CHAPTER 8: SYSTEMS OF IDENTICAL PARTICLES

(From Cohen-Tannoudji, Chapter XIV)

Consider scattering of two quantum particles

as the particles are indistinguishable, we cannot determine the path they followed.
→ Problems: exchange degeneracy (removed by the symmetrization postulate)
Permutation operators
a) Two particle systems

E(1) ⊗ E(2) (8.1)

n o
|1 : ui; 2 : u ji (8.2)

Note

|1 : u j; 2 : uii , |1 : ui; 2 : u ji if i , j (8.3)

The permutation operator

P̂21|1 : ui; 2 : u ji = |2 : ui; 1 : u ji (8.4)

= |1 : u j; 2 : uii (8.5)

The order of the vectors in a tensor product is of no importance.

b)The permutation operator P21
 2
P̂21 = 1̂ (8.6)
P̂†21 = P̂21 (self adjoint) (8.7)
P̂†21 P̂21 = P̂21 P̂†21 = 1̂ (unitary) (8.8)

c) Symmetric and antisymmetric kets

Symmetrizer and antisymmetrizer

P̂†21 = P̂21 ⇒ the eigenvalues of P̂21 must be real
(P̂21)2 = 1̂ ⇒ the eigenvalues are

+1 (symmetric) −1 (antisymmetric) (8.9)

P̂21|ψS i = |ψS i P̂21|ψAi = −|ψAi (8.10)
Consider the operators
1 
symmetrizer: Ŝ = 1̂ + P̂21 Ŝ 2 = Ŝ , Ŝ † = Ŝ (8.11)
2
1 
antisymmetrizer:  = 1̂ − P̂21 Â2 = Â, † =  (8.12)
2
which are projectors onto orthogonal subspaces
Ŝ Â = ÂŜ = 0 (8.13)
that are complementary
Ŝ + Â = 1̂ (8.14)
If |ψi is an arbitrary ket in E,
Ŝ |ψi is a symmetric ket and
Â|ψi is an antisymmetric ket
P̂21Ŝ |ψi = Ŝ |ψi P̂21 Â|ψi = −Â|ψi (8.15)
Transformation of observables by permutation

B̂(1) – defined in E(1), and extended to E

{|uii} – the basis in E(1) from eigenvectors of B̂(1) (with eigenvalues bi)

P̂21 B̂(1)P̂†21|1 : ui; 2 : u ji = P̂21 B̂(1)|1 : u j; 2 : uii (8.16)

= b j P̂21|1 : u j; 2 : uii (8.17)
= b j|1 : ui; 2 : u ji (8.18)

P̂21 B̂(1)P̂†21 = B̂(2) (8.19)

P̂21 B̂(2)P̂†21 = B̂(1) (8.20)
h i †
P̂21 B̂(1) + Ĉ(2) P̂21 = B̂(2) + Ĉ(1) (8.21)
P̂21 B̂(1)Ĉ(2)P̂†21 = B̂(2)Ĉ(1) (8.22)
Generalization

P̂21Ô(1, 2)P̂†21 = Ô(2, 1) (8.23)

where Ô(1, 2) is any observable in E which can be expressed in terms of observables

of the type B̂(1) and Ĉ(2).

Symmetric observables commute with the permutation operators:

ÔS (1, 2) = ÔS (2, 1) (8.24)

P̂21ÔS (1, 2) = ÔS (1, 2)P̂21 (8.25)
h i
⇒ ÔS (1, 2), P̂21 = 0 (8.26)
An arbitrary number of particles
Example 3 particles
n o
|1 : ui; 2 : u j; 3 : uk i (8.27)

Six permutations

P̂123, P̂321, P̂231, P̂132, P̂213, P̂312 (8.28)

P̂npq|1 : ui; 2 : u j; 3 : uk i = |n : ui; p : u j; q : uk i (8.29)

(N! permutation operators in a system of N particles with the same spin.)

Any permutation operator can be broken down into a product of transposition (i.e.
pairwise exchange) operators, for example

P̂312 = P̂132
| {zP̂213
} = P̂321 P̂132 = . . . (8.30)
even parity of P̂312

even: P̂123, P̂321, P̂231 (8.31)

odd: P̂132, P̂213, P̂321 (8.32)

For any N , there are always as many even permutations as there are odd.

Permutation operators are unitary and constitute a group.

Completely symmetric or antisymmetric kets. Symmetrizer and antisymmetrizer.

Completely symmetric

P̂α|ψS i = |ψS i for any P̂α (8.33)

Completely antisymmetric

P̂α|ψAi = εα
|{z} |ψAi for any P̂α (8.34)
+1 for even, −1 for odd

1 X
Symmetrizer Ŝ = P̂α projects onto ES (8.35)
N! α
1 X
Antisymmetrizer  = εα P̂α projects onto EA (8.36)
N! α
The symmetrization postulate

When a system includes several identical particles, only certain kets of its state space
can describe its physical states. Physical kets, depending on the nature of the iden-
tical particles, are either

completely symmetric (bosons – integral spin)

or
completely antisymmetric (fermions – half-integral spin)

with respect to permutation of these particles.

Construction of physical kets
(i) number the particles arbitrarily, and construct the ket |ui corresponding to the
physical state considered and to the numbers given to the particles
(ii) apply Ŝ or  to |ui, depending on whether identical particles are bosons or
fermions
(iii) normalize the ket so obtained.
Example: 2 particle system
(i) |ui = |1 : ϕ; 2 : χi
(ii) If particles are bosons, symmetrize |ui
1
Ŝ |ui = |1 : ϕ; 2 : χi + |1 : χ; 2 : ϕi

(8.37)
2
If they are fermions, antisymmetrize |ui
1
Â|ui = |1 : ϕ; 2 : χi − |1 : χ; 2 : ϕi

(8.38)
2
(iii) normalize
1 
|ϕ; χi = √ |1 : ϕ; 2 : χi + |1 : χ; 2 : ϕi

(8.39)
2
 = +1 for bosons, −1 for fermions
Assume that the individual states |ϕi, |χi are identical

|ϕi = |χi (8.40)

then

|ui = |1 : ϕ; 2 : ϕi (8.41)

is already symmetric.
If the two particles are bosons, the ket |ui = |1 : ϕ; 2 : ϕi is the physical ket associated
with the states in which the two bosons are in the same individual state |ϕi.
If the two particles are fermions,
1
Â|ui = |1 : ϕ; 2 : ϕi − |1 : ϕ; 2 : ϕi = 0

(8.42)
2
There is no ket of EA able to describe the physical state in which two fermions are in
the same individual state |ϕi.

Pauli’s exclusion principle

Two fermions cannot be in the same individual state.
Generalization to an arbitrary N > 2
Example N = 3

|ui = |1 : ϕ; 2 : χ; 3 : ωi (8.43)

α) Bosons
1X
Ŝ |ui = P̂α|ui (8.44)
3! α
1
= |1 : ϕ; 2 : χ; 3 : ωi + |1 : ω; 2 : ϕ; 3 : χi (8.45)
6
+|1 : χ; 2 : ω; 3 : ϕi + |1 : ϕ; 2 : ω; 3 : χi (8.46)
+ |1 : χ; 2 : ϕ; 3 : ωi + |1 : ω; 2 : χ; 3 : ϕi

(8.47)
Normalization
1) |ϕi, |χi, |ωi are orthogonal
√
replace 1/6 by 1/ 6
2) If two states are the same and are orthogonal then
1 
|ϕ; ϕ; ωi = √ |1 : ϕ; 2 : ϕ; 3 : ωi + |1 : ϕ; 2 : ω; 3 : ϕi (8.48)
3
+|1 : ω; 2 : ϕ; 3 : ϕi

(8.49)

3) If three states are the same

|ϕ; ϕ; ϕi = |1 : ϕ; 2 : ϕ; 3 : ϕi (8.50)
β) Fermions
1X
Â|ui = εα P̂α|1 : ϕ; 2 : χ; 3 : ωi (8.51)
3! α
The signs of the various terms are determined by the same rule as those of a 3 × 3
determinant
Slater determinant
|1 : ϕi |1 : χi |1 : ωi
1
Â|ui = |2 : ϕi |2 : χi |2 : ωi (8.52)
3!
|3 : ϕi |3 : χi |3 : ωi
Pauli exclusion principle:

Â|ui is zero if two of the individual states coincide since the determinant then
has two identical columns.

Normalization:
√
If the three individual states are orthogonal replace 1/3! by 1/ 3!.