotions and actions.
3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering):
o Liberation is possible by overcoming attachments and cravings.
o Leads to Nirvana, a state of ultimate peace and joy.
4. Magga (Path to Cessation):
o The way to end suffering is through the Eightfold Path.
Eightfold Path:
Divided into three categories:
1. Ethical Conduct:
o Right Speech: Speaking truthfully and avoiding harmful words.
o Right Action: Acting ethically and avoiding harm to others.
o Right Livelihood: Choosing a profession that does not harm others.
2. Mental Discipline:
o Right Effort: Cultivating positive mental states.
o Right Mindfulness: Awareness of body, feelings, and mind.
o Right Concentration: Developing deep mental focus.
3. Wisdom:
o Right Understanding: Comprehending the nature of reality.
o Right Intention: Maintaining the right mindset and goals.
Sufism

Four Stages of Spiritual Growth:

1. Shariah (Religious Law):
o Foundation of morality and ethics.
o Provides a structured path for spiritual and worldly actions.
2. Tariqah (The Path):
o Focuses on inner devotion and practices like meditation and prayers.
o Requires guidance from a Sheikh (Spiritual Teacher).
3. Haqiqah (Truth):
o Direct realization of divine presence and truth.
o Encourages personal spiritual experiences beyond imitation.
4. Marifah (Gnosis):
o Highest stage of wisdom and deep spiritual knowledge.
o Realization of unity with the divine.
Goals:
• Fana (Self-Dissolution):
o Complete loss of ego and self-consciousness.
 o Leads to union with the divine.
• Baqa (Eternal Existence):
o Continuation of existence in divine reality, beyond material attachments.

Integral Yoga

Definition:
• Ancient Indian philosophy that unites body, mind, and soul.
• Combines physical postures, breathing techniques, and meditation for holistic development.
Types of Yoga:
1. Hatha Yoga:
o Focuses on balancing pranic energy through physical postures and breathing
techniques.
2. Jnana Yoga:
o Pursuit of self-realization through wisdom and meditative awareness.
3. Bhakti Yoga:
o Channeling emotions into devotion towards a higher power.
4. Karma Yoga:
o Performing actions with selflessness, without expecting rewards.
5. Raja Yoga:
o Practices aimed at mastering the mind through meditation and concentration.
 6. Swara Yoga:
o Advanced technique focusing on breath control for cosmic connection and self-
awareness.
Psychology of Yoga
Yoga provides a psychological framework for mental well-being, focusing on stages of mind and
self-discipline.
Five Stages of Citta (Mind):
1. Ksipta (Restless):
o A distracted and hyperactive mind, like a child unable to focus during a lesson.
2. Mudha (Torpid):
o A dull, lethargic state, such as feeling unmotivated to study despite having time.
3. Viksipta (Distracted):
o A mind swaying between focus and distraction, like studying but getting pulled into
phone notifications.
4. Ekagra (Concentrated):
o A focused and calm mind, such as being completely absorbed in reading a favorite
book.
5. Niruddha (Controlled):
o The highest state where the mind is entirely under control, similar to maintaining
inner peace in stressful situations.
Eightfold Path (Ashtanga Yoga):
1. Yama (Ethics):
o Practicing honesty and non-violence, like resolving conflicts peacefully.
2. Niyama (Discipline):
o Personal habits, such as maintaining cleanliness and gratitude.
3. Asana (Postures):
o Physical exercises to improve flexibility and calmness, like yoga poses after a long
day.
4. Pranayama (Breath Control):
o Regulating breathing to manage emotions, such as deep breathing during anxiety.
5. Pratyahara (Sense Withdrawal):
 o Detachment from distractions, like ignoring unnecessary social media scrolling
during exams.
6. Dharana (Concentration):
o Focusing on one object or task, like meditating on a candle flame to enhance
attention.
7. Dhyana (Meditation):
o Deep meditation to observe thoughts without judgment.
8. Samadhi (Self-Realization):
o Achieving ultimate peace and understanding of self.

Historical Foundations of Western

Psychology
The roots of Western psychology trace back to Ancient Greece, where philosophers and scientists
explored the mind, behavior, and human nature. Their insights laid the groundwork for modern
psychology.

Ancient Greek Philosophers

Socrates (469–399 BCE):
 • Core Ideas:
o Socrates emphasized that knowledge resides within the individual and can be
accessed through introspection and self-reflection.
o He believed that virtue and self-awareness emerge from understanding one’s own
thoughts and actions.
o He viewed the psyche (soul) as the guiding force of human life, capable of
distinguishing between good and bad.
o Happiness, according to Socrates, comes not from material possessions but from
living a life aligned with virtue and wisdom.
• Socratic Method:
o A teaching approach based on dialogue and questioning to stimulate critical thinking
and uncover underlying beliefs.
o Encouraged students to reach conclusions by logical reasoning.

Plato (427–347 BCE):

• Core Ideas:
o A student of Socrates, Plato expanded on his mentor’s ideas and introduced the
theory of forms, positing that ideas are eternal, unchangeable truths that represent
the real essence of objects.
o He argued for the importance of ideas over sensory observations, suggesting that
sensory experiences are deceptive and hinder true knowledge.
 o Proposed the tripartite soul:
1. Reason (located in the head): The rational part that seeks truth and
knowledge.
2. Will (located in the chest): The spirited part responsible for courage and
ambition.
3. Appetite (located in the stomach): The part associated with desires and
bodily needs.
o Believed the soul should strive to harmonize these parts, with reason guiding will
and appetite.
• Introspection:
o Plato promoted introspective methods, encouraging individuals to look within
themselves to understand eternal truths.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE):

• Core Ideas:
o A student of Plato, Aristotle diverged from his teacher’s ideas by emphasizing
empirical methods—knowledge gained through observation and experience.
o He rejected Plato’s view of innate knowledge and argued that learning is grounded in
the senses.
• Associationism:
o Aristotle introduced three principles of how ideas are linked in the mind:
 1. Similarity: Ideas are connected by resemblance (e.g., apple and orange as
fruits).
2. Contiguity: Ideas are associated through closeness in time or space (e.g.,
thunder and lightning).
3. Contrast: Ideas are linked by their opposites (e.g., day and night).
• Functions of Humans:
o Highlighted key human functions, including:
▪ Perception: Gaining information through sensory organs.
▪ Thinking: Analyzing and reasoning.
▪ Procreation: Ensuring the survival of the species.
o Viewed humans as biological organisms whose behaviors are shaped by their
environment and goals.

Hippocrates (460–370 BCE):

• Core Ideas:
o Known as the "Father of Medicine," Hippocrates shifted the explanation of human
behavior from divine intervention to natural causes.
o Proposed the theory of four humors, suggesting that bodily fluids determine
personality and temperament:
1. Sanguine (blood): Cheerful, optimistic, and active.
2. Choleric (yellow bile): Angry, aggressive, and assertive.
3. Melancholic (black bile): Sad, reflective, and introverted.
4. Phlegmatic (phlegm): Calm, passive, and stable.
o Balanced humors were considered essential for good health and emotional well-
being.
 • Significance:
o His theory influenced early approaches to mental health and inspired later
classifications of personality types.

Rene Descartes (1596–1650):

• Mind-Body Dualism:
o Descartes proposed that the mind and body are distinct entities but interact through
the pineal gland.
o The mind is non-material, responsible for thought and consciousness.
o The body is mechanical and follows the laws of physics.
• Mechanistic View:
o Viewed the body as a machine, operating through "animal spirits" that flow through
nerves, causing movement and sensations.
o Described reflexes as automatic bodily responses to external stimuli.
• Significance:
o Descartes’ dualism laid the foundation for studying the interaction between mental
processes and physical actions, influencing fields like neuroscience.
John Locke (1632–1704):

• Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate):

o Locke argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with no pre-existing ideas or
knowledge.
o All knowledge is acquired through experience and sensory input.
o This empiricist view challenged earlier notions of innate ideas, emphasizing the role
of learning and environment in shaping behavior.
• Learning and Development:
o Advocated for education and upbringing as critical factors in human development.
o Locke's ideas influenced the development of behaviorism and other learning
theories.
1. Structuralism
Founder:
• Wilhelm Wundt, regarded as the "Father of Psychology," established the first experimental
psychology lab in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany.
Focus:
• Structuralism aimed to identify the basic elements of consciousness, such as sensations,
feelings, and thoughts.
• Wundt and his student, Edward Titchener, used introspection as their primary method.
o Introspection: A systematic process where trained participants analyzed and
reported their own conscious experiences in response to stimuli (e.g., describing
sensations after hearing a bell).
Criticism:
• Reductionist: Focused only on breaking down consciousness into elements, ignoring the
complexity of holistic experiences.
• Limited Applicability: Neglected practical behavior, emotions, and actions.
• Excluded non-verbal individuals like children or those with speech impairments.

2. Functionalism
Founder:
• William James, often called the "Father of American Psychology," introduced functionalism,
emphasizing the stream of consciousness (the continuous flow of thoughts and feelings).
Focus:
• Functionalism studied the functions of mental processes in enabling individuals to adapt to
their environment.
• Instead of breaking down consciousness, functionalists explored why mental processes
occur and how they help organisms survive.
Applications:
• Education: Understanding learning processes and improving teaching methods.
o For example, analyzing how memory aids in problem-solving for students.
• Applied Psychology: Practical solutions in industry, work efficiency, and adaptation to
societal changes.

3. Gestalt Psychology
Key Figures:
• Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler developed Gestalt psychology in the
early 20th century.
Principles:
• The central idea is “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
o Example: A melody is more than individual musical notes; it is the arrangement that
creates the experience.
Laws of Perception:
1. Proximity: Elements close together are perceived as a group.
o Example: Dots grouped closely are seen as a single shape.
2. Similarity: Similar items are grouped together.
o Example: Circles and squares in a pattern are perceived as separate groups.
3. Closure: The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
o Example: A circle with a gap is still seen as a circle.
4. Good Continuation: We prefer smooth and continuous lines.
o Example: Two intersecting lines are perceived as two separate lines, not four broken
ones.
4. Psychoanalysis
Founder:
• Sigmund Freud, in the late 19th century, developed psychoanalysis to explain unconscious
motivations behind behavior.
Personality Structure:
• Freud proposed a tripartite model of personality:
1. Id: Instinctual drives (e.g., hunger, aggression) operating on the pleasure principle.
2. Ego: Rational self, balancing the id and external reality (operates on the reality
principle).
3. Superego: Moral conscience, influenced by societal norms.
Psychosexual Stages:
• Freud’s stages of personality development are:
1. Oral Stage (0–1 year): Focus on mouth (e.g., sucking, biting).
2. Anal Stage (1–3 years): Focus on bowel control (e.g., toilet training).
3. Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Awareness of gender differences.
4. Latency Stage (6–12 years): Social and intellectual development.
5. Genital Stage (12+ years): Sexual maturity and adult relationships.
Methods:
• Dream Analysis: Interpreting dreams to uncover unconscious desires.
• Free Association: Encouraging patients to speak freely to reveal hidden conflicts.

5. Behaviorism
Founder:
• John Watson established behaviorism in the early 20th century, rejecting introspection and
focusing on observable behavior.
Focus:
• Behaviorism studies the relationship between stimulus (external event) and response
(behavior).
• Believed behavior is learned through conditioning.
Contributions:
 1. Thorndike’s Law of Effect:
o Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur.
2. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:
o Learning occurs through reinforcement (rewards) and punishment.
o Example: A child receives a candy for completing homework, reinforcing the
behavior.

6. Humanism
Key Figures:
• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow developed humanism as a response to psychoanalysis
and behaviorism.
Core Ideas:
1. Free Will:
o Humans have the freedom to make choices and shape their lives.
2. Personal Growth:
o Individuals are inherently motivated to achieve their full potential.
3. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
o A pyramid of human needs:
1. Physiological Needs: Food, water, shelter.
2. Safety Needs: Security, stability.
3. Love/Belonging: Relationships, family.
4. Esteem: Respect, achievement.
5. Self-Actualization: Realizing one’s full potential.
4. Rogers’ Self-Concept:
o A positive self-concept arises from unconditional positive regard (acceptance and
love without conditions).
Comparison of Schools:

School Focus Methods Key Contribution

Structuralism Basic elements of Introspection Laid foundation for

consciousness experimental psychology.

Functionalism Functions of mental Observation, Focused on adaptability

processes applied studies and education.

Gestalt Perception and holistic Laws of Perception Showed the importance of

Psychology experiences "whole" over "parts."

Psychoanalysis Unconscious mind and Dream analysis, free Explored inner conflicts and
childhood influences association motivations.

Behaviorism Observable behavior and Experiments (e.g., Developed learning

conditioning Skinner box) theories and
reinforcement.

Humanism Free will, self-growth, Client-centered Emphasized personal

and personal meaning therapy potential and positivity.

Shaeza Mariyem