Mechatronics and Robotic Systems

SSG 415

Sensors and Transducers

Instructor: Dr J OGBEMHE
Lecture Outline
INTRODUCTION
SENSOR DATA SHEETS
SENSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
DEFINITIONS
CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
TYPE OF SENSORS
APPLICATION OF SENSORS
Intro: Sensors
A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into an electrical signal.
They represent part of the interface between the physical world and the world of
electrical devices, such as computers.

A device that transfers a signal from one physical form to another physical one.
Actuators are the other component of this interaction; they translate electrical
information to physical occurrences.

 Provide a framework for the collection of various sorts of data regardibng a

certain procedure.
 It generates an output signals in order to detect a physical occurrence.
 A device that transfers a signal from one physical form to another physical one.
Intro: Sensors Cont’d
The advent of low-cost microprocessors has facilitated the incorporation of sensors
into a broad range of goods. Additionally, since the sensor's output is an electrical
signal, sensors are often classified similarly to electronic equipment.
Sensor Data Sheets
 It is critical to grasp the data sheet's role in
order to cope with this fluctuation. The
data sheet is mainly a promotional tool.

 It is often aimed to stress the good aspects

of a specific sensor and some of the
sensor's prospective applications, while
omitting to discuss some of the sensor's bad
traits.

 Often, the sensor is developed to satisfy a

specific performance specification for a
particular client, and the data sheet will
focus on the performance metrics that are
most important to this customer.
Sensor Performance Characteristics
 Before we go into the different kinds of sensors, let's have a look at some
critical sensor properties.
 These characteristics include, but are not limited to:
Transfer Function,
Sensitivity,
Span or Dynamic Range,
Accuracy or Uncertainty,
Hysteresis,
Nonlinearity (sometimes referred to as Linearity),
Noise,
Resolution,
Bandwidth,
Repeatability, and Drift.
Transfer Function
 The transfer function graphically depicts the functional connection between
an electrical input signal and an output signal.

 Typically, this connection is shown as a graph illustrating the relationship

between the input and output signals, and the intricacies of this relationship
may serve as a comprehensive description of the sensor's features.

 This may take the form of the certified calibration curve for pricey sensors
that are calibrated individually.
Transfer Function Contd

Schematic of the sensors, their relations and their transfer function.

Sensitivity
 Sensitivity is the ratio of a minor change in electrical signal to a little
change in physical signal in general.

 It may be thought of as the derivative of the transfer function with regard

to the physical signal.

 Volts/kelvin, millivolts/kilopascal, and so on are common units. A

thermometer would be said to have "high sensitivity" if a slight change in
temperature resulted in a substantial change in voltage.
Span or Dynamic Range
 The dynamic range or span of a sensor refers to the range of physical
signals that may be translated to electrical signals by the sensor.

 Outside of this range, signals are predicted to have abnormally significant

inaccuracies.

 Typically, the sensor provider specifies this span or dynamic range as the
range across which the other performance criteria stated in the data sheets
are anticipated to apply. Kelvin, Pascal, and newton are all examples of
common units.
Accuracy or Uncertainty and Hysteresis
Accuracy or Uncertainty
 When it comes to output signals, uncertainty is often defined as the
maximum predicted error between the actual and ideal signals. Kelvins are
the most often used units.

 This is often expressed as a percentage of the full-scale output or as a

fraction of the reading, depending on the context.

Hysteresis
The width of the expected error in terms of the measured quantity is defined
as the hysteresis. Typical units are kelvin or percent of Full Scale Output FSO.
Accuracy or Uncertainty and Hysteresis
Accuracy or Uncertainty
 When it comes to output signals, uncertainty is often defined as the
maximum predicted error between the actual and ideal signals. Kelvins are
the most often used units.

 This is often expressed as a percentage of the full-scale output or as a

fraction of the reading, depending on the context.

Hysteresis
The width of the expected error in terms of the measured quantity is defined
as the hysteresis. Typical units are kelvin or percent of Full Scale Output FSO.
Nonlinearity/Linearity
 Over the specified dynamic range, the greatest deviation from a linear
transfer function may be calculated.

 This mistake may be measured in a variety of ways.

 When comparing real transfer functions with "best straight lines," which are
defined as being in the middle of two parallel lines that include the
complete transfer function across the specified dynamic range of the
device, this is the most typical comparison.
Noise
 In addition to the output signal, all sensors create some amount of output
noise.

 When the noise generated by the sensor is smaller than the noise
generated by the next device in the electronics or less than the fluctuations
in the physical signal, it is not a significant factor.

 There are several more instances in which the sensor's noise reduces the
overall performance of the system that is dependent on the sensor.
Resolution
 The resolution of a sensor is defined as the smallest detectable signal
fluctuation that may be detected.

 Because fluctuations are temporal occurrences, there is a link between the

timeframe for the fluctuation and the smallest observable amplitude that
may be seen.

 Therefore, while defining resolution, it is necessary to add some

information regarding the type of the measurement that is being carried
out.
Bandwidth
 The bandwidth (frequency response) of a sensor tells how it responds to
various frequencies. Sensors with a wider bandwidth may detect motion
and vibration at higher frequencies.

 All sensors have finite reaction periods to changes in the physical signal
that occur instantaneously.

 Additionally, many sensors include decay durations, which describe the time
required for the sensor output to return to its previous value after a step
change in the physical signal.
Repeatability and Drift
Repeatability
 When a sensor is placed in the same environment as before, it has the
capacity to repeat a measurement.
 Even though it is often associated with accuracy, a sensor might be
incorrect while yet being repeatable in its findings.

Drift
 This is the change in the low frequency response of a sensor over time.
 It is often connected with the electronic ageing of sensor components or
reference standards.
 Drift often diminishes as a sensor's component components mature.
 To account for faults in sensor design, drift must be accounted for.
Classification of Sensors
Sensors are classified into the following criteria:

1. Primary Input quantity

2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)
3. Material and Technology
4. Property
5. Application
Classification based on property
Temperature - Thermistors, thermocouples, Resistance temperature detectors
(RTD’s), Integrated Circuits and many more.

Pressure - Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT).

Flow - Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal

mass, etc.

Level Sensors - Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal

displacement, etc.
Classification based on property Contd
Proximity and displacement - LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic,
ultrasonic.

Biosensors - Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon resonance, Light

addressable potentio-metric.

Image - Charge coupled devices, Complementary metal Oxide Semiconductor

(CMOS)

Gas and chemical - Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance, Electrochemical.

Acceleration - Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.

Others - Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor, force,
viscosity.
Classification based on Application
Industrial process control, measurement and automation

Non-industrial use – Aircraft, Medical products, Automobiles, Consumer

electronics, other type of sensors.

Sensors can be classified based on power or energy supply requirement of the

sensors

Active Sensor - Sensors that require power supply are called Active Sensors.
Example: LiDAR (Light detection and ranging), photoconductive cell.

Passive Sensor - Sensors that do not require power supply are called Passive
Sensors. Example: Radiometers, film photography.
Current And Future Applications Of Sensors
 Accelerometers - These are a kind of sensor that use Micro Electro Mechanical
technology. They are used to monitor patients, which includes pacemakers and
dynamic vehicle systems.

 Biosensors - These are electrochemically based. They are employed in food

testing, medical device testing, water testing, and the identification of biological
warfare agents.

 Image Sensors - These are based on the complementary metal oxide

semiconductor (CMOS) technology. They are used in consumer electronics,
biometrics, traffic and security surveillance, as well as personal computer
imagery.

 Motion Detectors - These use Infrared, Ultrasonic, and microwave/radar

technologies. They are utilised in videogames and simulations, as well as in the
Type of Sensors
Acceleration, Shock and Vibration Sensors
 Accelerometers are transducers that sense acceleration, vibration, and shock
and produce a signal proportional to the magnitude of the acceleration,
vibration, or shock.

 These sensors have a broad range of uses in both research and development
and in daily life.

 Acceleration, Shock, and Vibration Sensors have a wide range of applications.

 Modal Analysis is used to analyse the dynamic dynamics of structures subjected

to vibrational stimulation, light activation, and security detection.
Application domain of Acceleration, Shock and
Vibration Sensors
2. Finds applications in Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), also known as
noise and vibration (N&V). it is the study and modification of the noise and
vibration characteristics of vehicles, particularly cars and trucks.

3. Ground Vibration Testing. The purpose of GVT is to obtain experimental

vibration data for the entire aircraft structure for validating and improving its
structural dynamics model using accelerometers.

4. Finds applications in Highly Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) techniques.

They are incorporated during the production phase to find manufacturing
process defects that could cause product failures in the field.

5. It applied in Seismic Testing.

Advantages of Acceleration, Shock and Vibration
Sensors
1. Wide Dynamic Range and Wide Frequency Range

2. Durable (High Shock Protection)

3. Powered by Low Cost Constant Current Source

4. Fixed Output.

5. Less Susceptible to Electromagnetic Interference EMI and Radio frequency RF

Interference.

6. Can be Made Very Small.

7. Less Operator Attention, Training and Installation Expertise Required.

Limitation/Challenges of Acceleration, Shock and
Vibration Sensors
1. Limited Temperature Range. Max Temperature of 175°C (350°F).

2. Low Frequency Response is Fixed within the Sensor.

3. Built in amplifier is exposed to same test environment as the element of the

sensor.
Biosensors
1. A biosensor consists of two components of a bioreceptor and a transducer.
The bioreceptor is a biomolecule that recognizes the target analyte (molecule
or substance one is interested in detecting), and the transducer converts the
recognition event into a measurable signal.
Biosensors Contd
1. This combination permits non-invasive
measurement of the target analyte.

2. For example, the glucose concentration in a

blood sample may be determined immediately by
dipping the sensor in the sample using a
biosensor designed specifically for glucose
testing.

3. A transducer should be able to transform the

biorecognition event to a quantifiable signal. The
following are some examples of transducers that
may be used to monitor the reaction: A sensor
for oxygen, a sensor for pH, and a sensor for
peroxide.
Application domain of Biosensors
Health Care
Measurement of Metabolites. measurement of blood chemistry which to the
wellbeing of patients and gives room for better estimation of the metabolic state of
a patient.
Industrial Process Control
Bioreactors are used to cultivate recombinant cells (materials produced by genetic
engineering) for production of therapeutic proteins such as insulin.
Military Application
Biosensors finds application in field-usable sensors for chemical and biological
warfare agents. Many of these sensors are small portable analytical kits and they
are reasonably robust.
Environmental Monitoring
The potential for biosensor technology for environmental monitoring is huge, and
the potential impact is far-reaching.
Advantages of Biosensors
 They can measure nonpolar molecules (substance produced as a result of
unequal sharing of electrons between different atom) that do not respond to
most measurement devices.

 They allow rapid continuous control. Which means that the controlled
quantity is measured continuously and corrections are a continuous function
of the deviation.
Disadvantages of Biosensors
 Heat sterilization is not possible as this would denature the biological part of
the biosensor.

 The membrane that separates the reactor media from the immobilized cells of
the sensor can become fouled by deposits.

 The cells in the biosensor can become intoxicated by other molecules that are
capable of diffusing through the membrane.

 Changes in the reactor broth (i.e., pH) can put chemical and mechanical
stress on the biosensor that might eventually impair it.
Capacitive and Inductive Sensors
 Noncontact sensors are based on various technologies including electric field,
electromagnetic field, and light/laser.

 A capacitive or inductive sensor consists of a probe, which is the actual

physical device that generates the sensing field, and a driver, the electronics
that drive the probe and generate the resulting output voltage proportional to
the measurement. See figure below for a non contact sensor system
Application for Inductive Sensors or Capacity
Sensors
1.Relative Position (Displacement)- This is the most typical application for
displacement sensors. This measurement is used in servo systems, part inspection,
and a host of other applications ranging from nanometers to millimeters.

2. Deflection, Deformation, Distortion- Applied essentially as a multichannel

displacement measurement, this application specifically measures the intentional
or unintentional distortion of an object.

3.Assembly Inspection- Many assemblies include conductive and nonconductive

parts. For critical assemblies 100 percent inspection is required to assure that the
assembly includes the metallic component, which may or may not be visible.

4.Vibration- Vibration is just a position measurement over time, but the output of
the sensor is not only analyzed for position data but also for time-based
information about the motion of the target.
Flow and Level Sensors
 Flow sensors are used in many monitoring and control applications, to measure
both air and liquid flows.

 There are many ways of defining flow (mass flow, volume flow, laminar flow,
turbulent flow).

 Usually the amount of a substance flowing (mass flow) is the most important,
and if the fluid’s density is constant, a volume flow measurement is a useful
substitute that is generally easier to perform.

 Methods used for measuring liquid flow include differential pressure

measurement systems, vortex shedding sensors, positive displacement flow
sensors, turbine based flow sensors,
 magnetic flow sensors, and ultrasonic flow sensors.
Flow, Load and Weight Sensors Contd
 Quartz force sensors are ideally designed and suited for the measurement of
dynamic oscillating forces, impact, or high speed compression/tension forces.

 The basic design utilizes the piezoelectric principle, where applied mechanical
stresses are converted into an electrostatic charge that accumulates on the
surface of the crystal. The figure below shows a Piezoelectric effect
Humidity Sensors
 Humidity is defined as the water vapour content in air or other gases.

 Humidity is usually measured in terms of absolute humidity (the ratio of the

mass of water vapour to the volume of air or gas),
 dew point (the temperature and pressure at which a gas begins to condense
into a liquid), and relative humidity,
 or RH (the ratio of the moisture content of air compared to the saturated
moisture level at the same temperature or pressure).

 Examples of humidity sensors includes: Capacitive Relative humidity Sensors,

resistive humidity Sensors and thermal conductivity humidity Sensors.
Humidity Sensors Contd
Advantages of Humidity Sensors

Near-linear voltage output

Wide RH range and condensation tolerance
Stable over long-term use

Disadvantages of Humidity Sensors

Distance from sensing element to signal conditioning circuitry limited
Optical and Radiation Sensors
Detection of light is a basic need for everything from devices to plants and
animals. In the case of animals, light detection systems are very highly
specialized, and often operate very near to thermodynamic limits to detection.

Light detectors may be broken into two basic categories. The quantum
detectors converts incoming radiation directly into an electron in a
semiconductor device while the thermal detectors simply absorb the energy
and operate by measuring the change in temperature with a thermometer.
Position and Motion Sensors
Position sensors are becoming more prevalent in our everyday lives. They give
position feedback and are ubiquitous in our homes, automobiles, and work
environments.
As sensor technology advances, positioning devices continue to shrink in size,
increase in performance, and become more affordable, enabling more
applications than ever before.
Types of Position Sensors
The types of position sensors covered here includes:
Contact devices
1. Limit switches
2. Resistive position transducers
3. Non-contact devices
4. Magnetic sensors, including Hall effect and magneto-resistive sensors
5. Ultrasonic sensors
6. Proximity sensors and 7. Photoelectric sensors
Application of Position and Motion Sensors
Material handling,

1. Packaging,
2. Paper processing,
3. Food and beverage,
4. Chemical,
5. Plastics industry, Rubber/tire processing, and
6. Steel processing.