BARKING UP THE LEARNING TREE;

DOGS, CATS AND RATS

CHAPTER 7
WEEK 5
 SCHEDULE FOR THE NEXT WEEKS
WEEK 5 MONDAY CHAPTER 7 LEARNING
WEDNESDAY CHAPTER 6 MEMORY

WEEK 6 MONDAY CHAPTER 8 EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

WEDNESDAY CHAPTER 8 EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

WEEK 7 MONDAY CHAPTER 11 DEVELOPMENT

WEDNESDAY MID-TERM APRIL 5 TH, 11-12AM

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BARKING UP THE LEARNING TREE;
DOGS, CATS AND RATS
CHAPTER 7
WEEK 5
 OVERVIEW
• Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant conditioning
• Observational Learning

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LEARNING
• Why some people have more superstitious behaviors than other? Batıl
davranıslar
• Why some players wear the same shirt without washing it for as long
as they kept wining?
• Where this stuff comes from?
• At some point of time one of those players was wearing that shirt and
had a good game. Then he saw the connection.
• Coincide, not actual

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 LEARNING
• When an actual connection exists between what you do and a
particular event that follows, be it positive or negative, a specific type
of learning takes place.
• You learn that when you do something, the action is followed by con-
sequence.
• Behaviourists use the acronym A-B-C:
• Antecedent (what happens before)
• Behaviour (the action performed)
• Consequence (what happens after the action).

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 5-YEAR-OLD AND HIS DAD DO SHOPPING
• Child perspective
• Antecedent (what happens before) Child sees other children
• Behaviour (the action performed) Cries
• Consequence (what happens after the action) Gets a new toy

• Dad perspective
• Antecedent (what happens before) Dad sees other dad
• Behaviour (the action performed) Buys a new toy
• Consequence (what happens after the action) Child calms down

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 NOT ALL BEHAVIORS ARE LEARNED
• Learned Behavior
• Learning: change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of
experience
• Associative learning: form of learning that involves connecting
certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment
• Unlearned Behavior
• Instinct: unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of
behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower
animals than in humans
• Reflex: unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a
stimulus in the environment

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 HOW DOES LEARNING HAPPEN OTHER THAN
THROUGH LANGUAGE/WORDS?
• We learn from experience:
• when we learn to predict events we already like or don’t like by
noticing other events or sensations that happen first.
• when our actions have consequences.
• when we watch what other people do.
• We learn by association:
• when two stimuli (events or sensations) tend to occur together or in
sequence.
• when actions become associated with pleasant or aversive results.
• when two pieces of information are linked.

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 LEARNING
• This definition emphasizes these key ideas:
• Learning is based on experience and associations.
• Learning produces changes in the organism.
• These changes are relatively permanent.

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 BEHAVIORISM AND LEARNING
• The behaviourist movement; ignore consciousness, mental states,
mind, introspection or future potential.
• Behaviourist scientists believed the mental life was much less
important than behavior as a foundation for psychological science.
• They try to find out applications in controlling human behavior
• They study the environmental influences on our behaviors rather than
mental processes
• All behaviours are acquired through conditioning, and conditioning
occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviourists believe
that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli.

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BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES/ MECHANISMS

Classical conditioning
Learning to link two Operant conditioning
stimuli in a way that Changing behavior
helps us anticipate an choices in response to
event to which we consequences
have a reaction

Observational
learning
acquiring new
behaviours through
observation, rather
than by direct
experience
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CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
KLASIK
KOSULLANMA
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: DOGS
• Ivan Pavlov, Russian physiologist was studying digestion with dogs
when he became interested in how the presentation of food
automatically activated the salivation response in the dogs.
• Think about a lemon. Simply “imagining” it might also make you
salivate.

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 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: DOGS
• When the dogs were initially presented with a plate of food, they
began to salivate. No surprise here—placing food in front of most
animals will launch the salivary process.
• While studying salivation in dogs, Ivan Pavlov found that his dogs were
producing saliva by what should have been neutral stimuli such as:
• seeing the dish.
• seeing the person who brought the food.
• just hearing that person’s footsteps.
• Yet dogs were producing saliva as if they were about to eat

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 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: DOGS
• Pavlov wondered
• why his dogs were producing saliva after they see something that
is completely irrelevant to them and
• if we can teach them to salivate to other neutral stimulus, things
that don’t usually make animals salivate such as the ringing of a
bell.
• He conducted a series of experiment to understand how the dogs
learned to associate other stimuli with the food.
• A typical experiment went like this;

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 PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT WITH DOGS
1. Pavlov placed his dogs in their harness
2. He rang a bel and observed whether the dogs salivated or not. he
found that they didn't.
3. Then he rang the bell, waited a few seconds, and then presented food
to the dogs. The dogs salivated.
4. He repeated the bell plus food presentation several times.
5. After Pavlov was satisfied with the number of trials, he presented the
bell alone, without the food.
6. He found that the bell alone produced salivation!

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• Paired the food with
the sound of a bell.
• He found that the
dogs salivated to
these sounds as they
did learn to
anticipate the food
after the sound.

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 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: DOGS
• The organism associates two stimuli
• The dog associates the food and the sound of the bell
• A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli
and anticipate events
• The dog learns the bell is the predictor of the food OR
• The dog learns the food comes after the bell

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 THE NECCESSERAY COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITONING
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- THE FOOD (Kosulsuz uyarıcı)
• stimulus that unconditionally, automatically and naturally, triggers
a response
• Unconditioned Response (UR)- SALIVA (Kosulsuz tepkı)
• reaction that unconditionally, automatically and naturally shown-
salivation when food is in the mouth
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – THE BELL (Kosullu uyarıcı)
• originally neutral stimulus, the item you associate it with an
unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Response (CR)- SALIVA (Kosullu tepkı)
• learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
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 Before Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus and response:
a stimulus which triggers a response naturally,
before/without any conditioning

Unconditioned
response (UR):
Unconditioned dog salivates
stimulus (US):
yummy dog food

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 Before Conditioning
Neutral stimulus:
a stimulus which does not trigger a response

Neutral
stimulus
(NS)
No response

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 During Conditioning
The bell/tone (N.S.) is repeatedly presented with the
food (U.S.).

Neutral Unconditioned
stimulus Unconditioned response (UR):
(NS) stimulus (US) dog salivates

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 After Conditioning
The dog begins to salivate upon hearing the tone (neutral stimulus
becomes conditioned stimulus).
Conditioned
Conditioned response:
stimulus dog salivates
(formerly
neutral)

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 DID YOU FOLLOW THE CHANGES?
• The UR and the CR are the same response, triggered by different
events. The difference is whether conditioning was necessary for the
response to happen.
• The NS and the CS are the same stimulus. The difference is whether
the stimulus triggers the conditioned response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- THE FOOD

• Unconditioned Response (UR)- SALIVA
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – THE BELL (formerly neutral)
• Conditioned Response (CR)- SALIVA

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: DOGS

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 The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before
stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear
“This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- Needle

• Unconditioned Response (UR)- Fear
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – This won’t hurt a bit (formerly neutral)
• Conditioned Response (CR)- Fear

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 Your romantic partner always uses the same
shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo makes
you feel happy.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- Partner

• Unconditioned Response (UR)- Happiness
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Smell of the shampoo (formerly neutral)
• Conditioned Response (CR)- Happiness

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 You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that
causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign
for that restaurant, you feel sick.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- Rotten food

• Unconditioned Response (UR)- You feel sick
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – A sign of restaurant (formerly neutral)
• Conditioned Response (CR)- You feel sick

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 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: DOGS
• When parents get angry and are about to yell, their faces and body
gestures show certain angry expressions. Yelling and scolding (US) can
scare small children into crying (UR). When these kids see a grownup
with those expressions (CS), they spontaneously cry (CR).
• People associate cellphone ring tones (US) with different feelings. If a
person receives calls from friends, which makes them feel connected
and happy (UR), they will learn to feel happy (CR) by just hearing the
tones by themselves (CS).
• A child sees a dog attack a person. It’s a very frightening experience
(UR). Dogs are generally neutral stimuli (US) that many people find
adorable. But to this child, after this incident, he’s scared (CR)
whenever he sees a dog (CS).

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• In order for associations to form they must conform to the following
rules
• Associations are only formed when the events occur together this ıs
called Contiguity
• The food and the bell should come together
• The more often that two events occur together the stronger the
associations becomes. This called Frequency
• Number of times the food and the bell comes together

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
1- Acquisition- Edinme; the phase of classical conditioning when the CS
and the US are presented together.
• Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning/conditioning.
• The association between a neutral stimulus (NS) and an
unconditioned stimulus (US).

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• 2- Extinction Sonme
• What would happen if they continued to present the CS (bell) but
stopped presenting the US (food)?
• After about ten trials or so there is no salivation in response was
seen to the sound, if it is not followed by food.
• Extinction represents learning that the CS no longer predicts the US.
• It is a way to reverse the process of classical conditioning.

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
3- Spontaneous Recovery – Kendiliginden geri gelme
• When the experimenter allows the dog to rest for a certain period, and
then presents again only the sound without the food, the
(extinguished) salivation response reappears.
• Spontaneous recovery reflects that the association between the CS and
the US that was originally learned, does not simply disappear during
extinction.

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
4- Second-Order Conditioning
• Can the dog be conditioned to salivate when a light flashes by
associating it with the BELL instead of with food?
• Yes! The conditioned response can be transferred from the US (the
food) to a CS (the bell), then from there to another CS (light).
• This is second conditioning
• A man who was conditioned to associate joy with coffee, could then
learn to associate joy with a restaurant if he was served coffee there
every time he walked in to the restaurant.

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THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

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THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
5- Generalization
• Pavlov noticed that the dogs that had been trained to have a
conditioned response to a certain tone, would show the same response
to a tone that was slightly higher or lower in volumes.
• This is called response generalization: the more similar the new stimuli
are to the original CS, the more likely they are to evoke the same
response

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
5- Generalization
• Suppose that a person is conditioned to have an emotional reaction to
a particular shampoo. That person will show similar emotional
reactions to other shampoos
• It can backfire. For example if I am attacked by a gray-colored pitbull
I may get scared every time I see a gray dog of any type.

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
6- Discrimination
• When you have capacity to distinguish similar but distinct stimulus.
• Generalization and discrimination are two sides of the same coin.
• A young child who has learned to associate the sight of her pet dog
with playfulness may initially approach all dogs.
• Eventually, through discrimination, the child may expect playfulness
only from dogs that look like hers. The sight of a threatening dog has
come to inhibit the child’s response to approaching dogs.

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 CASE EXAMPLE- LITTLE ALBERT
• In 1920, 9-month-old Little Albert was was presented a variety of
stimuli: a white rat, a dog, a rabbit, various masks, and a burning
newspaper.
• Albert’s reactions in most cases were curiosity and he showed no fear
of any of the items.
• While Albert was watching the white rat the researcher unexpectedly
struck a large steel bar with a hammer, producing a loud noise.
• Albert acquired a fear of rats and generalized this fear to other soft
and furry things.
• Watson prided himself in his ability to shape people’s emotions. He
later went into advertising.

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Before Little Albert Experiment
Conditioning

No fear

NS: rat

UCS: steel bar hit

with hammer

Natural reflex (UCR):

fear
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 Little Albert Experiment

UCS: steel bar hit

NS: rat with hammer

Natural reflex:
fear
During
Conditioning
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 Little Albert Experiment

CS: rat

Conditioned
reflex CR:
fear

After
Conditioning
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 CASE EXAMPLE- LITTLE ALBERT
• The Little Albert Experiment
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5duLMjaTL0U&ab_channel=NewsD
ogVirals

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OPERANT
(INSTRUMENTAL)
CONDITIONING
EDIMSEL
KOSULLANMA
 DIFFERENT BEHAVIOURS
• Respondent- involuntary behavior
• Respondent behaviour is behaviour that is caused by stimulus in
the environment.
• A behaviour is elicited, unintentional and cannot be controlled.
• Behavior learned through classical conditioning

• Operant- voluntary behavior

• is based on the consequences that follow a behaviour.
• is strengthened or weakened by that consequence
• Behavior learned through operant conditioning

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 DIFFERENT BEHAVIOURS
• Classical conditioning is a study of behaviours that are reactive and
involuntarily during the conditioning process.
• Classical conditioning can not explain voluntary behaviors.
• Involuntary behaviours make up only a small portion of our
behavioural repertoires. The remainder are behaviours that we
voluntarily perform.
• In classical conditioning, the conditioned response is a response that
was part of the animal’s natural repertoire – like salivation
• But how do dogs learn new ‘tricks’, like rolling over?

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 OPERANT- INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
• Classical conditioning has little to say about these voluntary or
novel behaviours
• Operant conditioning, a type of learning in which the consequences
of a behaviour determine whether it will be repeated in the future.
• You complete your homework, you get a new toy. You will repeat
that behaviour

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 OPERANT- INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
• Classical conditioning involves learning the relationship between
events
• Instrumental conditioning involves learning the relationship between
behaviours and their consequences.
• Your child learns that homework results in a new toy: the behaviour
is an instrument in producing a certain change in the environment.
• Main researchers
• Thorndike
• Skinner

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 OPERANT- INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
• Operant conditioning takes place in all aspects of everyday living
• Parents use rewards to get their children to do their homework
• Children complete their homework because they get a reward.
• The something that follow homework is a reward. In early 1990s
Edward Thorndike created a theory- law of effect- that addressed this
idea of a consequence having an effect on behaviour

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 THORNDIKE’ THE LAW OF EFFECT: CATS
• A hungry cat is placed in a cage
whose door is locked, and a
piece of fish is placed outside.
• The cat tries to reach the food
but fails, at some point the cat
inadvertently finds the button
and frees itself, and eats the fish.
• He then places the cat back and
put a new piece of fish outside.
The cat goes through roughly the
same set of behaviours until once
more it happens to find the
button

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 THORNDIKE’ THE LAW OF EFFECT: CATS
• The procedure is repeated again
and again.
• Over a number of trials, the cat
eliminates many of its irrelevant
behaviours, and eventually it
opens the latch and frees itself
as soon as it is placed in the
cage.
• The cat has learned to press the
button to obtain food.

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 THORNDIKE’ THE LAW OF EFFECT: CATS
• The cat appears to be engaging
in trial-and-error learning, and
when a reward immediately
follows one of those behaviours,
the learning of the action is
strengthened.
• The Law of Effect principle says
that behaviours that lead to
satisfaction are likely to be
repeated, and behaviours that
lead to discomfort are less likely
to be repeated when the
situation recurs.

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 HOW IS THIS DIFFERENT FROM CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between
classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the
behaviour is involuntary or voluntary.
• Classical conditioning involves no reward while in operant
conditioning, the learner is rewarded.
• In classical conditioning the learner is passive, while in operant
conditioning learner actively perform some action to be rewarded.
• For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a
behaviour that can then be either rewarded or punished. Classical
conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with
some sort of already naturally occurring event.

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 FREDERICK SKINNER; RATS AGAIN
• In instrumental conditioning, an environmental event that follows
behaviour produces either an increase or a decrease in the probability
of that behaviour
• Skinner’s approach to the study of learning focused on reinforcement
and punishment.
• Reinforcement the delivery of an stimulus increases the probability of
a behaviour.
• Punishment it decreases the probability of a behaviour

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 REINFORCEMENT
• The most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behaviour is
with positive reinforcement. In positive reinforcement, a desirable
stimulus is added to increase a behaviour.
• For example, you tell your five-year-old son, that if he cleans his
room, he will get a toy.
• In negative reinforcement, an undesirable stimulus is removed to
increase a behaviour.
• For example, car manufacturers use the principles of negative
reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go “beep, beep,
beep” until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops
when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood
that you will buckle up in the future.

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 PUNISHMENT
• In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a
behaviour.
• An example of positive punishment forcing a child to do an
unpleasant task when he misbehaves. Agzina aci biber surmek
• In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a
behaviour.
• For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a
favourite toy. En sevdigi oyuncagi elinden almak

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WEEK5
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT
AND PUNISHMENT
• A primary is a stimulus that is biologically important to an organism
• such as food, water, sleep, shelter, safety, pleasure, and sex.
• A secondary is a stimulus that is personally and culturally important
and become reinforcing through learning and experience
• Verbal approval, trophy, or money all serve powerful reinforcing
functions, yet none of them taste very good or help keep you warm
at night.

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 IMMEDIATE VERSUS DELAYED REINFORCEMENT
AND PUNISHMENT
• A key determinant of the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punishment is
the amount of time between the occurrence of a behavior and the
reinforcer:
• The more time that elapses, the less effective they are
• Parents who wish to reinforce their children for playing quietly with a
piece of candy should provide the candy while the child is still playing
quietly; waiting until later when the child may be engaging in other
behaviors
• Contiguity
• Frequency

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• Shaping through Successive Approximations
• Suppose that you want to use instrumental conditioning to teach your
dog to get the mail from your front door.
• When the desired behaviour is truly novel, you have to condition it by
taking advantage of small steps.
• To train a dog to get the mail, you can give the animal a food
reinforcer each time it approaches the door, requiring it to move closer
and closer to the mail for each reinforcer until finally the dog grabs the
mail.
• This technique, called shaping, is reinforcing only variations in
response that deviate in the direction desired by the experimenter

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 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• Schedules of Reinforcement
• An arrangement to determine when to reinforce behavior
• Do we need to give them a toy everytime they complete homework
• Is concerned with the effects on behaviour of how frequently and how
regularly reinforcements are presented
• Why gambling is so addictive?

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 Description Result Example
Fixed Every so often- delivered at Fairly low- Getting paid once a
interval predictable time intervals extinction occurs month
(after every 5 mins). quickly

Variable Unpredictably often time Fairly high Getting paid

interval intervals (after 5, 7, 10, and irregularly
20 minutes).
Fixed Every so many- Fairly low- Buy 10 coffees get
ratio (after every 5 A+). extinction occurs 1 free
quickly Losing your license
after 5 violations
Variable After an unpredictable Highest Gambling
ratio number (after 1, 4, 5, and 9 Lottery
responses).

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WEEK5
OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
 THE BASIC BEHAVIOURIST DOCTRINE
• ‘Give me a dozen healthy infants and my own world to bring them up
in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist,
merchant-chief and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his
talents, tendencies, abilities, and race of his ancestors’
• This basic behaviourist doctrine never went unchallenged.

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 OBSERVATIONAL- SOCIAL LEARNING
• We learn many things without immediately being reinforced for the
behaviour.
• Consider how you learned to give a presentation in class. You did not
learn how to give a successful presentation through simple
conditioning.
• When you prepared for it, you probably considered how others go
about giving a lecture, and you might have even picked up a book for
some advice on how to structure your presentation.

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 LEARNING BY OBSERVATION
• Higher animals, especially humans,
learn through observing and
imitating others.
• The monkey on the right imitates
the monkey on the left in touching
the pictures in a certain order to
obtain a reward.

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 LEARNING BY OBSERVATION BEGINS EARLY IN
LIFE
• This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV, in pulling a toy
apart.

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 ALBERT BANDURA
• You learned through imitation and observational learning: you copied
the behaviour of others, whose behaviour you observed to be
successful.
• Bandura - bobo doll experiment
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU&ab_channel=thaLi
onheart

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 ALBERT BANDURA
• The children in these studies also showed that they were sensitive to
the consequences of the actions they observed.
• When they saw the adult models being punished for behaving
aggressively, the children showed considerably less aggression.
• When the children observed a model being rewarded and praised for
aggressive behaviour, they displayed an increase in aggression.
• The observational learning seen in Bandura’s studies has implications
for social learning and cultural transmission of behaviours, norms, and
values

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 MIRROR NEUROENS- REVISITED
• Mirror neurons fire when an animal performs an action, such as when a
monkey reaches for a food item.
• More importantly, however, mirror neurons also fire when an animal
watches someone else perform the same specific task

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WHEN WE ARE NOT AWARE- IMPLICIT LEARNING
• Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both
the process and the products of information acquisition.
• Learning a song you heard several times
• Simple behaviours such as habituation can reflect implicit learning,
but complex behaviours, such as language use or socialization, can
also be learned through an implicit process.

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 HABITUATION AND SENSITIZATION ARE
EXAMPLES OF THIS TYPE OF LEARNING
• During habituation, a behavioural response, such as orienting to an
unfamiliar sound, decreases over successive presentations of that
stimulus. During sensitization, a behavioural response increases during
presentations of intense stimuli, such as very loud noises.
• Habituation; If you live by a busy highway, you’ve noticed the
sound of traffic when you first moved in. You probably also noticed
that, after a while, you ignored the sounds of the automobiles.
• Sensitization, people whose houses have been broken into may
later become hypersensitive to late-night sounds that wouldn’t
have bothered them previously.

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 TO SUMMARISE
• Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning (kosullanma)
• For many behaviours learning is a process of conditioning, a type of
learning in which an association between events is made.
• Classical conditioning, a type of learning in which in which two events
become associated with each other
• Operant conditioning, the learned association is between a particular
behaviour and what happens after it, the consequence.

• Observational learning
• Learning by observing or imitating
• Mirror neurons

• Implicit learning
• Simple form of learning
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THANK YOU
ANY QUESTIONS?

SAFA KEMAL KAPTAN​

[email protected]
Sloane Hall 113

SELMA HEKIM
[email protected]

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