Introduction to Environmental

Engineering
(ENE33101)
Principal Mdolo, PhD Chem. Eng, MSc Sust. Eng. Mngt, BSc EST
[email protected]
+265 (0) 999 73 22 91
 Aim of the course and learning outcomes

AIMS OF STUDY
To introduce the students to the basic concepts related to environmental engineering, sustainable development,
international codes, and ethics
Course Objectives
a) introduce the students to the basic concepts related to environmental engineering
b) Implement a systems approach to environmental problems and explain how the earth functions as an
integrated system
c) Introduction to the concepts of sustainable development
d) Recognize, explain, discuss, apply, and critically analyze environmental impacts related to air pollution,
water pollution, changed flow regimes, noise pollution, and waste, as well as potential mitigation options
e) Introduction to general approach to the solution of environmental engineering issues
f) To aware the students about global, regional, and local environment
g) Introduction to national and international codes and ethics
h) Introduction to various environmental engineering technologies
Assessment

Course work: 40%

• Assignments
• Quiz
• Reports from field activities
• Mid-semester examination
End of course examination: 60%
Environmental Engineering Profession

Environmental engineers use the fundamentals of mathematics, physics,

chemistry, biology, engineering science, sustainability science and
engineering, economics, and social science to protect human health and
the environment
The field has its origins in public health
Environmental Engineering Profession
Present-day environmental engineers continue this tradition by addressing issues, including:
• Waste management
• Air pollution
• Contaminant transport
• Water resources and environmental management
• Conventional and on-site wastewater treatment
• Drinking water quality
• Green engineering
• Ecological restoration
• Green building design
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Although environmental engineering has greatly improved public health in

developed nations, much of the developing world still experiences public health
crises that could be significantly mitigated by environmental engineering
Polluted water affects the health of billions of people
Millions of children die every year from unsafe water and sanitation
Billions of people lack access to adequate sanitation
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Infants, often carried on their mothers’ backs or kept close to the warm hearth,
can spend many hours breathing indoor smoke during their first year of life, when
their developing airways make them particularly vulnerable
Indoor air pollution-attributable deaths occur in millions of children under 5 years
of age
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Other global health issues, such as Cholera, COVID-19, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis,

and malaria, are among the world’s largest killers
These health issues have their greatest effect on developing nations, interact in
ways that make their combined effect worse, and create an enormous economic
burden on families and communities, especially where economic livelihood
depends on good health
Engineering activities can provide significant improvements for people living with
such diseases, as well as indirect or direct barriers to transmission
 Environmental Engineering Profession

The figure shows the risk factors that

contribute the most environmental
burden of disease around the world
These risks lead to a great loss of
disability-free days in a person’s life,
especially in the developing world
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Almost one-half of the risk is associated

with poor access to drinking water and
sanitation, and much of the other half
results from exposure to indoor and
urban air pollution
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Furthermore, the global effects on the

water cycle from human development
stressors of changes in land cover,
urbanization, and water resource
development may surpass effects
from recent or anticipated climate
change
Environmental Engineering Profession

For people living in poverty, illness and disability translate directly into loss
of income
The effects of ill health have significant ramifications at the macroeconomic
scale as well
For instance, a significant portion of Africa’s economic shortfall may be
attributed to climate and disease burden
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Environmental degradation also has a direct effect on household income

The income derived from ecosystems (i.e., environmental income) is
recognized to provide a “fundamental steppingstone in the economic
empowerment of the rural poor”
This “natural capital” is the environmental stock that yields the flow of natural
resources
Environmental Engineering Profession

Health, the environment, and livelihood are intertwined in ways that are
impossible to separate
Practically, maintaining a healthy ecosystem is crucial to sustainable
development
This is true at all income levels, but the feedback loop is generally shorter for
communities closer to survival
Environmental Engineering Profession

The effects of soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, water source pollution,

or deforestation are often felt first by developing countries and low-income
communities within high-income countries
As population increases, so does the urgency of maintaining the
environments on which people depend for social and economic prosperity
Environmental Engineering Profession

Worldwide, numerous discussions have yielded considerable contributions

to the concept of sustainability
For example, the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in
1972 was significant because, for the first time, it added the environment to
the list of global problems
This conference also resulted in the creation of the U.N. Environment
Programme (UNEP)
Environmental Engineering Profession

Principle 2 of the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment

states, “The natural resources of the earth, including air, water, land, flora,
and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems,
must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations
through careful planning and management, as appropriate”
Environmental Engineering Profession
UNEP 2002 lists 10 existing or emerging environmental issues:
1. globalization, trade, and development;
2. coping with climate change and variability;
3. the growth of megacities;
4. human vulnerability to climate change;
5. freshwater depletion and degradation;
6. marine and coastal degradation;
7. population growth;
8. rising consumption in developing countries;
9. biodiversity depletion;
10. biosecurity
Environmental Engineering Profession
Environmental issues in Malawi include:
1. Soil erosion;
2. Deforestation;
3. Water resources degradation and depletion;
4. Threat to fish resources;
5. Threat to biodiversity;
6. Human habitat degradation;
7. High population growth;
8. Air pollution;
9. Climatic change
Environmental Engineering Profession

Clearly, engineering has an important role to play in addressing all of these

topics
Engineers who want to address water, sanitation, and air quality on a
global scale must understand the interconnectedness of environmental
issues listed in UNEP 2002 and the Global Goals
 Group Task
Environmental Create a table like Table 1-1 on pages 8-10 in
Engineering the Field Guide to Environmental Engineering
Profession book

Sustainable Target (s) Example Relationship(s)

Development with Environmental
Goal Engineering Activities
Environmental Engineering Profession
Environmental Engineering Profession
Environmental Engineering Profession

Safety
Often, community preferences and
habits are ignored, and
communities have only a token role
in decision-making processes Privacy Cleanliness

Fig : User’s preferences of a toilet

Environmental Engineering Profession
In other situations, initial funds for construction are provided by
outside agencies, but no realistic plans for paying for operation and
maintenance are put into place
The technology chosen might be beyond the capabilities of the
communities to repair when needed, with replacement parts not
easily obtainable
Environmental Engineering Profession

Issues of governance and financing are thus as important as

technology because “the widespread diffusion of sustainable
technologies greatly depends on suitable financial vehicles as well
as robust governance institutions that can manage and maintain
technologies and infrastructures over the long term, continuously
adapting human systems to their natural environment”
Environmental Engineering Profession

One factor preventing engineering from reaching its full

potential is the traditional approach to engineering education
Typical engineering curricula include several years of science,
math, and technical subjects but touch only lightly on the
humanities, economics, and social sciences
Ecology and public health are often nonexistent
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Solving the world’s problems requires technical as well as nontechnical

skills and an understanding of the dynamic between society, the
economy, and the environment (the triple bottom line)
Engineering practice for sustainable development must also consider
nontraditional principles of sufficiency, equity, gender, and efficiency
 Environmental Engineering Profession

The ideal operational model for research and education is a global

partnership enhanced by integrating the best and most appropriate
knowledge, methodologies, techniques, principles, and practices from
both the developed and developing worlds
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Unfortunately, conventional engineering education still does not

do an adequate job of integrating technological development with
development that is compatible with society and the environment
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Having an awareness of social and economic issues will improve

engineers’ abilities to interact with organizations from other sectors and
to assume leadership roles in alliances formed
Engineers of the future will need to be able to partner effectively with
major groups, such as women, farmers, the scientific and technological
community, children and youth, Indigenous people and their
communities, workers and trade unions, business and industry,
nongovernmental organizations, and local authorities
 Environmental Engineering Profession

Reaching the tangible objectives of the SDGs requires the application of

science and problem definition and solution, which form the core
definition of engineering
In support of the vision that engineers can assist in solving many of the
world’s problems, the World Federation of Engineering Organizations
(WFEO) has stated that:
“Engineers play a crucial role in improving living standards throughout
the world. As a result, environmental engineers can have a significant
impact on progress towards sustainable development”
 Environmental Engineering Profession

In the upcoming decades, environmental engineers will have the

opportunity to play a critical role in the eradication of global poverty
and hunger; the facilitation of sustainable development, appropriate
technology, and beneficial infrastructure; and the promotion of
change that is environmentally and socially just
Introduction to Environment
and Factors Affecting the
Environment
 Critical Thinking in Environmental Science

Critical thinking is the process of

actively analyzing, evaluating, and
synthesizing information to form a
well-reasoned judgment
In environmental science, this
means applying logical reasoning
and evidence-based analysis to
environmental problems and
challenges
 Importance of Critical Thinking
in Environmental Science
Complexity of Environmental Issues
Environmental problems are multifaceted, often
involving biological, chemical, physical, social,
and political interactions
Why do you think people cut down trees to
make charcoal?
Why do you think people encroach on
protected areas?
Critical thinking helps break down these
complex issues into manageable components
Importance of Critical
Thinking in Environmental
Science

Data Interpretation
Environmental science relies heavily on
data
Critical thinking is essential for
interpreting data correctly, identifying
patterns, and drawing meaningful
conclusions
Importance of Critical Thinking
in Environmental Science

Problem-solving
Environmental challenges require innovative and
sustainable solutions
Critical thinking fosters creativity in problem-
solving by encouraging scientists to consider
alternative approaches and potential unintended
consequences (Example of Kenya rural water
supply project)
Importance of Critical
Thinking in Environmental
Science

Assessing Bias and Assumptions

Environmental policies and studies can be
influenced by political or economic agendas
Critical thinking involves questioning assumptions,
identifying biases, and making decisions based on
objective evidence
Critical thinking is an acquired
skill that helps scientists to:
• Analyze issues
• Discern the validity of
experimental results and
assertions
The Critical Thinking
Process
Gather All Information

Critical thinking requires one to know as

much about an issue as possible before
rendering an opinion or making a
decision
Understand All Terms
Question the Methods

Critical thinking requires that we

know how information has been
acquired and that we question the
methods by which it was derived
 Question the Source

Critical thinking requires one to search

for hidden biases and assumptions that
may influence one’s understanding of
an issue
or interpretation of data
Question the
Conclusions

Critical thinking requires us to

question the conclusions drawn from
facts to see if other interpretations
might be possible
Tolerate
Uncertainty

Our knowledge of the world

around us is evolving, so we
must accept uncertainty and
make decisions with the best
information possible
 Examine the Big
Picture

To become a critical thinker, it is

necessary to examine big-picture
relationships and entire systems
Applications of Critical Thinking in
Environmental Science
Evaluating environmental policies and regulations for
effectiveness
Assessing scientific studies
Making informed decisions on resource management and
conservation practices
Debating controversial issues like the trade-offs between
economic growth and environmental protection
Definition of Terms

Environment
• All the biological and non-biological factors that affect an organism’s life
(Chiras 2016)
• All external conditions, factors, matter, and energy, living and nonliving, that
affect any living organism or other specified system (Miller & Spoolman
2016)
• The physical factors of the surroundings of the human being, including land,
water, atmosphere, climate, sound, odour, taste, and the biological factors of
fauna and flora, and includes the cultural, social and economic aspects of
human activity, the natural and the built environment (EMA 1996)
Definition of terms

Environmental Science
• The interdisciplinary study of the complex and interconnected
issues of population, resources and pollution (Chiras 2016)
• The interdisciplinary study that uses information and ideas from the
physical sciences (such as biology, chemistry, and geology) as well
as those from the social sciences and humanities (such as
economics, politics, and ethics) to learn how nature works, how we
interact with the environment, and how we can deal with
environmental problems (Miller & Spoolman 2016)
Definition of terms
Natural Resource (Natural Capital)
1. Anything used by organisms to meet their needs, including air,
water, minerals, plants, fuels and animals (Chiras 2016)
2. Forms of matter in nature, such as air, water, and soil, and forms
of energy, such as solar and wind energy, that are essential or
useful to humans (Miller & Spoolman 2016)
Definition of terms
Environmental Pollution
1. Any biological or physicochemical alteration of air, water or land that is harmful
to the environment (Chiras 2016)
2. Undesirable change in the biological or physicochemical characteristics of air,
water, soil, or food that can adversely affect the health, survival, or activities of
humans or other living organisms (Miller & Spoolman 2016)
3. Any direct or indirect alteration of the physicochemical, thermal, biological, or
radioactive properties of the environment caused by the discharge, emission or
deposit of waste or a pollutant into the environment in such amounts and for
such duration and under such conditions as to cause an actual or potential
danger to the environment (EMA 1996)
Sustainable Development

Development
1. Ways of improving human wellbeing the condition of the
environment (Chiras 2016)
2. A step or stage in advancement or improvement
3. Development is a process that creates growth, progress,
positive change or the addition of physical, economic,
environmental, social and demographic components (Society
for International Development)
Sustainable Development

The purpose of development is a rise in the level and quality of life

of the individual and population and the creation or expansion of
local, regional income and employment opportunities without
damaging the resources of the environment.
Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately,
and includes an aspect of quality change and the creation of
conditions for a continuation of that change.
 Development
Development aims to provide more efficient social services (transport,
energy, water, education, health care, waste management etc.)
Development is not a simple numerical definition but a complex
quality-of-life issue
Sustainable development aims to achieve these goals without
compromising environmental quality
To Sustain..
1. To keep up..
2. To keep in existence
3. To prolong…
4. To keep something in operation..
5. To maintain…
6. To endure
7. To make or allow something to continue for a period of time….
8. Continuation of enjoyment of environmental resources….
 Sustainable Development
1. Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs (WCED 1987)
2. A way of improving or advancing our culture in a way that can be
maintained over the long haul (Chiras 2016)
The environment is the source of all our resources and our economic
well-being.
Meeting our needs while ensuring future generations meet their needs
means we must protect the environment.
Sustainable development is a means of meeting present needs in ways that
do not impair future generations and other species from meeting their needs

The environment is essential to satisfying the needs of the present and future
generation

Environmental protection and improvement are keys to the success of

sustainable development
 Satisfying the Triple Bottom Line
Sustainable development requires strategies that satisfy social,
economic, and environmental goals simultaneously
Sustainable development is based on three pillars:
• Environmental sustainability (protecting natural resources and
ecosystems)
• Economic sustainability (ensuring economic growth and stability)
• Social sustainability (promoting social equity and well-being)
Satisfying the Triple Bottom Line

Sustainable development requires strategies that

satisfy all goals simultaneously
 Social Economic
Social Economic

Environm
Environm
ental
ental

Decision making in an unsustainable Decision making in a sustainable

society society

For many years, social, economic and environmental issues were addressed
independently
Solutions made in one sector often had adverse impact on the others
Sustainable development calls for solutions that make sense from all three
perspectives simultaneously
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PILLARS OF
SUSTAINABILITY

Bearable
Environment Social
Sustainable
Viable
Equitable

Economic
 Principles of Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is based on 10 key principles derived from

three areas of:
• Ecology
• Social thought & Ethics
• Politics & Economies.
Ecological principles of sustainable
development
 Ecological principles of sustainable
development
Principle 1: Dependence
• Human beings depend on the earth
for the supply of goods and services
• The earth is the source of all material
inputs, feeding the economic
system, and it is the sink of all waste
• Planet care is the ultimate form of
self-care
Lilongwe 2013
Ecological principles of sustainable development

Principle 2: Biophysical limits

• The earth provides numerous resources, both renewable and
nonrenewable
• The earth’s resources have limits (e.g., oil, phosphorus, fish
etc.)
• Humankind has exceeded certain biophysical limits and is
close to exceeding others (Phosphorus, fossil fuels)
• Many signs show that we have exceeded the earth’s ability to
assimilate wastes
Ecological principles of sustainable development

Principle 3: Living within limits

• Humans must learn to live within the carrying capacity of the
environment
• Carrying capacity is the number of organisms an environment
can support
• Carrying capacity is determined by the ability of the earth to
provide resources and absorb, assimilate, or detoxify wastes
Living sustainably means finding ways of prospering within the limits
of resource supplies and waste assimilation capacity of the earth
Ecological principles of sustainable
development
Principle 4: Interdependence
• Humans and the earth are dependent on each other
• The fate of the global environment is dependent on us
• What befalls the earth befalls humanity
• Floods
• Draught
 Social/Ethical principles of sustainable
development
Principle 5: Intergenerational equity
• Fairness to future generations
• Our living at present should not affect the future generations’
opportunities to prosper
• Proper management of environmental resources means that
there is enough for future generations
• Intergenerational equity could influence the technologies we
develop and the ways human systems are designed and operated
 Social/Ethical principles of sustainable
development
Principle 6: Intragenerational equity
• Humans must act in ways that satisfy their needs
without compromising the welfare of others who
are alive today (Tragedy of the commons)
• Everyone in the world community shares the
same water and air
Intragenerational equity calls on us to act in ways that
honor the rights and needs of all people alive today
Effects of environmental pollution are often felt far
from the site of impact
 Social/Ethical principles of sustainable
development
Principle 7: Ecological justice
• The Earth is the rightful property of all
species
• Humans don’t have an obligation only
to other people, but to all species now
and future
 Economic/political principles of sustainable
development
Principle 8: Participation
• Business and citizen participation is crucial in achieving sustainable development
• Citizens can become conscientious consumers
• Buying green products
• Buying less
• Driving fuel-efficient cars
• Carpooling
• Using public transport
• Cycling
• Recycling
• Pedestrianization
Electric car charging station (Rotterdam, The Netherlands)
Encouraging cycling
Cycling Trail (Delft, Netherlands) Bicycle Park (Delft, Netherlands)
 Encouraging Cycling
Bicycle Park (Rotterdam,
Netherlands) Bicycle Park (Delft, Netherlands)
 Economic/political principles of sustainable
development
Principle 9: Cooperation
Regional agreements among countries
• SADC
• EU
Global agreements among countries
• United Nations
International accords signed among countries
• UNCCD
• UNFCCC
Cooperation of NGOs, governments, people, opposing political parties and businesses
Environmental protection and sustainable development require the cooperation of all
parties
 Economic/political principles of sustainable
development
Principle 10: Addressing the root causes
Many environmental solutions enacted in the past have addressed
symptoms of environmental problems while overlooking the root causes
• Smokestack scrubbers
• Catalytic converters on automobiles
• Waste incinerators
• Wastewater treatment plants
• Ban thin plastics
• Ban on charcoal production, transport, selling, and use
• Ban on the sale of food in markets
Principle 10: Addressing the root causes
• Treating the symptoms won't solve the problem
• Environmental problems are addressed after they are produced (end of the
pipe)
• Most environmental protection strategies are based on policies that address
pollutants after they are produced
• Short term gains may be offset by other forces (increasing population
growth, increasing economic activity etc)
• The symptoms approach shift pollutants from one environmental media to
the other (smoke stack scrubbers, incinerators etc)
We must focus on strategies that address the root causes of environmental
problems.
 RECAP

• The triple bottom line

• Decision making in a traditional and sustainable society
• Principles of sustainable development
 The principles of SD provide a philosophical
foundation for SD

SD is a strategy which could solve many

Applying the environmental problems we face

Principles of The principles of SD should be thought of as

Sustainable directive or guiding principles

Development They do not necessarily specify actions needed to

attain a sustainable future

The guiding principles need to be operationized to

attain a sustainable future
 Operating Principles of Sustainable Development

• Population stabilization
Human population needs to be stabilized. It can not continue to grow indefinitely
• Growth management
Growth should be managed better without degrading prime land that support
agriculture and ecosystems
• Efficient resource utilization
Efficient use of resources provides economic benefits to businesses. It ensures
adequate supplies are reserved for the future generations
Operating Principles of Sustainable Development
• Use clean, renewable energy supplies
Renewable energy supplies provide the energy we need
at a lower environmental impact
• Recycling
Waste should not be tolerated, especially now that
there are limited resources.
Recycling makes good economic sense. It helps ensure
that there is supply for the future generations
Recyclable materials should be used to manufacture
goods
Operating Principles of Sustainable
Development

• Restoration of natural systems

Natural systems that have been degraded should be restored.
Avoid further land degradation.
Replant forests, rebuild wetlands, restore farmlands,
grasslands and pastures.
• Sustainable resource management
Resource management should prioritize long-term benefits.
Sustainable Development Goals
The world is faced with big challenges (poverty, hunger,
inequality, climate change) which require urgent action

Global goals are a plan agreed by all world leaders to

create a fairer, cleaner and better world by 2030

We all have a role to play in order to achieve the agenda

2030
Sustainable Development Goals
Sustainable Development Goals
• List all the 17 Global Goals
• Which Goals are directly related to your program of study and how
are they important?
Sustainable Development Goals
Environmental engineering is at the heart of sustainable
development by bridging the gap between human activities and
environmental preservation
It provides practical solutions to environmental challenges,
ensuring that economic growth is aligned with the principles of
sustainability
Through resource efficiency, pollution control, climate change
mitigation, and ecosystem conservation, environmental
engineering promotes a balance between development and the
environment, securing a sustainable future for all
Environmental Regulations and Standards in Malawi
Malawi’s environmental regulations and standards are designed to:
• Protect natural resources
• Prevent environmental degradation
• Promote sustainable development
These regulations, established under the Environmental Management
Act (EMA) of 2017 and other sector-specific laws, set guidelines for
activities that impact air, water, land, biodiversity, and waste
management
They also outline pollution control, resource use, and public health
protection standards
Environmental Management Act (EMA) of 2017
EMA is Malawi's primary legal environmental protection instrument
It establishes the regulatory framework for the sustainable
management of the environment and outlines the responsibilities of
both public and private entities in ensuring compliance with
environmental laws
Environmental Management Act (EMA) of 2017
Key features of the EMA include:
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) requirement
The Act mandates the preparation of EIAs for any project that may have a
significant environmental impact
EIAs must evaluate potential environmental risks, propose mitigation
measures, and involve public consultation
• Environmental audits
Ongoing projects are subject to environmental audits to ensure compliance
with environmental standards
These audits help monitor and minimize the environmental impact of ongoing
operations
Environmental Management Act (EMA) of 2017
Key features of the EMA include:
• Pollution control
The Act regulates emissions into the air, water, and soil, requiring entities to
meet prescribed environmental quality standards
• Waste management
EMA sets the framework for waste management, including proper disposal of
solid, liquid, and hazardous wastes
• Penalties for non-compliance
The Act imposes fines, sanctions, and imprisonment for those failing to adhere
to environmental regulations
Water Resources Act (2013)
The Water Resources Act aims to ensure the sustainable management
and protection of Malawi's water resources
The Act is enforced by the National Water Resources Authority (NWRA)
and covers regulations on water abstraction, pollution control, and
water quality standards
 Water Resources Act (2013)
Key features of the Act include:
• Water abstraction permits
The Act requires permits for water abstraction and regulates the amount of water
extracted from different sources to ensure sustainable use
• Water quality standards
The Act sets national water quality standards
It establishes pollution limits for discharges into water bodies and prescribes
penalties for violators.
• Pollution control
The Act prohibits the direct discharge of untreated industrial effluent, sewage, and
hazardous substances into water bodies without prior treatment
Waste Management Regulations
Solid waste management
Local authorities collect and dispose of solid waste in urban areas
Regulations require local authorities to provide proper waste disposal
sites and promote recycling programs
Businesses and industries are encouraged to adopt waste
minimization strategies, including recycling, reuse, and composting
Waste Management Regulations
Hazardous waste management
The regulations classify hazardous waste and require special
handling, transportation, and disposal methods to prevent
contamination of the environment
Industries generating hazardous waste must submit waste
management plans and comply with specific disposal guidelines
Air Quality Regulations
Air quality in Malawi is regulated by emission limits for various
pollutants
Emissions standards are in place in line with WHO guidelines
These regulations seek to control air pollution, which contributes to
public health issues and environmental degradation
Recommendations on how to deal with air quality issues have been
proposed in the National State of Environment and Outlook Report
(2010)
Forestry Regulations
The Forestry Act (1997) and subsequent regulations focus on
Malawi's conservation and sustainable use of forest resources
Forests are vital for maintaining biodiversity, regulating water cycles,
and preventing soil erosion
Forestry Regulations
Key features of the Act:
• Deforestation control
The Act restricts logging and mandates the issuance of permits for timber
harvesting
It also encourages afforestation and reforestation efforts through tree-planting
programs
• Forest reserves and protected areas
Malawi has designated forest reserves and protected areas where logging and
other resource extraction are prohibited
These reserves are crucial for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem
services
Forestry Regulations
Key features of the Act:
• Penalties
Stringent penalties, including fines and imprisonment, are imposed on
individuals or entities involved in illegal logging; charcoal production,
transportation and sale; or other forms of forest degradation
National Parks and Wildlife Regulations

The National Parks and Wildlife Act (2004) governs the management
of national parks, wildlife reserves, and biodiversity protection
These regulations aim to conserve wildlife species, promote
ecotourism, and protect ecosystems
National Parks and Wildlife Regulations
Key features of the NPW Act:
Wildlife protection
Hunting, poaching, and illegal trade of endangered species are prohibited
under this Act
Protected species, such as elephants and rhinos, are granted special
protection, and the Act imposes severe penalties for wildlife crimes
National Parks and Wildlife Regulations
Key features of the NPW Act:
• National parks management
The Act establishes guidelines for managing national parks and reserves,
focusing on biodiversity conservation and sustainable tourism
It also promotes community involvement in conservation efforts
National Parks and Wildlife Regulations
Key features of the NPW Act:
• Conservation of biodiversity
The Act mandates the protection of ecosystems and habitats, especially
those harboring endangered or rare species
The establishment of conservation areas is a key strategy for preserving
biological diversity
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations
The EIA regulations, embedded within EMA, outline the process for
assessing the environmental impacts of proposed development
projects
These regulations apply to both public and private sector projects that
could have significant environmental consequences
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations
EIA requirements
All projects with adverse environmental impacts must undergo an EIA
before approval
This includes infrastructure development (e.g., roads, bridges),
industrial projects, mining, agriculture, and energy projects
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations
Public participation
The EIA process includes public consultation to ensure that
communities affected by the project are involved in decision-making
Stakeholders provide input on the potential environmental and social
impacts
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations
Mitigation measures
EIAs must propose mitigation strategies to reduce negative
environmental impacts, such as pollution control technologies,
biodiversity conservation measures, and plans for sustainable
resource use
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations
Environmental monitoring
Once a project is approved, developers must conduct ongoing
environmental monitoring and submit regular reports to ensure
compliance with mitigation measures and environmental standards
Fisheries Regulations
The Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (1997) regulates
the sustainable use of Malawi’s fisheries resources, focusing on
preserving fish stocks, habitats, and aquatic ecosystems
Key features of the Act:
• Sustainable fishing practices
The Act promotes sustainable fishing techniques and limits overfishing
through quotas, seasonal fishing restrictions, and closed breeding areas
Fishing licenses are required for commercial fishing operations
Fisheries Regulations
Key features of the Act:
• Protection of fish breeding areas
Special conservation areas are established to protect fish breeding grounds,
particularly in sensitive ecosystems like Lake Malawi, home to many endemic
species
• Aquaculture regulation
The Act regulates the development of aquaculture projects, ensuring they do
not harm natural aquatic ecosystems or disrupt local communities
Noise Pollution Regulations
Noise pollution, particularly in urban and industrial areas, is regulated
by Noise Pollution Standards
These standards set maximum permissible noise levels for different
residential, commercial, industrial zones, and silence zone areas
The standard also lays down sound level requirements for indoor
non-industrial buildings
International Environmental Standards
In addition to national regulations, Malawi is a party to several
international conventions and treaties that guide its environmental
standards and practices
These include:
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Focuses on conserving biological diversity and sustainable use of its
components
• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
Guides Malawi’s efforts to combat climate change by reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and promoting climate resilience
International Environmental Standards
These include:
• The Basel Convention
Regulates the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and promotes
their environmentally sound management.
• The Stockholm Convention
Aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) that pose risks to human health and the environment
Relevance of Environmental Legislation to Environmental
Engineering
Malawi’s environmental regulations and standards are highly relevant
to the work of environmental engineers, who must integrate these
rules into the design, construction, and management of projects to
ensure environmental sustainability and regulatory compliance
Relevance of Environmental Legislation to Environmental
Engineering
The key areas where environmental engineering is critical include:
1. Water Resource Management
Designing water supply and wastewater treatment systems that meet national
water quality standards and ensure sustainable use of water resources.
2. Pollution Control
Developing technologies and processes to reduce air, water, and soil
pollution, ensuring compliance with national emission standards
Relevance of Environmental Legislation to Environmental
Engineering
The key areas where environmental engineering is critical include:
3. Waste Management
Implementing systems for solid, liquid, and hazardous waste management,
including recycling, composting, and safe disposal methods
4. Environmental Impact Assessments
Conducting EIAs for infrastructure and industrial projects, assessing
environmental risks, and developing mitigation strategies
Relevance of Environmental Legislation to Environmental
Engineering
The key areas where environmental engineering is critical include:
5. Biodiversity Conservation
Ensuring that engineering projects do not harm ecosystems or wildlife,
especially in protected areas
6. Sustainable Energy and Climate Change Mitigation
Designing renewable energy projects and energy-efficient systems to support
Malawi’s efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate
change
Relevance of Environmental Legislation to Environmental
Engineering

Environmental engineers play a vital role in translating regulatory

standards into actionable, sustainable designs that protect the
environment and support Malawi’s development objectives
Global, Regional, and National
Environmental Issues
The Malawi Environment
The Malawi Environment (SEOR 2010)
The Malawi Environment
The Malawi Environment
The Malawi Environment
State of Environmental Reporting in Malawi

In response to the recommendations of the NEAP (1994) and EMA (1996),

Malawi prepared State of Environment Reports (SOER) in 1998, 2002, and
2010.
The 2002 SOER was used to update the NEAP and informed the preparation of
the first DSOERs, which involved all 28 districts
The preparation of the DSOER is coordinated by the District Environmental
Officer supported by the District Environmental Subcommittee (DESC)
The Malawi State of Environment and Outlook Report (SEOR) 2010

The SEOR analyses the current state of the environment and develops scenarios to
provide an outlook of the anticipated environmental changes
The EAD coordinated the 2010 SEOR
The 2010 SOER aimed to integrate environmental planning into Malawi’s development
plans
The SEOR provides a detailed account of the environmental trends and dynamics
 Development of the SEOR (2010)
The SEOR of 2010 was written by a national panel of experts organized into
Lead and Thematic Authors
Draft chapters underwent preliminary review by a joint task team led by
EAD prior to an extensive review by sector experts
The thematic reports underwent further review by independent reviewers
The chapters were then consolidated into a draft report which underwent
final review in a national consultative workshop
Structure of the SEOR (2010)
Part 1: Environment, People and Development
• Chapter 1: Environment, People and Development
• Chapter 2: Population and Human Settlement
• Chapter 3: Energy, Industry and Mining
• Chapter 4: Health and Environment
• Chapter 5: Environmental Education and Public Awareness
• Chapter 6: Land and Agriculture
Part 2: State of the Environment
• Chapter 7: Biodiversity
• Chapter 8: Forest and Woodlands
• Chapter 9: Water Resources
• Chapter 10: Atmosphere and Climate Change
Structure of the SEOR (2010)

Part 3: Environmental Governance, Now and in the Future

Chapter 11: Exploring the future of Malawi’s Environment using
Scenarios
Chapter 12: Policy analysis and options for action
The key environmental issues in Malawi
The NEAP (1994) outlines the following as the key environmental issues in Malawi:
1. Soil erosion
2. Deforestation
3. Water resources degradation and depletion
4. Threat to fish resources
5. Threat to biodiversity
6. Human habitat degradation
7. High population growth
8. Air pollution
9. Climatic change.
Global Environmental Issues (Chiras, Chapter 20)

• Ozone Depletion
• Acid Deposition
• Global Warming
• Climate Change
 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer is a portion of the stratosphere with a slightly higher concentration of
ozone molecules
It forms a protective shield that filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation
Activities that Deplete the Ozone Layer

Human civilization threatens the ozone layer through two principal activities:
1. the use of a class of chemical compounds called chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)
2. jet travel through the stratosphere
Activities that Deplete the Ozone Layer

Chlorofluorocarbon molecules were once used as:

• Propellants
• Refrigerants
• Blowing agents
• Cleaning agents
 Activities that Deplete the Ozone Layer

CFCs are stable molecules that diffuse into the stratosphere, where they
break down, releasing chlorine atoms
Chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules, destroying them
Other chlorine- and bromine-containing compounds have also been used
widely and are known as ozone depleters too
 Figure:
Hydrofluorocarbon.

Figure: The chemistry of CFCs and ozone depletion

Effects of Ozone Depletion
Effects of Ozone Depletion
Banning Ozone-Depleting Chemicals: A Global
Success Story
Substitutes for Ozone-Destroying CFCs
 Acid Deposition
Acid deposition from pollutants is a global problem with serious social,
economic, and environmental impacts
Rainfall in unpolluted areas has a pH of about 5.7 and slightly acidic
Acid deposition refers to rain and snow with a pH of less than 5.7 and the
deposition of acid particles and gases
Acids reach the surface of the Earth either as wet deposition (rain or
snow) or dry deposition (particulates and gases)
 Acid Deposition
Acid precursors come from natural and anthropogenic sources, the latter
being the most important
Of the anthropogenic sources, the combustion of fossil fuels is the most
significant
 The Transport of Acid Precursors
Acid precursors can be transported hundreds of kilometers from their site
of production to their site of deposition
Acid deposition occurs downwind from virtually all major industrial and
urban centers
Acid deposition is increasing in strength (acidity) and expanding in
geographic range
Impacts of Acid Deposition
Acid deposition has acidified lakes throughout the world
Hundreds of lakes no longer support aquatic life, and thousands are on
the verge of ecological collapse
Soil and surface waters have a buffering capacity—an ability to resist
changes in pH
The buffering capacity plays an important role in determining if a lake will
be damaged by acid deposition
Impacts of Acid Deposition
Acidity kills aquatic organisms and impairs growth and reproduction
Acidity also leaches heavy metals, toxic to fish, from the soil
Acid deposition affects birds living near lakes and aquatic species, such as
salamanders, which are a key element of the food chain
Impacts of Acid Deposition
Acid deposition damages forests in many parts of the world and may affect
crops as well
Trees and other plants are damaged directly by acids
They are also damaged indirectly through changes in the soil chemistry and
soil-dwelling organisms
Impacts of Acid Deposition
The sulfur and nitrogen in sulfuric and nitric acid promote plant growth
Their negative effects (such as direct damage and changes in the soil
chemistry) typically outweigh any benefits resulting from their fertilizing
effect
Acids cause billions of dollars of damage to priceless statues, buildings, and
materials
Short-Term Solutions

Many stopgap measures have been initiated to help reduce the threat of
acid deposition, including:
• Installation of smokestack scrubbers
• Combustion of low-sulfur or desulfurized coal
• Liming lakes to neutralize acidity
Long-Term Sustainable Strategies

A sustainable design strategy to help prevent the production of acid

precursors (and thus reduce acid deposition) includes:
• Fuel efficiency
• Renewable fuels
• Recycling
• Population stabilization
• Growth management
Global Warming
Much of the sunlight striking the Earth and its atmosphere is converted
into heat and is radiated back into space
Natural and anthropogenic factors affect the amount of solar radiation
striking the Earth and the rate at which heat escapes
Therefore, these factors influence the temperature of the Earth’s
atmosphere
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases come from natural and anthropogenic sources
Anthropogenic sources have been increasing dramatically over the past
years
The accumulation of greenhouse gases is likely responsible for the
increase in average daily temperatures
This is linked to changes in other aspects of climate, such as:
• Rainfall patterns
• the frequency and severity of storms
Many of these changes affect ecosystems
Climate Change
There are many indications that global climate change is occurring:
• Global carbon dioxide levels are increasing.
• The sea level is on the rise.
• Polar ice is diminishing.
• Global temperatures are rising.
• Glaciers are melting.
• There is an increasing frequency and severity of storms and
droughts
Key Elements of National Conservation Strategy

A National Conservation Strategy is a comprehensive plan aimed at

promoting sustainable development by conserving natural resources and
biodiversity while addressing socio-economic needs
It typically aligns with global frameworks such as the UN SDGs and
integrates environmental, social, and economic aspects to achieve long-
term sustainability
Key Elements
of National
Conservation
Strategy
Key Elements of National Conservation Strategy

• Rationale of the National Conservation Strategy

• Vision, Goals, and Guiding Principles of the National Conservation
Strategy
• Strategies and Actions for the National Conservation Strategy
• Strategic Priorities and Implementation Arrangements
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Environmental Policy and Ethics

The birth of environmental ethics as a force is partly a result of

concern for humans long-term survival, as well as the realization that
humans are but one form of life and that they share our earth with
other forms of life
 Environmental Policy and Ethics

Table: Framework for a Discussion of Environmental Ethics

S/N Environmental Code of Ethics

1 Use knowledge and skills for the enhancement and protection of environmental
2 Hold paramount the health, safety, and welfare of the environment
3 Perform services only in areas of personal expertise
4 Be honest and impartial when serving the public, your employers, your clients, and the
environment
5 Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner
Environmental Policy and Ethics

Although these principles seem straightforward, real-world problems offer

distinct challenges. Here is an example for each of the principles listed:
1. The first principle may be threatened when it comes into conflict with the
need for food for a starving population and the country is overrun with
locusts. Will the use of pesticides enhance and protect the environment?
2. The MEPA has stipulated that wastewater must be disinfected where people
come into contact with the water. However, the disinfectant may also kill
naturally occurring beneficial microorganisms. Is this consistent with the
second principle?
Environmental Policy and Ethics

3. Suppose your expertise is water and wastewater chemistry. Your company has accepted a job to
perform air pollution analysis and asks you to perform the work in the absence of a colleague
who is the company’s expert. Do you decline and risk being fired?
4. The public, your employers, and your client believe that dredging lake Malawi to remove
Namasupuni and sediment will enhance the lake. However, the dredging will destroy the habitat
for some aquatic organisms. How can you be impartial to all these constituencies?
5. You believe that a new regulation proposed by MEPA is too expensive to implement but you
have no data to confirm that opinion. How do you respond to a local newspaper reporter asking
for your opinion? Do you violate the fifth principle even though it is “your opinion” that is being
sought?
Environmental Policy and Ethics

Many environmentally related decisions, such as those described above, are much
more difficult to resolve
Frequently, these problems are related more to ethics than to science
The problems arise when there are several courses of action with no a priori
certainty as to which is best
Decisions related to safety, health, and welfare are easily resolved
Environmental Policy and Ethics

Decisions about which action is in the public’s best interest are much more difficult
to resolve
Furthermore, decisions as to which course of action is in the best interest of the
environment are sometimes in conflict with those in the public's best interest
Whereas decisions made in the public interest are based on professional ethics,
decisions made in the best interest of the environment are based on environmental
ethics
Environmental Policy and Ethics

Ethos, the Greek word from which “ethic” is derived, means a person’s character as
described by his or her actions
This character was developed during the evolutionary process and was influenced by
the need to adapt to the natural environment
Our ethics is our way of doing things
Our ethics is a direct result of our natural environment
During the latter stages of the evolutionary process, Homo sapiens began to modify
the environment rather than submit to what, millennia later, became known as
Darwinian natural selection
Environmental Policy and Ethics

For example, consider the cave dweller who, in the chilly dawn of prehistory,
realized the value of the saber-toothed tiger’s coat and appropriated it for personal
use
Inevitably, a pattern of appropriation developed, and our ethics became more self-
modified than environmentally adapted
Thus, we are no longer adapted to our natural environment but rather to our self-
made environment
Environmental Policy and Ethics

In the ecological context, such maladaptation results in one of two consequences:

1. The organism (Homo sapiens) dies out
2. The organism evolves to a form and character that is once again compatible
with the natural environment
If we choose the latter course, how can this character (ethics) change be brought
about?
Everyone must change his or her character or ethics, and the social system must
change to become compatible with the global ecology
Environmental Policy and Ethics

The acceptable system is one in which we learn to share our exhaustible resources—
to regain balance
This requires that we reduce our needs and replenish our materials
We must treat all the earth as a sacred trust to be used so that its content is neither
diminished nor permanently changed; we must release no substances that cannot
be reincorporated without damage to the natural system
The recognition of the need for such adaptation (as a means of survival) has
developed into what we now call the environmental ethics
Review of National and International Codes and
Ethics in Environmental Engineering
Ethics play a critical role in guiding professionals in environmental
engineering, where decisions can profoundly impact human health,
ecological sustainability, and socio-economic development
Environmental engineers are expected to balance the need for
infrastructure and economic growth with the responsibility of protecting
natural ecosystems and public health
Like many countries, Malawi follows national and international standards
to ensure ethical conduct in environmental engineering practices
Malawi Codes and Ethics in Environmental
Engineering
In Malawi, environmental engineering practices are governed by a range
of national codes, laws, and guidelines, with ethics being emphasized in
the professional conduct of engineers
Malawi Engineering Institution (MEI)
MEI regulates engineering practices, including environmental
engineering, by establishing professional standards and ethics
Core ethical principles include:
• Responsibility to Society: Environmental engineers must prioritize public welfare
and environmental protection in their work
• Competence and Integrity: Engineers must practice within their area of
competence and ensure integrity in their technical solutions, avoiding conflicts
of interest
• Sustainable Development: Engineers are urged to incorporate sustainability
principles in project planning and implementation to avoid long-term
environmental damage
Malawi Environmental Management Act (EMA)

EMA 2017 provides the legal framework for sustainable development

and environmental protection in Malawi
Ethical mandates in EMA include:
• Precautionary Principle: Engineers must adopt precautionary measures when
there is potential for serious or irreversible environmental harm, even in the
absence of full scientific certainty
• Polluter Pays Principle: Engineers and organizations are responsible for the costs
of environmental damage and should adopt measures to prevent pollution
• Public Participation: The law encourages public engagement in environmental
decision-making processes, ensuring transparency and accountability
National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP)
The NEAP 1994 provides a framework for sustainable environmental
management, emphasizing the ethical duty of engineers to integrate
environmental concerns into development projects
Ethical aspects:
• Environmental Justice: Projects must ensure equitable distribution of
environmental benefits and burdens, avoiding actions that disproportionately
affect vulnerable populations
• Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA): Engineers must conduct
comprehensive EIAs before undertaking any major projects to predict and
mitigate environmental harm
International Codes and Ethics in Environmental
Engineering
Globally, environmental engineers adhere to well-established ethical
standards that align with the principles of sustainability, public welfare,
and environmental justice
Leading international organizations have developed codes of ethics to
guide practitioners
World Federation of Engineering Organizations
(WFEO) Code of Ethics
The WFEO sets ethical standards for engineers worldwide, emphasizing
sustainability and integrity
Key ethical principles include:
• Environmental Stewardship: Engineers must protect the environment, conserve
resources, and reduce waste in all engineering activities
• Sustainability: Projects must prioritize long-term sustainability over
short-term gains, ensuring that future generations can meet their
needs
• Collaboration and Transparency: Engineers are encouraged to
engage with stakeholders and transparently communicate the risks
and benefits of projects
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Code of
Ethics
The ASCE Code of Ethics is internationally recognized for its
comprehensive approach to engineering ethics, especially in civil and
environmental engineering fields
Core ethical guidelines:
• Public Welfare: Engineers must uphold public health, safety, and welfare as
paramount in their decisions
• Truthfulness and Objectivity: Engineers are required to provide honest reports
and assessments without succumbing to external pressures
• Global and Environmental Considerations: ASCE mandates that engineers take
into account global environmental impacts and work towards minimizing
ecological footprints through innovative design and sustainable development
International Federation of Consulting Engineers
(FIDIC) Code of Ethics
FIDIC promotes ethical practices in consulting engineering, including
environmental consulting, with an emphasis on transparency and
sustainable practices
Ethical focus:
• Professional Independence: Engineers should provide objective advice without
external influences from clients or political pressure
• Sustainable Solutions: Engineers must recommend solutions that align with
sustainable development goals, mitigating environmental degradation
• Cultural Sensitivity: The code recognizes the need for engineers to respect local
cultures and social norms in environmental projects
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) and Ethics
The UN SDGs, particularly Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), Goal 7
(Affordable and Clean Energy), and Goal 13 (Climate Action), inform
ethical responsibilities for environmental engineers
Ethical obligations include:
• Resource Efficiency: Engineers are expected to promote technologies and
designs that maximize resource efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
• Climate Resilience: Engineering projects should build resilience against the
adverse impacts of climate change
• Inclusive and Equitable Solutions: Engineers are tasked with ensuring that their
projects do not exclude or disadvantage marginalized populations, fostering
inclusive development
Comparison of Malawi and International Ethics
Similarities:
• Commitment to Public Welfare: Both Malawi and international codes prioritize
the protection of public health and safety in all engineering projects
• Sustainability: Sustainable development is a common theme, requiring
engineers to consider the long-term environmental and social impacts of their
work
• Transparency and Accountability: Both frameworks emphasize the importance
of honesty, transparency, and public participation in environmental decision-
making
Comparison of Malawi and International Ethics
Differences:
• Scope of Regulatory Framework: While international codes (like WFEO and
ASCE) have broader, globally oriented guidelines, Malawi’s frameworks are
more specific to local challenges, such as addressing poverty, deforestation, and
water scarcity
• Environmental Justice: The focus on environmental justice in Malawi's codes,
particularly with regard to addressing the needs of vulnerable populations, is
more explicit compared to some international codes
• Enforcement Mechanisms: International codes often include more robust
enforcement mechanisms and professional sanctions, whereas enforcement in
Malawi may be limited by capacity and resource constraints
Material and Energy Balances
Materials and energy balances are key tools in achieving a quantitative
understanding of the behavior of environmental systems
They serve as a method of accounting for the flow of energy and
materials into and out of environmental systems
Mass balances provide us with a tool for modeling environmental
pollutants' production, transport, and fate
Energy balances likewise provide us with a tool for modeling the
production, transport, and fate of energy in the environment
Unifying Theories: Conservation of Matter
The law of conservation of matter states that (without nuclear reaction)
matter can neither be created nor destroyed
This is a powerful theory
It means that if we observe an environmental process carefully, we
should be able to account for the “matter” at any point in time
It does not mean that the form of the matter does not change nor, for
that matter, the properties of the matter
Unifying Theories: Conservation of Matter
Thus, if we measure the volume of a fresh glass of water on the counter
on Monday, measure it again a week later, and find the volume to be less,
we do not presume magic has occurred, but rather that matter has
changed in form
The law of conservation of matter says we ought to be able to account
for all the mass of the water that was originally present, that is, the mass
of water remaining in the glass plus the mass of water vapor that has
evaporated equals the mass of water originally present
The mathematical representation of this accounting system is called a
materials balance or mass balance
Unifying Theories: Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed
Like the law of conservation of matter, this theory means that we should
be able to account for the “energy” at any point in time
It also does not mean that the form of the energy does not change
Thus, we should be able to trace the energy of food through a series of
organisms, from green plants to animals
The mathematical representation of the accounting system we use to
trace energy is called an energy balance
Unifying Theories: Conservation of Matter and
Energy
At the turn of the 20th century, Albert Einstein hypothesized that matter
could be transformed to energy and vice versa
The birth of the nuclear age proved his hypothesis correct, so today, we
have a combined law of conservation of matter and energy that states
that the total amount of energy and matter is constant
Unifying Theories: Conservation of Matter and
Energy
A nuclear change produces new materials by changing the identity of the
atoms themselves
Significant amounts of matter are converted to energy in nuclear
explosions
Exchange between mass and energy is not an issue in environmental
applications
Thus, there are generally two separate balances for mass and energy
Material Balances
In its simplest form, a materials balance or mass balance may be viewed as an
accounting procedure
You perform a form of material balance each time you balance your bank account:
𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡 − 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑙
For an environmental engineering process, the equation would be written:
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
where accumulation, input, and output refer to the mass quantities accumulating in
the system or flowing into or out of the system
The “system” may be, a pond, river, reactor, or a pollution control device
 Material Balances: Control Volume
Using the mass balance approach, we begin solving the
problem by drawing a flowchart of the process or a
conceptual diagram of the environmental subsystem
The known inputs, outputs, and accumulation are
converted to the same mass units and placed on the
diagram
Unknown inputs, outputs, and accumulation are also
marked on the diagram
This helps to define the problem
System boundaries (imaginary blocks around the
process or part of the process) are drawn in such a way
that calculations are made as simple as possible
The system within the boundaries is called the control
volume
Material Balances
A materials balance equation is then written to solve for unknown inputs,
outputs, or accumulations or to demonstrate that all of the components have
been accounted for

Alternatively, when there is no data for all inputs or outputs, it can be assumed
that the mass balance closes and solves for the unknown quantity
The following example illustrates the technique
Material Balances: Example
The Banda family purchases ~50kg of consumer goods every week.
Of this amount, 50% is consumed as food.
Half of the food is used for biological maintenance and ultimately
released as CO2; the remainder is discharged to the sewerage system.
The Bandas recycle ~25% of the solid waste they generate, and ~1kg of
the purchase accumulates in the house.
Estimate the amount of solid waste the Bandas dispose of each week
Material Balances: Solution

Begin by drawing a mass

balance diagram and
labeling the known and
unknown inputs and
outputs
Material Balances: Solution
Write the mass balance equation for the house:

Input = accumulation in house + output as food to people + output as

solid waste
Material Balances: Solution
Now, we need to calculate the known inputs and outputs
One half of input is food = (0.5)(50kg) = 25kg
This is output as food to the people
The mass balance equation is then rewritten as
50kg = 1kg + 25kg + output as solid waste
Solving for the mass of solid waste gives
Output as solid waste = 50 − 1 − 25 = 24kg
Material Balances: Solution

The mass balance diagram

with the appropriate masses
may be redrawn as shown
below:
Material Balances: Solution

We can estimate the

amount of solid waste
disposed by performing
another mass balance
around the solid waste,
as shown in the following
diagram:
Material Balances: Solution
The mass balance equation is:
Solid waste in = output to recycle + output to curb
Because the recycled amount is 25% of the solid waste
Output to recycle = (0.25)(24kg) = 6kg
Substituting into the mass balance equation for solid waste and solving
for output to curb;
24kg = 6kg + output to curb
Output to curb = 24 − 6 = 18kg
Material Balances: Solution
This type of analysis is used in waste audits to identify opportunities for
waste reduction or to measure the effectiveness of a recycling program
Material Balances: Time Factor
For many environmental problems, time is an important factor in establishing the
degree of severity of the problem or in designing a solution
In these instances, the mass balance equation is modified to the following form:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
where rate is used to mean “per unit of time”
In calculus, this may be written as:
𝑑𝑀 𝑑(𝑖𝑛) 𝑑(𝑜𝑢𝑡)
= −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where M refers to the mass accumulated, and (in) and (out) refer to the mass
flowing in or out of the control volume
As part of the description of the problem, a convenient time interval that is
meaningful for the system must be chosen
Material Balances: More Complex Systems
A key step in the solution of mass balance problems for more complex
systems is the selection of an appropriate control volume
In some instances, it may be necessary to select multiple control
volumes and then solve the problem sequentially using the solution
from one control volume as the input to another control volume
For some complex processes, the appropriate control volume may treat,
therefore, the steps in the process as a “black box” in which the internal
process steps are not required and, therefore, are hidden in a black box
The following example illustrates a case of a more complex system and a
method of solving the problem
Material Balances: Efficiency
The effectiveness of an environmental process in removing a
contaminant can be determined using the mass balance technique
Starting with:
𝑑𝑀 𝑑(𝑖𝑛) 𝑑(𝑜𝑢𝑡)
= −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The mass of contaminant per unit of time [d(in)/dt and d(out)/dt] may
be calculated as:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Material Balances: Efficiency
For example:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑔 𝑚3
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 3
× = 𝑚𝑔Τ𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚 𝑠
This is called a mass flow rate. In concentration and flow rate terms,
the mass balance equation is:
𝑑𝑀
= 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
dM/dt= Rate of accumulation of contaminant in the process
Cin, Cout= Concentration of the contaminant in and out of the process
Qin, Qout= Flow rate into and out of the process
Material Balances: Efficiency
The ratio of the mass that is accumulated in the process to the
incoming mass is a measure of how effective the process is in removing
the contaminant:
𝑑𝑀Τ𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝐶𝑜𝑢 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛
Material Balances: Efficiency
For convenience, the fraction is multiplied by 100%
The left-hand side of the equation is given the notation η
Efficiency (η) is then defined as:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛 − 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑂𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100%
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛
If the flow rate in and the flow rate out are the same, this ratio may be
Simplified to:
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛 − 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑂𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100%
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛
The following example illustrates a multistep solution using efficiency
as part of the solution technique
Material Balances
Material balances are fundamental tools in environmental engineering
for analyzing the behavior of pollutants in natural and engineered
systems
They help determine the fate and transport of materials (mass) within a
system and are particularly useful in the study of water and wastewater
treatment, pollution control, and resource management
Material balances can be applied to various types of systems, such as
steady-state conservative systems and steady-state systems with non-
conservative pollutants
Steady-State Conservative Systems
A steady-state conservative system refers to a system where the mass of
substances remains constant over time, and no reactions alter the
substance within the system
The term "conservative" means that the material (e.g., a pollutant) is not
undergoing any chemical or biological transformation; it only moves
through the system without being created or destroyed
Steady-State Conservative Systems
Key Concepts:
• Steady-State: The system’s properties, such as mass and concentration,
do not change over time. Input and output rates are equal
Conservative: The substance being analyzed (e.g., a pollutant) does not
undergo any reaction or transformation in the system
 Steady-State Conservative Systems

Consider a river receiving a pollutant discharge at steady-state where the pollutant is

conservative (e.g., a salt):
• Input: The mass of pollutants entering the system from a discharge point
• Output: The mass of pollutants leaving the system downstream
If no chemical or biological processes remove or transform the pollutant, the mass of the
pollutant leaving the system will equal the mass entering it
Steady-State Systems with Non-Conservative Pollutants

A steady-state system with non-conservative pollutants differs from

conservative systems in that the substance being analyzed is subject to
physical, chemical, or biological processes that transform it within the
system
In other words, non-conservative pollutants undergo reactions (e.g.,
degradation, decay, or production) as they move through the system
Steady-State Systems with Non-Conservative Pollutants

Key Concepts:
• Non-Conservative Pollutants: Pollutants that undergo transformation
(e.g., decomposition, volatilization, chemical reactions) within the
system
• Steady-State: The system's properties are constant over time, even
though reactions may be occurring
• Reaction Term: A term must be added to the material balance
equation to account for the generation or loss of the pollutant due to
reactions
Steady-State Systems with Non-Conservative Pollutants
Steady-State Systems with Non-Conservative Pollutants
Consider a wastewater treatment plant operating at steady-state where a
non-conservative pollutant, such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), is
being degraded by bacteria:
• Input: The mass of BOD entering the system through the wastewater
influent
• Output: The mass of BOD leaving the system in the treated effluent
• Loss: The BOD is consumed by microbial activity in the treatment process
(e.g., through biodegradation)
• Generation: There may be negligible generation of BOD in this case, but if
microbial growth or decay produces other by-products, they would be
accounted for
The balanced equation for BOD would consider the biodegradation rate,
which reduces the concentration of BOD in the system
Steady-State Systems with Non-Conservative Pollutants
Steady-State Systems with Non-Conservative Pollutants
Steady-State Systems with Non-Conservative Pollutants
Material Balances
Material balances are key in understanding how mass (and pollutants)
behave in environmental systems
In steady-state conservative systems, the mass of a substance remains
unchanged as it flows through the system, whereas in steady-state
systems with non-conservative pollutants, reactions alter the mass,
requiring additional terms to account for generation and loss
These balances are essential in designing and managing environmental
systems such as rivers, lakes, treatment plants, and industrial
processes.
Step Function Response
A step function response is an important concept in analyzing dynamic
systems, especially in the context of process control, chemical
reactions, and environmental systems
The step input refers to a sudden change in a system's input, and the
response describes how the system evolves over time following this
change
a) Step Function
A step function is a mathematical function that shifts from one
constant value to another abruptly
In practical terms, a step input in a process could represent an abrupt
change in temperature, concentration, pressure, or flow rate
A common example is a Heaviside step function, which is defined as:
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0
𝓊 𝑡 =ቊ
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≥ 1
When applied to a dynamic system, this step function initiates the
system’s time-dependent response, which can be analyzed to
determine its characteristics, such as stability, response time, and
steady-state behavior
b) Response of Systems to a Step Input
When a step input is applied, the system’s response over time can be
modeled using differential equations
 b) Response of Systems to a Step Input
There are different types of responses based
on the system’s dynamics:
First-Order System Response:
A first-order system responds to a step input
with an exponential change toward a new
equilibrium value
This is common in systems involving mass or
heat transfer, where the rate of change
depends on a single variable (e.g.,
concentration or temperature)
The response is characterized by:
Time constant (τ): The system approaches its steady-state value exponentially, and the
time constant determines how fast the system responds
A larger τ means a slower response, while a smaller τ means a faster response
b) Response of Systems to a Step Input
There are different types of responses based on the system’s dynamics:
Second-Order System Response:
In a second-order system, the response to a step input can include oscillations or
damped behavior
Second-order system responses occur when the system dynamics are influenced
by two interacting factors, often resulting in oscillatory or damped responses
before reaching a steady state
These systems are governed by second-order differential equations and are
common in processes where multiple mechanisms, like biological and chemical
interactions, control the system’s performance
Applications of Step Function Response
Understanding the step function response is crucial in designing
reactors or control systems where sudden changes in temperature,
pressure, or reactant concentrations can affect the process efficiency
The step response is used in modeling pollutant dispersion in water
bodies or the atmosphere, where a sudden release of a contaminant
can cause a time-varying concentration profile
 Application 1: Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Interaction in Aeration Tanks
Process
In an activated sludge system, microorganisms consume organic pollutants (measured as BOD), reducing
the tank's dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration
To maintain optimal conditions, oxygen must be supplied, often through aeration
Second-Order Response
The interaction between BOD consumption and DO replenishment can create a second-order system
When oxygen is added, the DO level might initially overshoot (exceed the target level) before stabilizing
This oscillatory behavior occurs because of the lag between oxygen demand (BOD) and oxygen supply
(aeration)
Response Characteristics
If the system is underdamped, DO levels oscillate before reaching a steady-state concentration
Proper control of aeration minimizes these oscillations and achieves a stable DO level
 Application 2: Chemical Dosing Control in Coagulation-
Flocculation Processes
Process
In coagulation and flocculation, alum or ferric chloride is added to water to aggregate suspended
particles
The chemical dosing system must respond to fluctuations in influent turbidity or particle load
Second-Order Response
If the dosing rate is adjusted based on real-time turbidity readings, it can create a second-order response
An abrupt change in dosing to adapt to a spike in turbidity might initially overshoot the required dose,
resulting in overdosing, which then needs correction
Response Characteristics
This system may experience oscillations in the turbidity level (underdamped response) as the system
seeks balance between particle load and dosing rate, especially when using feedback-controlled dosing
systems
 Energy Fundamentals and Energy Balances

Energy is a fundamental concept in all engineering disciplines. Energy balances are

used to understand the transfer, transformation, and conservation of energy within a
system, and they form the foundation for analyzing processes such as heating, cooling,
reaction kinetics, and power generation
First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that (without nuclear reaction)
energy can be neither created nor destroyed
As with the law of conservation of matter, it does not mean that the
form of the energy does not change
For example, the chemical energy in coal can be changed to heat and
electrical power
Energy is defined as the capacity to do useful work. Work is done by a
force acting on a body through a distance
First Law of Thermodynamics
One joule (J) is the work done by a constant force of one newton when the
body on which the force is exerted moves a distance of one meter in the
direction of the force
Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of expanding energy
The first law may be expressed as:
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑊
QH= Heat absorbed, kJ
U1, U2= Internal energy (or thermal energy) of the system in state 1 & 2, kJ
W= Work, kJ
Energy Fundamentals
Energy has many forms, among which are thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electrical, and chemical
Thermal units were invented when heat was considered a substance
(caloric), and the units are consistent with the conservation of a quantity of
substance
Subsequently, we have learned that energy is not a substance but
mechanical energy of a particular form
One calorie (cal) is the energy required to raise the temperature of ig of
water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C
In SI units 4.186 J = 1 cal
Energy Fundamentals
The specific heat of a substance is the quantity of heat required to
increase a unit mass of the substance by one degree
Enthalpy (H) is a thermodynamic property of a material that depends
on temperature, pressure, and the composition of the material
Historically, H has been referred to as a system’s “heat content”
Because heat is correctly defined only in terms of energy transfer
across a boundary, this is not considered a precise thermodynamic
description, and enthalpy is the preferred term
Energy Fundamentals
When a substance changes phase, energy is absorbed or released
without a change in temperature
The energy required to cause a phase change of a unit mass from a
solid to a liquid at constant pressure is called the latent heat of fusion
or enthalpy of Fusion
The energy required to cause a phase change of a unit mass from a
liquid to a gas at constant pressure is called the latent heat of
vaporization or enthalpy of vaporization
Energy Balance
If we say that the first law of thermodynamics is analogous to the law
of conservation of matter, then energy is analogous to matter because
it too can be “balanced
The simplest form of the energy balance equation is:

𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

Energy Balance
For an open system, a more complete energy balance equation is:

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

= 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
− 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
± 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Energy Balance
For many environmental systems, the time dependence of the change
in energy (i.e., the rate of energy change) must be considered
The above equation may be written to account for time dependence as
follows:
𝑑𝐻 𝑑(𝐻)𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑(𝐻)𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑(𝐻)𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
= ± ±
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Energy Balance
If we consider a region of space where a fluid flows in at a rate of
dM/dt and flows out at a rate of dM/dt, then the change in enthalpy
due to this flow is:
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑀
= 𝑐𝑝 𝑀 + 𝑐𝑝 𝑇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where dM/dt is the mass flow rate (e.g., in kg/s) and ΔT is the
difference in temperature of the mass in the system and the mass
outside of the system
Energy Balance
Note that the above equations differ from the mass balance equation
in that there is an additional term: “energy flow”
This is an important difference for everything from photosynthesis (in
which radiative energy from the sun is converted into plant material) to
heat exchangers (in which chemical energy from fuel passes through
the walls of the tubes of the heat exchanger to heat a fluid inside)
The energy flow into (or out of) the system may be by conduction,
convection, or radiation
Overall Heat Transfer
Most practical heat transfer problems involve multiple heat transfer modes
For these cases, it is convenient to use an overall heat transfer coefficient
that incorporates multiple modes
The form of the heat transfer equation then becomes

𝑑𝐻
= ℎ0 𝐴(∆𝑇)
𝑑𝑡
H0= overall heat transfer coefficient, kJ/s.m2.K
A= surface area of the body, m2
∆T= temperature difference that drives the heat transfer, K
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that energy flows from a
region of
higher concentration to one of lesser concentration, not the reverse,
and that the quality degrades as it is transformed
All natural, spontaneous processes may be studied in the light of the
second law, and a particular one-sidedness is found in all such cases
Thus, heat always flows spontaneously from a hotter body to a colder
one; gases seep through an opening spontaneously from a region of
higher pressure to a region of lower pressure
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law recognizes that order becomes disorder, that
randomness increases, and that structure and concentrations tend to
disappear
It foretells the elimination of gradients, equalization of electrical and
chemical potential, and leveling of contrasts in heat and molecular
motion unless work is done to prevent it
Thus, gases and liquids left by themselves tend to mix, not to unmix;
rocks, weather and crumble; iron rusts
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The degradation of energy as it is transformed means that enthalpy is wasted in the
transformation
The fractional part of the heat which is wasted is termed unavailable energy
A mathematical expression called the change in entropy is used to express this unavailable
energy:
𝑇2
∆𝑠 = 𝑀𝑐𝑝 𝑙𝑛
𝑇1
∆s= change in entropy
M= mass
Cp= specific heat at constant pressure
T1, T2= initial and final absolute temperature
ln= natural logarithm
Second Law of Thermodynamics
By the second law, entropy increases in any energy transformation from
a region of higher concentration to a lesser one
The higher the degree of disorder, the higher the entropy
Degraded energy is entropy, dissipated as waste products and heat
Efficiency (η) or, perhaps, lack of efficiency is another expression of the
second law
Mathematics of Growth
Understanding how quantities change over time is crucial in
environmental engineering
Growth processes, whether related to population dynamics, resource
consumption, or pollutant concentration, often follow mathematical
models such as exponential growth
Important concepts like doubling time, half-life, resource consumption,
and exponential resource production rates are key to analyzing and
predicting system behaviors
 Exponential Growth
Exponential growth describes a process where the rate of
change of a quantity is proportional to the amount already
present
It is commonly seen in population growth, microbial
proliferation, and pollutant accumulation, where the growth
accelerates over time
The quantity grows faster over time, leading to a J-shaped
curve when graphed
The rate of growth increases as the quantity increases because
the rate is proportional to the current amount
Exponential growth can quickly lead to unsustainable increases
in quantities, such as resource use or pollutant levels
Exponential Growth
Examples:
• Population Growth: If a population grows at a constant
rate (e.g., 2% per year), the population size will follow
an exponential pattern
• Microbial Growth: Bacteria in a nutrient-rich
environment typically grow exponentially until they
encounter limiting factors such as nutrient depletion
Doubling Time
Doubling time is the time it takes for a quantity to double in size under
exponential growth
It is a useful measure in population studies, resource use, and financial
investments
A higher growth rate results in a shorter doubling time, meaning the
quantity will double more quickly
Doubling time helps illustrate how rapidly an exponentially growing
quantity can increase
Half-Life
Half-life is the time it takes for a quantity to decrease to half its initial
value
This concept is often used in radioactive decay, pollutant degradation,
and pharmacokinetics, where the concentration of a substance
decreases exponentially over time
A higher decay rate results in a shorter half-life, meaning the quantity
will decrease faster
Half-life is a critical measure for understanding how long a contaminant
or substance will persist in the environment
Resource Consumption
In environmental engineering and sustainability studies, resource
consumption refers to the rate at which natural resources are used
Growing exponentially, the consumption rate can lead to resource depletion
and environmental degradation
If the consumption of a resource follows exponential growth, the quantity of
the resource consumed over time can be modeled similarly to population
growth
Exponential resource consumption often leads to sustainability concerns since
many natural resources are finite
Doubling time can be used to predict when resource use will double, leading
to rapid depletion if consumption continues unchecked
Resource Consumption
In some cases, the production of resources can also grow exponentially,
especially in early stages of development for renewable energy
technologies (e.g., solar or wind energy), or when new resource
extraction techniques (e.g., hydraulic fracturing) increase the production
rate of previously difficult-to-access resources
Exponentially growing production rates can help meet increasing
demand, but unsustainable extraction practices can lead to
environmental harm
For renewable resources (e.g., solar energy), exponential production
growth is desirable as it reduces dependency on finite resources
Whether it involves populations, resource consumption, or pollutant decay, the
mathematics of growth is essential for understanding how systems evolve over
time

Exponential growth leads to rapid increases in quantities and is

characterized by doubling times for growth or half-lives for decay

In environmental and sustainability studies, exponential models provide

important insights into resource consumption and production dynamics,
helping to predict future trends and plan for sustainable resource
management
Safety and Environmental
Risk Assessment and
Management
Risk
Assessment
Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is a critical process in identifying, evaluating, and
prioritizing pollution risks to the environment, public health, and
ecosystems.
It provides a structured approach to understanding the potential
hazards of pollution and the extent of their impacts
Steps in Pollution Risk
Assessment
Step-1: Hazard Identification
Determine the pollutants in a particular setting (e.g., air, water, soil)
and their sources (e.g., industrial emissions, agricultural runoff, waste
disposal)
Identify the potential hazards to human health and ecosystems, such
as toxic chemicals, heavy metals, greenhouse gases, etc
Step-2: Exposure Assessment
Evaluate how people, animals, and ecosystems are exposed to the
identified pollutants
This can be through inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, or
bioaccumulation in food chains
Consider exposure pathways (e.g., air quality, drinking water,
contaminated soil) and potential receptors (e.g., local populations,
wildlife, plant life)
Step-3: Dose-Response Assessment
Determine the relationship between the dose of the pollutant and the
severity of its effects on health or the environment
This involves understanding the toxicity or harmful effects of the
pollutant at different exposure levels
Step-4: Risk Characterization
Combine data from hazard identification, exposure, and dose-response
assessments to characterize the overall pollution risk
Estimate the likelihood and severity of adverse effects, such as
respiratory diseases, ecosystem degradation, water contamination, etc
Risk Reduction Strategies
Once risks have been identified and assessed, the next step is to
develop and implement strategies to reduce or mitigate pollution risks
Strategy-1: Pollution Prevention
Prevent pollution at the source by minimizing the generation of waste
and emissions (e.g., using cleaner production processes, substituting
hazardous materials with eco-friendly alternatives, or improving
resource efficiency)
Implement technologies that produce fewer emissions and waste. This
can involve adopting renewable energy sources (e.g., solar, wind),
improving energy efficiency, and investing in green manufacturing
techniques
Reduce waste through reusing, recycling, or repurposing materials. This
also reduces the risk of pollution from waste disposal
Strategy-2: Emission Control
Install systems like scrubbers, filters, or electrostatic precipitators to
reduce emissions of harmful gases (e.g., sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides)
and particulate matter
Implement advanced water treatment technologies (e.g.,
sedimentation, filtration, chemical treatments) to remove pollutants
before discharging water into the environment
Proper disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous waste (e.g.,
landfilling, incineration with air pollution control, and composting)
Strategy-3: Environmental Monitoring
Set up systems to continuously monitor pollutant levels in air, water,
and soil. Early detection of pollution spikes enables timely intervention
Conduct regular environmental audits to assess compliance with
regulations and the effectiveness of risk reduction strategies
Strategy-4: Regulatory Compliance and
Standards
Ensure that industrial activities comply with national and international
pollution control standards (e.g., air quality standards, permissible
limits for effluents, emissions)
Obtain the necessary environmental permits to operate, which require
adhering to specific pollution control measures
Follow best industry practices and acquire certifications (e.g., ISO
14001) to ensure sustainable environmental management
Strategy-5: Public Awareness and
Education
Educate the public, particularly communities living near pollution
sources, about pollution risks and how they can minimize their
exposure
Develop emergency response plans and protocols for accidental
pollution events (e.g., sewage overflow, leaks), ensuring preparedness
to mitigate immediate risks
Strategy-6: Sustainable Urban and
Industrial Planning
Implement zoning laws that separate industrial zones from residential
areas, reducing direct human exposure to industrial pollutants
Encourage the development of green spaces, urban forests, and
sustainable transportation systems to reduce air pollution and improve
overall environmental quality
Risk Assessment and Risk Reduction Strategies

Risk assessment provides the foundation for understanding the

scale and severity of pollution hazards, while risk reduction
strategies focus on preventive, control, and mitigation actions to
minimize pollution risks to the environment and human health
Environmental Engineering
Technologies
Water Quality Parameters
and Their Determination
 Water
Quality
Parameters
 Water Treatment

Water treatment is the process of removing impurities from freshwater or

wastewater to make it safe for use/reuse or discharge into the environment
It involves a series of physical, chemical, and biological processes designed to
remove contaminants from water
Potable Water Treatment

Potable water is water suitable for drinking purposes

Potable water treatment is the process of treating raw water from various sources
to make it safe and suitable for human consumption
Potable Water Treatment

Raw water is the water which has received no treatment or water entering a
treatment plant for treatment or further treatment
The process of potable water treatment involves several physical, chemical, and
biological treatments to remove contaminants and ensure the water meets health
and safety standards
Sources of Raw Water

Surface Water
Includes water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs
It often requires more extensive treatment due to potential contamination from
various sources
Groundwater
Derived from wells and underground aquifers, groundwater is generally of higher
quality and may require less treatment
 Potable water treatment consists of the following stages:
Conventional
• Abstraction
Treatment of Potable • Screening
Water • Coagulation and flocculation
• Sedimentation
• Filtration
• Disinfection
Water Abstraction and Screening

Water abstraction refers to the process of extracting water from

natural sources such as rivers, lakes, groundwater, or reservoirs for
various purposes
 Water Abstraction and Screening
Components of Water Abstraction
A. Intake Structures
Designed to capture water from the source and direct it towards treatment facilities.
B. Screens and Filters
Remove debris, sediment, and larger particles from the incoming water to protect
downstream treatment equipment
C. Pumping Stations
Utilized to transport water from the source to treatment plants
 Water Abstraction and Screening

Components of Water Abstraction

D. Pipelines
Convey water over long distances to treatment facilities
E. Control Valves
Regulate the flow of water and maintain desired pressure level
F. Storage Tanks or Reservoirs
Store water to ensure a consistent supply during peak demand periods
 Water Abstraction and Screening

Types of Water Abstraction Structures

A. River Abstraction
Commonly involves the construction of riverbank intakes, screens, and
pumping stations
B. Lake Abstraction
Utilizes floating intakes, submerged screens, and underwater pumps
 Water Abstraction and Screening

Types of Water Abstraction Structures

C. Groundwater Abstraction
Involves wells and boreholes, requiring appropriate drilling equipment
D. Reservoir Abstraction
Typically relies on dam structures and reservoir outlets.
 Adherence to permits and regulations related to water
abstraction, environmental protection, and water quality is
mandatory
 Coagulation and flocculation stage is used to remove suspended
Coagulation and particles, colloids, and impurities from raw water
Flocculation These processes involve the use of chemicals and physical mixing
to aggregate and settle particles, making them easier to remove
 Coagulation

Coagulation is the process of destabilizing suspended particles in water by

adding coagulants, which neutralize the electrical charges on particles,
allowing them to come together (coagulate) and form larger aggregates called
flocs
Common coagulants include aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric chloride, and
polyaluminum chloride (PAC)
The choice of coagulant depends on water quality and treatment objectives
Coagulants are nontoxic at the working dosage
 Coagulation Mechanism

Coagulants introduce positive charges into the water

These positive charges neutralize the negative charges on suspended particles
Neutralized particles collide and bond together, forming flocs
 Coagulant Dosage

Coagulant dosage is determined based on the jar test, which involves varying
doses of coagulant in small-scale tests to find the optimal dosage for a specific
water source
Dosage is usually expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/L) of coagulant added
 Flocculation

Flocculation is the process of gently mixing the coagulated water to promote

the growth of flocs, making them larger and denser for easier settling
Flocculants create bridges between flocs, further enhancing their aggregation
Gentle mixing in a flocculation tank ensures that flocs collide and attach to
each other, forming larger, heavier flocs that settle easily
Sedimentation

Sedimentation is a crucial physical process in water treatment that

involves the settling of suspended particles and impurities from water
under the influence of gravity
This process is essential for the removal of larger particles, including
sand, silt, and flocs formed during coagulation and flocculation
Importance of Sedimentation

Sedimentation removes solid particles, colloids, and flocs that may still
be suspended in water after coagulation and flocculation
It improves water clarity, making it aesthetically pleasing and suitable
for further treatment processes or direct consumption
Sedimentation also aids in the removal of some pathogenic
microorganisms, as they can attach to and settle with suspended
particles
Filtration

Filtration involves the removal of suspended particles, colloids,

microorganisms, and other impurities from water by passing it through
a porous medium
This process is essential for producing clean and safe drinking water
Filtration

Filtration effectively removes suspended solids, turbidity, and

microorganisms from water, improving its clarity and quality
It is a vital step for the removal of bacteria, protozoa, and other
pathogens
It also help remove residual coagulants, organic matter, and dissolved
chemicals
Disinfection

Disinfection a critical step in the water treatment process aimed at

destroying or inactivating harmful microorganisms and pathogens to
make the water safe for consumption
Common disinfection methods include chlorination, UV (ultraviolet)
radiation, and ozonation
Disinfection

Disinfection prevents the spread of waterborne diseases by eliminating

harmful microorganisms
It safeguards public health by ensuring the safety of drinking water,
reducing the risk of epidemics
Disinfection also improves water aesthetics by reducing taste and odor
issues caused by microbial contamination and activity
Challenges and Considerations in Water Treatment

Source Water Quality

The quality of the source water can vary greatly, affecting the
treatment process and costs
Contaminant Removal
Some contaminants, like emerging pollutants and certain pathogens,
may require specialized treatment
Challenges and Considerations in Water Treatment

Energy Consumption
Some treatment processes can be energy-intensive, so energy-efficient
technologies are important
Resilience
Ensuring the resilience of the treatment and distribution systems to
natural disasters, climate change, and other disruptions is essential
Regulatory Compliance
Meeting and maintaining compliance with water quality regulations is
critical for ensuring public health and safety
Conventional Wastewater Treatment

Conventional wastewater treatment is a vital process used to remove

impurities and pollutants from wastewater
The primary objective of this process is to protect public health, ensure
the safety of water bodies and recover resources
Conventional Wastewater Treatment

1. Preliminary Treatment
2. Primary Treatment
3. Secondary Treatment
4. Tertiary Treatment
5. Effluent Discharge
6. Sewage Sludge Treatment
Preliminary Treatment

Screening
This step involves removing large objects and debris, such as sticks,
leaves, and plastics, from the wastewater
Screening prevents damage to downstream equipment and pumps
Preliminary Treatment

Screening
Screens require regular maintenance to prevent clogging and ensure
efficient operation
Debris accumulated on the screen surface is removed manually or
mechanically
Automated raking systems or spray systems are also used to clean
screens
Preliminary Treatment

Screening
Collected screenings contain organic and inorganic materials
Screenings may be dewatered, compacted, and landfilled or
incinerated, depending on local regulations and practices
Preliminary Treatment

Screening
Proper screening helps protect aquatic ecosystems by preventing the
release of harmful debris into natural water bodies
It also minimizes the risk of pollution and damage to downstream
treatment processes
 In summary, the screening stage of wastewater treatment plays a
crucial role in removing large solid objects and debris from the influent
This process ensures the protection of downstream equipment,
prevents blockages, and contributes to the overall effectiveness of
wastewater treatment plants
Proper design, maintenance, and disposal of screenings are essential
for efficient and environmentally responsible wastewater treatment
Preliminary Treatment

Grit Removal
Grit and sand are settled out from the wastewater through grit chambers
Grit removal involves the separation and removal of abrasive and heavy
inorganic materials (grit) from the wastewater influent
Grit can cause damage to downstream equipment, such as pumps, pipes,
and treatment processes
Preliminary Treatment

Grit Removal
Collected grit is dewatered, dried, and landfilled
Some treatment plants may treat grit to recover valuable materials or to
reduce its environmental impact
Primary Treatment

Sedimentation
Sedimentation is used to separate suspended solids from wastewater
It is a physical process that relies on gravity to settle particles in the
wastewater
Primary Treatment

Sedimentation
The primary purpose of sedimentation is to separate suspended solids
(such as particles, colloids, and flocs) from the liquid phase of wastewater
It removes settleable particles that may include organic matter, minerals,
and biological solids
Sedimentation also clarifies the water, reducing turbidity and improving its
overall quality
Primary Treatment

Sedimentation
Sedimentation basins, also known as clarifiers or settling tanks, are of
various designs, including rectangular and circular configurations
Factors like flow rate, particle size, and desired effluent quality influence
basin design
Primary Treatment

Sedimentation
Wastewater enters the sedimentation basin and is allowed to flow at a
controlled rate
As the flow slows down in the basin, gravity causes suspended solids to
settle to the bottom
Settled solids form a sludge layer, while clarified water rises to the top
Primary Treatment

Types of Sedimentation
1. Primary Sedimentation
This occurs early in the treatment process, immediately after preliminary
treatment. It mainly removes settleable solids and some organic matter
2. Secondary Sedimentation
In secondary treatment, activated sludge or biological flocs settle after
biological treatment, further improving effluent quality
Primary Treatment

Sedimentation

The efficiency of sedimentation depends on detention time, flow velocity,

particle size, and basin design
Smaller particles and colloids settle more slowly and may require longer
detention times or coagulants for enhanced removal
Primary Treatment

Sedimentation

The sludge that settles at the bottom of the basin is periodically collected
using scraper mechanisms or suction devices
Collected sludge is sent for further treatment or disposal
Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment is a crucial stage in wastewater treatment

Its focus is the removal of dissolved and colloidal organic matter, and
suspended solids, that remain after primary treatment
Secondary treatment is designed to further reduce the pollutant load and
improve the quality of the effluent
Secondary Treatment

The goal of secondary treatment is to biologically decompose and remove

organic pollutants that are still present after primary treatment
Secondary treatment can also help reduce nutrient levels, particularly
nitrogen and phosphorus, through biological processes
Some secondary treatment processes can reduce the concentration of
pathogens
Secondary Treatment

Biological Treatment Processes

1. Activated Sludge Process
2. Trickling Filters
3. Rotating Biological Contactors
Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process is a widely used biological wastewater

treatment method designed to remove organic matter, suspended
solids, and nutrients from wastewater
It involves the use of microorganisms to break down organic pollutants
in an aerated tank
Key Components of the Activated Sludge Process

Aeration Tank
The heart of the process, where wastewater is mixed with a large
population of microorganisms (activated sludge) in the presence of
oxygen
Clarifier or Secondary Sedimentation Basin
After aeration, wastewater flows to a clarifier where settled sludge is
separated from the treated water
Key Components of the Activated Sludge Process

Returned Activated Sludge (RAS)

A portion of the settled activated sludge is returned to the aeration
tank to maintain a high concentration of active microorganisms
Waste Activated Sludge (WAS)
Excess activated sludge, which contains both microbes and organic
matter, is removed from the system and subjected to further treatment
or disposal
Key Components of the Activated Sludge Process
 The Activated Sludge Process Steps

Influent Wastewater
Wastewater enters the aeration tank, where
it mixes with the activated sludge
Aeration
Air or oxygen is continuously introduced into
the tank to provide the necessary oxygen for
the aerobic microorganisms
 The Activated Sludge Process Steps

Microbial Decomposition
Microorganisms in the activated sludge feed
on the organic matter, breaking it down into
simpler substances, primarily carbon dioxide
and water
Clarification
Treated wastewater flows into the clarifier,
where solids settle out
The clarified water at the top is discharged,
while settled sludge is returned to the
aeration tank
 The Activated Sludge Process Steps

Sludge Handling
Excess activated sludge is periodically
removed and sent for further treatment or
disposal
Trickling Filters

Trickling filters are a biological wastewater treatment technology used

for the removal of organic matter, suspended solids, and ammonia
from wastewater
They are an established and efficient method for biological treatment
and are often used as part of a wastewater treatment plant
Components of a Trickling Filter
Media Bed
The filter consists of a bed of solid media,
often made of rocks, plastic, or other inert
materials
These provide a surface for microbial
growth and attachment
Distribution System
Wastewater is evenly distributed over the
top of the media, typically through a
rotating distributor arm or a fixed
distribution system
Components of a Trickling Filter

Microbial Growth
Microorganisms, mainly bacteria,
grow on the media surface and
form a slimy biofilm called the
"periphyton"
The Trickling Filter Process

Wastewater flows over the media surface,

and microbial activity in the biofilm
breaks down organic matter
Oxygen is supplied through the airspaces
in the media, allowing for aerobic
biological treatment
The treated effluent percolates through
the media and flows into an underdrain
system
Tertiary Treatment

Tertiary wastewater treatment is the final stage in the wastewater

treatment process and focuses on further improving the quality of
treated wastewater (effluent) to meet specific water quality standards
or to make it suitable for various reuse options
This stage involves advanced treatment processes that go beyond the
primary and secondary treatment phases
Tertiary Treatment

Filtration
Tertiary treatment may be employed for further polishing of the
effluent
This step involves the use of sand or multimedia filters to remove any
remaining suspended solids and fine particles
Tertiary Treatment

Chemical Treatment
Chemical coagulants or flocculants may be added to facilitate the
removal of remaining impurities
This process is especially important when the effluent needs to meet
stringent water quality standards
Tertiary Treatment

Disinfection
The wastewater is disinfected to kill harmful pathogens (bacteria,
viruses, etc.) before being discharged into the receiving water body
Common disinfection methods include chlorination, UV (ultraviolet)
radiation, or ozone treatment
Effluent Discharge

The treated wastewater, now referred to as effluent, is discharged into

receiving water bodies or reused for non-potable purposes such as
irrigation or industrial processes
Sewage Sludge Treatment

The sludge collected during primary and secondary treatment

processes needs to be treated and disposed of properly
Common methods include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and
dewatering to reduce volume and stabilize the sludge
Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems

Decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) are on-site or

small-scale wastewater treatment solutions that provide a localized
approach to sewage and wastewater treatment
These systems are employed in areas where centralized sewage
infrastructure is not available or practical
Summary of Wastewater Treatment Technologies

1. Conventional WWTS 8. Waste Stabilization Ponds

2. Septic Tanks 9. Anaerobic Baffled Reactors (ABR)

3. Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs) 10. Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)

4. Constructed Wetlands 11. Expanded Granular Sludge Beds (EGSB)

5. Sand Filters 12. Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors (amMBRs)

6. Pit Latrines 13. Bioelectrical Systems

7. Composting Toilets 14. Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation (Anammox)

Types and Categories of Waste
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
Sources of Municipal Solid Waste
Sources of Municipal Solid Waste
Institutional
(Health care & Academia)

Commercial Residential
(Areas of business) MSW (Households)

Municipal services
(Road sweeping, public
space cleaning)
Integrated Waste Management

Integrated waste management is a comprehensive approach to

managing waste
It involves a range of strategies and techniques to reduce waste
generation, promote recycling and reuse, and safely dispose of waste
that cannot be recycled or reused
The goal of integrated waste management is to minimize the
environmental impacts of waste, while also recovering valuable
resources, conserving resources and reducing costs
Components of Integrated Waste Management

The key components of integrated waste management include:

• Source Reduction
• Reuse
• Recycling
• Energy & Nutrient Recovery
• Disposal
Components of Integrated Waste Management

Source Reduction:
This involves reducing the amount of waste generated in the first place
by using alternative methods, materials or production processes, or by
encouraging behaviours that result in less waste.
Components of Integrated Waste Management

Recycling and Composting:

This involves diverting waste from disposal sites by recycling materials
such as paper, plastics, glass, and metals, and composting organic
waste such as food and yard waste
Components of Integrated Waste Management

Energy Recovery:
This involves converting waste into energy through technologies such
as anaerobic digestion, waste-to-energy technologies, or landfill gas
recovery
Components of Integrated Waste Management

Disposal:
This involves disposing of waste that cannot be recycled or reused in a
manner that meets regulatory requirements and minimizes risks to
human health and the environment.
Integrated Waste Management

Integrated waste management typically involves collaboration among

stakeholders, including government agencies, private industry, and the
community
Successful integrated waste management programs require careful
planning, coordination, and monitoring to ensure that all components of
the waste management system are working together effectively
Overall, integrated waste management is an effective approach to
managing waste that can help to reduce environmental impacts, recover
resources, conserve resources, and improve the sustainability of
communities and businesses
AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution refers to the presence of harmful substances in the

atmosphere that can negatively affect humans and the environment
The major air pollutants of concern include:
• PM
• Aerosols
• NOx
• SOx
• VOCs
• Smog
Pollutants originate from both natural and anthropogenic sources
Major Air Pollutants
a) Particulate Matter (PM)
• PM10 (particles with a diameter of ≤10µm)
• PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of ≤ 2.5µm)
b) Aerosols
Tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere
c) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
A group of gases composed of nitrogen and oxygen (e.g., NO₂ and
NO)
Major Air Pollutants
d) Sulfur Oxides (SOx)
A group of compounds, including SO₂ and SO₃
e) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Organic chemicals that evaporate easily at room temperature
f) Photochemical Smog
A combination of smoke and fog, primarily consisting of ground-
level O₃ and PM, formed through photochemical reactions in the
atmosphere
Major air pollutants, sources, and fate in the environment
Pollutant Source Fate in Environment Impact
Particulate Matter (PM) Volcanoes, dust storms, PM can be transported • Reduce visibility
• PM10 (particles of forest fires, combustion over long distances by • Cause respiratory
≤10µm) of fossil fuels, wind and settle out of problems
construction activities, the atmosphere through • It can also settle on
• PM2.5 (particles of ≤
agricultural practices, wet deposition (rain) or water bodies, soil, and
2.5µm)
and residential heating dry deposition vegetation, impacting
(gravitational settling) ecosystems
Aerosols Volcanic eruptions, Aerosols can scatter and • Aerosols contribute to
Tiny particles suspended desert dust, and biogenic absorb solar radiation, climate change by
in the atmosphere emissions (such as influencing the Earth’s either cooling (e.g.,
organic compounds from radiation balance sulfate aerosols) or
plants), industrial They can also act as warming (e.g., black
emissions, vehicle cloud condensation carbon) the
exhaust, and burning of nuclei, affecting cloud atmosphere
biomass formation and • They also affect air
precipitation patterns quality and human
health
Major air pollutants, sources, and fate in the environment
Pollutant Source Fate in Environment Impact
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Wildfires, microbial NOx can react with other • Acidification of soils
A group of gases processes in soils, and compounds to form and water bodies
composed of nitrogen combustion of fossil fuels secondary pollutants • Eutrophication of
and oxygen (e.g., NO₂ NO₂ can undergo water bodies
and NO) photolysis, releasing • Formation of ground-
oxygen atoms that level ozone
participate in ozone
formation
Sulfur Oxides (SOx) Volcanic eruptions, SO₂ can react with water • Acidification of soils
A group of compounds, combustion of fossil vapor in the atmosphere and water bodies
including SO₂ and SO₃ fuels, and petroleum to form sulfuric acid • SOx emissions also
refining It can also react to form contribute to the
sulfate aerosols formation of
particulate matter and
visibility reduction
Major air pollutants, sources, and fate in the environment
Pollutant Source Fate in Environment Impact
Volatile Organic Vegetation, wildfires, VOCs undergo • Formation of ground-
Compounds (VOCs) industrial processes (e.g., photochemical reactions level ozone and
Organic chemicals that chemical manufacturing, to form ozone and other secondary organic
evaporate easily at room paint production), use of secondary pollutants aerosols, both of which
temperature solvents, and combustion They also participate in are harmful to human
of fossil fuels the formation of aerosols health.
• VOCs are also
precursors to smog
formation
Photochemical Smog Formed through a Smog forms through • Reduces air quality,
A combination of smoke combination of pollutants photochemical reactions leading to health
and fog, primarily such as VOCs and NOx, involving NOx and VOCs, problems
consisting of ground-level which undergo particularly on sunny days • Ground-level ozone
O₃ and PM photochemical reactions with stagnant air masses. damages crops, forests,
to form ground-level It can persist in urban and materials like
ozone. It is exacerbated by areas with high levels of rubber and plastics
fossil fuel combustion vehicle emissions and
industrial activity
 Primary and Secondary Air Pollution
Air pollution can be classified into two main categories based on the
pollutants' origin:
• Primary
• Secondary
Understanding the difference between these two types helps in analyzing
the sources and formation mechanisms of air pollutants and devising
control strategies
 Primary Air Pollution
Primary pollutants are directly emitted into the atmosphere from identifiable
sources
These pollutants retain their chemical structure and do not undergo significant
transformation once released
Examples include:
• PM
• NOx
• SOx
• COX
• VOC
• Heavy metals
 Secondary Air Pollution
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly but are formed in the
atmosphere through chemical reactions between primary pollutants and
other atmospheric components (e.g., oxygen, water vapor, and sunlight)
These reactions are typically photochemical reactions, forming more
harmful substances
 Examples of Secondary Pollutants

Ground-Level Ozone
Formed through a series of
photochemical reactions
involving NOx and VOCs
 Examples of Secondary Pollutants

Photochemical Smog
A complex mixture of pollutants, primarily ozone, NOx, VOCs, and
particulate matter
Smog forms during sunny conditions with high emissions of primary
pollutants
 Examples of Secondary Pollutants

H₂SO₄ and Sulfate Particles

Formed through the oxidation of SO₂ in the
atmosphere, leading to acid rain and
secondary particulate matter
 Examples of Secondary Pollutants
HNO₃
Formed from the reaction of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) with hydroxyl radicals
(OH)
 Examples of Secondary Pollutants
Secondary PM
Secondary particles form from the chemical reactions of primary pollutants
like SO₂, NOx, and VOCs
They include nitrates, sulfates, and organic aerosols
Key Differences Between Primary and Secondary Pollutants
 Air Pollution Clean-Up Methods
1. Source Control
a) Emission Control Technologies
Implementing technologies such as scrubbers, filters, and catalytic
converters to reduce emissions from factories, power plants, and
vehicles
b) Fuel Switching
Transitioning from high-emission fuels like coal and oil to cleaner
alternatives such as natural gas, biofuels, or renewable energy
(solar, wind, hydro)
 Air Pollution Clean-Up Methods
2. Air Quality Improvement
a) Green Infrastructure
Planting trees and developing urban green spaces that act as
natural air filters, absorbing pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO₂)
and particulate matter
b) Reduction of Indoor Pollution
Promoting energy-efficient appliances, proper ventilation, and
clean cooking technologies to reduce indoor air pollution,
particularly in developing countries and rural areas