2

Ohm’s Law

Objective
This exercise examines Ohm’s law, one of the fundamental laws governing electrical
circuits. It statesthat voltage is equal to the product of current times resistance.

Theory Overview
Ohm’s law is commonly written as V = I * R. That is, for a given current, an increase in
resistance will result in a greater voltage. Alternately, for a given voltage, an increase in
resistance will produce a decrease in current. As this is a first order linear equation, plotting
current versus voltage for a fixed resistance will yield a straight line. The slope of this line
is the conductance, and conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. Therefore, for a high
resistance, the plot line will appear closer to the horizontalwhile a lower resistance will
produce a more vertical plot line.

Equipment
(1) Adjustable DC power supply Name: ID:
(1) Digital multimeter
(1) R1 resistor
(1) R2 resistor
(1) R3 resistor

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 Schematic

Figure 4.1

Procedure
1. Build the circuit of Figure 4.1 using the (R1) resistor. Set the DMM to measure DC
current and insert it in-line between the source and resistor. Set the source for zero
volts. Measure and record the current in Table 4.1. Note that the theoretical current is 0
and any measured value other than 0 would produce an undefined percent deviation.

2. Setting E at 5 volts, determine the theoretical current based on Ohm’s law and record this
in Table 2.1 Measure the actual current, determine the deviation, and record these in Table
2.1. Note that Deviation = 100 * (measured − theory) / theory.

3. Repeat step 2 for the remaining source voltages in Table 2.1.

4. Remove the (R1) and replace it with the (R2) . Repeat steps 1 through 3 using Table 2.2.

5. Remove the (R2) and replace it with the (R3). Repeat steps 1 through 3 using Table 2.3.

6. Using the measured currents from Tables 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3, create a plot of current
versus voltage. Plot all three curves on the same graph. Voltage is the horizontal axis
and current is the vertical axis.

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 Data Tables

E (volts) I theory I measured Deviation

0 0
5
10
15

Table 2.1 (R1=…….)

E (volts) I theory I measured Deviation

0 0
5
10
15

Table 2.2 (R2=…….)

E (volts) I theory I measured Deviation

0 0
5
10
15

Table 2.3 (R3=…….)

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 Question

1. Does Ohm’s law appear to hold in this exercise?

2. Is there a linear relationship between current and voltage?

3. What is the relationship between the slope of the plot line and the circuit resistance?

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 note
The values of the resistors are changed
according to what is available to the student,
provided that the number of resistors is not
less than five resistors with different nominal
values.

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3
Series-Parallel DC Circuits
Objective
This exercise will involve the analysis of basic series-parallel DC circuits with resistors. The use of
simple series-only and parallel-only sub-circuits is examined as one technique to solve for desired
currents and voltages.

Theory Overview
Simple series-parallel networks may be viewed as interconnected series and parallel sub-networks.
Each of these sub-networks may be analyzed through basic series and parallel techniques such as the
application of voltage divider and current divider rules along with Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws. It
is important to identify the most simple series and parallel connections in order to jump to more complex
interconnections.

Equipment
(1) Adjustable DC power supply NAME: ID:
(2) Digital multimeter
(3) R1
(4) R2
(5) R3

Schematics

Figure 3.1
 Figure 3.2
Procedure

1. Consider the circuit of Figure 3.1 with R1 = …, R2 = ……., R3 = ………. and E = 10 volts. R2
is in parallel with R3. This combination is in series with R1. Therefore, the R2, R3 pair may be
treatedas a single resistance to form a series loop with R1. Based on this observation, determine
the theoretical voltages at points A, B, and C with respect to ground. Record these values in
Table 3.1. Construct the circuit. Set the DMM to read DC voltage and apply it to the circuit from
point A to ground. Record this voltage in Table 3.1. Repeat the measurements at points B and C,
determine the deviations, and record the values in Table 3.1.

2. Applying KCL to the parallel sub-network, the current entering node B (i.e., the current through
R1) should equal the sum of the currents flowing through R2 and R3. These currents may be
determined through Ohm’s law and/or the current divider rule. Compute these currents and record
them in Table 3.2. Using the DMM as an ammeter, measure these three currents and record the
values along with deviations in Table 3.2.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Consider the circuit of Figure 3.2. R2, R3 and R4 create a series sub-network. This sub-network
is in parallel with R1. By observation then, the voltages at nodes A, B and C should be identical
as in any parallel circuit of similar construction. Due to the series connection, the same current
flows through R2, R3 and R4. Further, the voltages across R2, R3 and R4 should sum up to the
voltage at node C, as in any similarly constructed series network. Finally, via KCL, the current
exiting the source must equal the sum of the currents entering R1 and R2.

4. Build the circuit of Figure 3.2 with R1 = …, R2 = ….., R3 = …, R4 = …. and E = 15 volts.

Using the series and parallel relations noted in Step 3, calculate the voltages at points B, C,D and
E. Measure these potentials with the DMM, determine the deviations, and record the valuesin
Table 3.3.
 5. Calculate the currents leaving the source and flowing through R1 and R2. Record these values in
Table 3.4. Using the DMM as an ammeter, measure those same currents, compute the deviations,
and record the results in Table 3.4.

Simulation

6. Build the circuit of Figure 3.1 in a simulator. Using the virtual DMM as a voltmeter determine the
voltages at nodes A, B and C, and compare these to the theoretical and measured values recorded
in Table 3.1.

7. Build the circuit of Figure 3.2 in a simulator. Using the DC Operating Point simulation function,
determine the voltages at nodes B, C, D and E, and compare these to the theoretical and measured
values recorded in Table 3.3.

Data Tables

Voltage Theory Measured Deviation

VA
VB
VC

Table 3.1

Current Theory Measured Deviation

R1
R2
R3

Table 3.2
Voltage Theory Measured Deviation
VB
VC
VD
VE

Table 3.3

Current Theory Measured Deviation

Source
R1
R2

Table 3.4
 Questions
1. Are KVL and KCL satisfied in Tables 3.1 and 3.2?

2. Are KVL and KCL satisfied in Tables 3.3 and 3.4?

3. How would the voltages at A and B in Figure 3.1 change if a fourth resistor equal to
10 k was added in parallel with R3? What if this resistor was added in series with
R3?

4. How would the currents through R1 and R2 in Figure 7.2 change if a fifth resistor
equal to 10 k was added in series with R1? What if this resistor was added in parallel
with R1?

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4
Nodal Analysis
Objective
The study of nodal analysis is the objective of this exercise, specifically its usage in multi-source DC
circuits. Its application to finding circuit currents and voltages will be investigated.

Theory Overview
Multi-source DC circuits may be analyzed using a node voltage technique. The process involves
identifying all of the circuit nodes, a node being a point where various branch currents combine. A
reference node, usually ground, is included. Kirchhoff’s current law is then applied to each node.
Consequently a set of simultaneous equations are created with an unknown voltage for each node with the
exception of the reference. In other words, a circuit with a total of five nodes including the reference will
yield four unknown node voltages and four equations. Once the node voltages are determined, various
branch currents and component voltages may be derived.

Equipment
(1) Adjustable DC power supply Name: ID:
(2) Digital multimeter
(3) R1
(4) R2
(5) R3
Schematics

Figure 4.1

Procedure
1. Consider the dual supply circuit of Figure 4.1 using E1 = 10 volts, E2 = 15 volts, R1 = …,
R2 = …. and R3 = ……. To find the voltage from node A to ground, nodal analysis may be applied.
In this circuit note that there is only one node and therefore only one equation with one unknown is
needed. Once this potential is found, all other circuit currents and voltages may be found by applying
Ohm’s law and/or KVL and KCL.

2. Write the node equation for the circuit of Figure 4.1 and solve for node voltage A. Also, determine
the current through R3. Record these values in Table 4.1.
 3. Construct the circuit of Figure 4.1 using the values specified in step one. Measure the voltage from
node A to ground along with the current though R3. Record these values in Table 4.1. Also
determine and record the deviations.

Simulation

4. Build the circuit of Figure 4.1 in a simulator. Using the DC Operating Point simulation function,
determine the voltage at node A compare these to the theoretical and measured values recorded in
Table 4.1

Data Tables

Parameter Theory Experimental Deviation

VA
IR3

Table 4.1

Questions
1. Do the polarities of the sources in Figure 4.1 matter as to the resulting voltages? Will the magnitudes
of the voltages be the same if one or both sources have an inverted polarity?
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5
Mesh Analysis
Objective
The study of mesh analysis is the objective of this exercise, specifically its usage in multi-source DC
circuits. Its application to finding circuit currents and voltages will be investigated.

Theory Overview
Multi-source DC circuits may be analyzed using a mesh current technique. The process involves
identifying a minimum number of small loops such that every component exists in at least one loop.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law is then applied to each loop. The loop currents are referred to as mesh currents as
each current interlocks or meshes with the surrounding loop currents. As a result there will be a set of
simultaneous equations created, an unknown mesh current for each loop. Once the mesh currents are
determined, various branch currents and component voltages may be derived.

Equipment
(1) Adjustable DC power supply NAME: ID:
(2) Digital multimeter
(3) R1
(4) R2
(5) R3
(6) R4
(7) R5
 Schematics

Figure 5.1

Procedure
1. Consider the dual supply circuit of Figure 14.2 using E1 = 10 volts, E2 = 15 volts, R1 = ..,
R2 = ….., R3 = …., R4 = …… and R5 = ...... This circuit will require three loops to describe fully.
This means that there will be three mesh currents in spite of the fact that there are five branch
currents. The three mesh currents correspond to the currents through R1, R2, and R4.

2. Using KVL, write the loop expressions for these loops and then solve to find the mesh currents. Note
that the voltages at nodes A and B can be determined using the mesh currents and Ohm’s law.
Compute these values and record them in Table 5.1.

3. Build the circuit of Figure 14.2 using the values specified in step four. Measure the three mesh
currents and the voltages at node A, node B, and from node A to B, and record in Table 14.2. Be sure
to note the directions and polarities. Finally, determine and record the deviations in Table 14.2.
Data Tables

Parameter Theory Experimental Deviation

IR1
IR2
IR4
VA
VB
VAB

Table 5.1

Questions
1. Do the polarities of the sources in Figure 14.1 matter as to the resulting currents? Will the magnitudes
of the currents be the same if one or both sources have an inverted polarity?

2. In both circuits of this exercise the negative terminals of the sources are connected to ground. Is this a
requirement for mesh analysis? What would happen to the mesh currents if the positions of E1 and
R1 in Figure 14.1 were swapped?

3. The circuits of Figures 14.1 and 14.2 had been analyzed previously in the superposition theorem and
nodal analysis exercises. How do the results of this exercise compare to the earlier results? Should the
resulting currents and voltages be identical? If not, what sort of things might affect the outcome?

4. In general, compare and contrast the application of superposition, mesh and nodal analyses to multi-
source DC circuits. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? Are some circuits better
approached with a particular technique? Will each technique enable any particular current or voltage
to be found or are there limitations?
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6
Superposition Theorem
Objective
The objective of this exercise is to investigate the application of the superposition theorem to multiple DC
source circuits in terms of both voltage and current measurements. Power calculations will also be
examined.

Theory Overview
The superposition theorem states that in a linear bilateral multi-source DC circuit, the current through or
voltage across any particular element may be determined by considering the contribution of each source
independently, with the remaining sources replaced with their internal resistance. The contributions are
then summed, paying attention to polarities, to find the total value. Superposition cannot in general be
applied to non-linear circuits or to non-linear functions such as power.

Equipment
(1) Adjustable dual DC power supply Name: ID:
(2) Digital multimeter
(3) R1
(4) R2
(5) R3

Schematics

Figure 6.1
Procedure
Voltage Application

1. Consider the dual supply circuit of Figure 6.1 using E1 = 10 volts, E2 = 15 volts, R1 = ….,
R2 = ….. and R3 …. To find the voltage from node A to ground, superposition may be used. Each
source is considered by itself. First consider source E1 by assuming that E2 is replaced with its
internal resistance (a short). Determine the voltage at node A using standard series-parallel techniques
and record it in Table 6.1. Make sure to indicate the polarity. Repeat the process using E2 while
shorting E1. Finally, sum these two voltages and record in Table 6.1.

2. To verify the superposition theorem, the process may be implemented directly by measuring the
contributions. Build the circuit of Figure 6.1 with the values specified in step 1, however, replace E2
with a short. Do not simply place a shorting wire across source E2! This will overload the power
supply.

3. Measure the voltage at node A and record in Table 6.1. Be sure to note the polarity.

4. Remove the shorting wire and insert source E2. Also, replace source E1 with a short. Measure the
voltage at node A and record in Table 6.1. Be sure to note the polarity.

5. Remove the shorting wire and re-insert source E1. Both sources should now be in the circuit. Measure
the voltage at node A and record in Table 16.1. Be sure to note the polarity. Determine and record the
deviations between theory and experimental results.

Simulation

6. Build the circuit of Figure 6.1 in a simulator. Using the virtual DMM as an Voltammeter, determine
the voltage across from node (A) to ground and compare it to the theoretical and measured values
recorded in Table6.1.

Data Tables

Source VA Theory VA Experimental Deviation

E1 Only
E2 Only

E1 and E2

Table 6.1
Questions

1. Based on the results of Tables 6.1 can superposition be applied successfully to voltage levels
in a DC circuit?

2. If one of the sources in Figure 6.1 had been inserted with the opposite polarity, would there be a
significant change in the resulting voltage at node A? Could both the magnitude and polarity change?

3. If both of the sources in Figure 10.1 had been inserted with the opposite polarity, would there be a
significant change in the resulting voltage at node A? Could both the magnitude and polarity change?

4. Why is it important to note the polarities of the measured voltages and currents?
7
Thévenin’s Theorem
Objective
The objective of this exercise is to examine the use of Thévenin’s theorem to create simpler versions of
DC circuits as an aide to analysis. Multiple methods of experimentally obtaining the Thévenin resistance
will be explored.

Theory Overview
Thévenin’s theorem for DC circuits states that any single port (i.e., two terminal points) linear network
may be replaced by a single voltage source with an appropriate internal resistance. The Thévenin
equivalent will produce the same load current and voltage as the original circuit to any load.
Consequently, if many different loads or sub-circuits are under consideration, using a Thévenin
equivalent may prove to be a quicker analysis route than “reinventing the wheel” each time.

The Thévenin voltage is found by determining the open circuit output voltage. The Thévenin resistance is
found by replacing any DC sources with their internal resistances and determining the resulting combined
resistance as seen from the two terminals using standard series-parallel analysis techniques. In the
laboratory, the Thévenin resistance may be found using an ohmmeter (again, replacing the sources with
their internal resistances) or by using the matched load technique. The matched load technique involves
replacing the load with a variable resistance and then adjusting it until the load voltage is precisely one
half of the unloaded voltage. This would imply that the other half of the voltage must be dropped across
the equivalent Thévenin resistance, and as the Thévenin circuit is a simple series loop then the two
resistances must be equal as they have identical currents and voltages.

Equipment
(1) Adjustable DC power supply Name: ID:
(2) Digital multimeter
(3) R1
(4) R2
(5) R3
(6) R4
 Schematics

Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2

Procedure
1. Consider the circuit of Figure 11.1 using E = 10 volts, R1 = …….., R2 = ……., R3 = ……… and
R4 (RLoad) = ….. This circuit may be analyzed using standard series-parallel techniques. Determine
the voltage across the load( R4), and record it in Table 7.1. Repeat the process using 4.7 k for R4.

2. Build the circuit of Figure 7.1 using the values specified in step one, with RLoad = …….. Measure the
load voltage and record it in Table 7.1. Repeat this with a 4.7 k load resistance. Determine and
record the deviations. Do not deconstruct the circuit.

3. Determine the theoretical Thévenin voltage of the circuit of Figure 7.1 by finding the open circuit
output voltage. That is, replace the load with an open and calculate the voltage produced
between thetwo open terminals. Record this voltage in Table 7.2.

4. To calculate the theoretical Thévenin resistance, first remove the load and then replace the source
with its internal resistance (ideally, a short). Finally, determine the combination series-parallel
resistance as seen from the where the load used to be. Record this resistance in Table 7.2.

5. The experimental Thévenin voltage maybe determined by measuring the open circuit output voltage.
Simply remove the load from the circuit of step one and then replace it with a voltmeter. Record this
value in Table 7.2.

6. There are two methods to measure the experimental Thévenin resistance. For the first method, using
the circuit of step one, replace the source with a short. Then replace the load with the ohmmeter. The
Thévenin resistance may now be measured directly. Record this value in Table 7.2.

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 Data Tables

Original Circuit

R4 (Load) VLoad Theory VLoad Experimental Deviation

R4
4.7 k

Table 7.1

Thévenine Circuit

Theory Experimental
ETH
RTH

Table 7.2

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 8
Operational Amplifiers
Objective
The objective of this lab is to study operational amplifier (op amp) and its
applications. We will be simulating and building some basic op‐amp circuits,
including the two most common types, i.e., the inverting and non‐inverting
amplifiers.

Specifications

The following are the basic specifications of IC 741:

 Power Supply: Requires a Minimum voltage of 5V and can withstand up to 18V

 Input Impedance: About 2 MΩ
 Output impedance: About 75 Ω
 Voltage Gain: 200,000 for low frequencies (200 V / mV)
 Maximum Output Current: 20 mA
 Recommended Output Load: Greater than 2 KΩ
 Input Offset: Ranges between 2 mV and 6 mV
 Slew Rate: 0.5V/µS (It is the rate at which an Op-Amp can detect voltage
changes)

The high input impedance and very small output impedance makes IC 741 a near ideal
voltage amplifier.

NOTE: The above mentioned specifications are generic and may vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer. To get accurate information, please refer to the
datasheet.
Construction

The LM741 is a widely used and available chip in the electronics world. It can be
obtained from many different online electronics retailers. It is composed of a single op
amp which serves as a general purpose amplifier. The chip is an 8-pin chip. Its pinout is
shown below.

The pins we are going to connect are pins 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7. Pins 1, 5, and 8 will be left
unconnected. For the LM741 to work, it needs power. The LM741 is a dual power supply
op amp. This means it needs 2 sources of power. It needs positive voltage at pin 7 and
negative voltage at pin 4. The remaining 3 pins are the 2 inputs and 1 output of the op
amp. Of the 2 input pins, one pin is the inverting input and the other is the noninverting
input.
Theory:

An inverting amplifier using op-amp is a type of amplifier using op-amp where the output
source will be opposite polarity to the input source. The input source will be amplifier
by the factor Av (voltage gain of the amplifier) in magnitude . In the inverting amplifier
circuit the signal to be amplified is applied to the inverting input of the op amp through
the input resistance R1. Rf is the feedback resistor. Rf and Rin together determine the
gain of the amplifier. Inverting operational amplifier gain can be expressed using the
equation Av = – Rf/Rin. Negative sign implies that the output signal is negated. But in
non- inverting amplifier using op-amp is a type of amplifier using op-amp where the
output source will be same polarity to the input source. The input source will be amplifier
by the factor Av (voltage gain of the amplifier) in magnitude . In the non-inverting
amplifier circuit the signal to be amplified is applied to the non- inverting input of the op
amp through the input resistance R1. Rf is the feedback resistor. Rf and Rin together
determine the gain of the amplifier. Non-Inverting operational amplifier gain can be
expressed using the equation Av = 1+(Rf/Rin). Negative sign implies that the output
signal is negated. The circuit diagram of a basic inverting and non-inverting amplifiers
using op-amps are shown below.
 Equipment

(1) Adjustable DC power supply Name:

(2) Digital multi meter ID:
(3) LM741(OP AMP)
(4) BRAEDBOARD
(5) R1
(6) R2

Schematics

The circuit diagram of a basic inverting fig(1)

The circuit diagram of a basic non- inverting fig(2)

 Data Tables for find output voltage

Inverting Circuit

vin VoutTheory VoutExperimental Deviation

2v

Table 8.1

Non-Inverting Circuit

vin VoutTheory VoutExperimental Deviation

2v

Table 8.2

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The breadboard schematic version of the above circuit is shown below.

1- Inverting Circuit

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 1- Non-Inverting Circuit

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