MGG - 008

ADVANCES IN
Indira Gandhi National Open
University GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Search for Relevance

Human Geography as Spatial Science
Political Economy and Critical Geography
 MGG 008

Indira Gandhi National Open University

ADVANCES IN
School of Sciences
GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

BLOCK 1
SEARCH FOR RELEVANCE

BLOCK 2
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AS SPATIAL SCIENCE

BLOCK 3
POLITICAL ECONOMY AND CRITICAL GEOGRAPHY
Programme Expert Committee
Prof. K. Kumaraswamy (Retd.) Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra
Prof. K. R. Dikshit (Retd.)
Dept. of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
Dept. of Geography,
Bharathidasan University, School of Sciences,
University of Pune,
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu IGNOU, New Delhi
Pune, Maharashtra
Prof. Gopal Krishan (Emeritus Prof. Sachidanand Sinha (Retd.) Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Professor) Centre for the Study of Regional Discipline of Geography,
Dept. of Geography, Panjab Development, Jawaharlal Nehru School of Sciences,
University, Chandigarh University, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. H. S. Sharma (Retd.) Prof. Nina Singh (Retd.) Dr. Satya Raj
Dept. of Geography, University Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan Maharshi Dayanand University, School of Sciences,
Rohtak, Haryana IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Harjit Singh (Retd.) Prof. Debendra Kumar Nayak Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
Centre for the Study of Regional Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
Development, Jawaharlal Nehru North-Eastern Hill University, School of Sciences,
University, New Delhi Shillong, Meghalaya IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. S. Padmaja (Retd.) Prof. Mahendra Singh Nathawat Dr. Vishal Warpa
Dept. of Geography, Professor, Discipline of Discipline of Geography,
Osmania University, Hyderabad Geography & Former Director, School of Sciences,
Telangana School of Sciences, IGNOU, IGNOU, New Delhi
New Delhi
Course Design Committee
Prof. M.H. Qureshi (Retd.) Prof. Sachidanand Sinha (Retd.) Faculty of Geography Discipline:
Centre for the Study of Regional Centre for the Study of Regional Prof. Mahendra Singh Nathawat
Development, Jawaharlal Nehru Development, Jawaharlal Nehru Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra
University, New Delhi University, New Delhi Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Dr. Satya Raj
Dr. K. Nageswara Rao
Dr. Vishal Warpa

Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. Saswati Mookherjee (Retd.) (Unit - 1 and 2) Content Editor
Department of Geography, Lady Brabourne
Prof. Sachidanand Sinha (Retd.)
College Kolkata
Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Course Coordinator - Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Print Production
Sh. Rajiv Girdhar Sh. Hemant Parida
A.R., MPDD, IGNOU S.O., MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Mr. Anil Kumar for word processing. Cover page has been designed by Prof. Vijay Kumar
Baraik. Dr. Biplab Jamatia, SOHS, IGNOU is acknowledged for the photographs used in the Cover Page.
July, 2023 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2023
ISBN-
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s
office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and
published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director, SOS, IGNOU. Printed at
ADVANCES IN GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT (MGG-008): AN
INTRODUCTION
Geography is one of the oldest disciplines. The history of the discipline stretches over many
Centuries originating from the periods of the Greeks and the Romans. However, the
Discipline could establish its hold as an academic field of study and institutionalised
Discipline in the university system only by the second half of the nineteenth Century. Over
this period, the study of geography has evolved into a very important form of human
scholarship and has come to occupy a place of pride amongst disciplines taught in the
university system in India and the world. There exists a wide gap between geographers' view
of their Discipline and (mis)perceptions of the 'others' regarding its nature, methodology,
approaches, techniques, tools and applications. However, there have been remarkable
advances in the field of Geography since its beginning, especially in recent times. In view of
these, studying the Advances in Geographic Thought in terms of the progress of geography
as a discipline and its philosophy, methods, techniques, tools and applications would provide
some important insights concerning the distinct property of the discipline. These insights
about its fundamentals would also be helpful in gaining a better understanding of the nature
of geography as an interdisciplinary subject. Its major objectives are to acquaint learners
with the foundation and development of geography since World War II.

There are three modules called blocks based on their themes- 1. Search for Relevance, 2.
Human Geography as Spatial Science, and 3. Political Economy and Critical Geography.

Block 1: Search for Relevance covers geography since World War II, geography in the
early 1950s; critique of Regional Geography, the Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate; principles of
Positivism, and the spread of scientific and quantitative methods.

Block 2: Human Geography as Spatial Science elaborates the Spatial Systems, Spatial
Theory and Behaviouralism, Spatial Variables and Spatial Systems, Spatial Theory,
Behaviouralism, critique of Systems Theory and critique of Spatial Science and rise of
Humanistic Perspectives in geography, geography in the 20th Century; and conceptual and
methodological developments and changing paradigms.

Block 3: Political Economy and Critical Geography deal with radical and liberal
perspectives covering Structuralism and Structuration, the production of nature: contributions
of Harvey and David Smith; and critical geography with feminist perspectives- gender
geography; geographies of difference, post-structural and post-colonial human geographies,
the contemporary concerns and perspectives, the rise of technologies and the changing
perspectives of space and place.

It is expected that after studying this course, you will be able to the evaluation of geography
since World War II, understand Human Geography and Spatial Science and the rise of
Humanistic Geography, and be aware of the advancement of geography in the
contemporary period with reference to political economy and Critical Geography.

In this quest, our warmest wishes are always with you. If you need any assistance with this
course, please contact us at [email protected].
 MGG 008
ADVANCES IN
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

BLOCK

1
SEARCH FOR RELEVANCE

Unit 1
Geography Since World War II

Unit 2
Positivism, Empiricism and Geography

Glossary
MGG - 008
ADVANCES IN GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

BLOCK 1 SEARCH FOR RELEVANCE

Unit 1 Geography Since World War II 9

Unit 2 Positivism, Empiricism and Geography 21

BLOCK 2 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AS SPATIAL SCIENCE

UNIT 3 Spatial Systems, Spatial Theory and Behaviouralism 39

UNIT 4 Spatial Science and Rise of Humanistic Geography 57

BLOCK 3 POLITICAL ECONOMY AND CRITICAL

GEOGRAPHY

UNIT 5 Radical and Liberal Perspectives 81

UNIT 6 Critical Geography 97

BLOCK 1: SEARCH FOR RELEVANCE
The widespread emergence of sentiments of dissatisfaction with government policies and
justice towards the general public after World War II and also due to the slowdown of
economic growth gave rise to radical views in American society, especially in the 1960s.
During this time, the objectives of research in science and humanities also got affected and
humans and their future received primary focus in the research in natural as well as social
sciences. Geography was considered as medicine to help reduce suffering and long life. It
was the period of ‘Search for Relevance’ known as the ‘Relevance Movement’ through a
transformation in geography with radical thinking and views.

Block 1 (Search for Relevance), in the above background, tries to highlight the major points
related to the search for relevance. It covers Geography since World War II, Geography in
the early 1950s; Critique of Regional Geography, the Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate;
Principles of Positivism and the spread of Scientific and Quantitative Methods. It has two
Units- 1. Geography since World War II and 2. Positivism, Empiricism and Geography.

Unit 1: Geography since World War II aims to discuss the status of geography in the
early 1950s; explain the critique of regional geography; describe the scientific explanations
in geography; and explain the Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate and the rise of Spatial
Analysis.

Unit 2: Positivism, Empiricism and Geography attempts to trace the historical

background of the scientific approach in geography, explain empiricism, discuss the
emergence and spread of scientific and quantitative geography and give a critical overview
of positivism and logical positivism. It includes the sub-themes like the principles of
positivism, logical positivism, empiricism, the historical background of the scientific
approach, some key elements in scientific thinking, scientific empiricism and the spread of
scientific and quantitative geography.

It is expected that after studying this block, the students will be able to have an adequate
overview of the evolution of geography since World War II and be able to understand
Positivism, Empiricism and Geography. Our best wishes are always with you.
 UNIT 1

GEOGRAPHY SINCE WORLD

WAR II
Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.4 Hartshorne- Schaefer Debate
Expected Learning Outcomes The Rise of Spatial Analysis
1.2 Geography in the Early 1950s 1.5 Summary
1.3 Critique of Regional 1.6 Terminal Questions
Geography 1.7 Answers
Scientific Explanations in 1.8 References and Further
Geography Reading

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Geographical thought experienced a paradigm shift since the end of the
Second World War in 1945. The outcome of geographical research/studies
underwent a radical change because of multiple factors. These include the
emerging geopolitical situation of the world, intensification of movements for
independence in the colonies of the Western powers and emergence of
independent states, wide acceptance of political ideologies in favour of
democracy, rising aspiration for equitable economic and social development,
continued intensification of resource extraction, particularly in the less
developed countries, changes in people’s livelihood patterns, etc. Factors
such as shifts in resource utilisation patterns, ownership and control, large-
scale industrialisation and urbanisation, and mass migration influenced
geographical research and thinking. Also, advancement in scientific
knowledge, methods and building of data storage through computer access
and improvement in cartographic techniques enabled the geographers to
collect a large number of social statistics and adopt mathematical and
statistical methods for data analysis.
You have already studied the foundation and perspectives of geography, its
development from cosmography to chorology and the regional concepts in
your previous course, i.e. Introduction to Geographical Thought. In this Unit,
you will study the developments of geographical ideas in the years prior to
and immediately after World War II. This will cover a critique of regional
geography, the emergence of scientific explanations in geography, the
Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate, and the rise of spatial analysis.
Saswati Mookherjee 9
Block - 1 Search for Relevance
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 discuss the status of geography in the early 1950s ;
 explain the critique of regional geography;
 critically evaluate the scientific explanations in geography; and
 explain the Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate and the rise of Spatial Analysis

1.2 GEOGRAPHY IN THE EARLY 1950s

In general, geography in the early 1950s adopted deductive–nomological
methods through the availability of huge data and computer facilities and
became predictive like other natural sciences. At this point, the focus was on
model building (Chorley & Haggett,1967) and applying these models in
developing spatial patterns. The organisation of space in terms of topology
became rather popular among Anglo-American geographers (Abler et al
1971; Harvey, 1969; King, 1969, etc.) to name a few. Before this, geography
was in the realm of inductive–regional approach in its analysis of human–
nature interface/interaction, and various other associated discourses. The
systematisation of data and predictive analysis was not much applicable in
the study of physical and socio-economic phenomena of the world.

1.2.1 Scientific Explanations in Geography

Geography at this juncture put greater emphasis on geographical enquiries
that culminated in the formulation of hypotheses and laws. A section of
geographers started to build models based on statistical data and applied
these in understanding spatial patterns of geographical activities and a
number of theories were put forward by the geographers of the quantitative
school. An example of it is the locational school. After the Second World War,
geographers started measuring space and location in relative terms of time
and cost. This was the fundamental shift in the geographical paradigm. A
series of theories related to location and space and urban hierarchy emerged,
such as Central Place Theory by Christaller (1933; translated into English in
1966), Industrial Location Theory by Weber (German in 1909 and English
version 1929), Losch’s theory of ‘profit maximisation’ (1954), Rank-Size Rule
by Zipf (1949), Lorenz Curve by Lorenz (1905) to measure the distribution of
income and wealth. All these and many other contributions were to
understand the spatial arrangement and organisation of agricultural and
industrial activities, movement of goods and services and people, etc., which
began to transform spatial morphology and transport networks.

The quest also shifted from mapping spatial patterns to seeking explanations
through the use of empirical and scientific data, which could also help in
prediction and generalisations; developing scientific laws. In very simple
terms we can define scientific laws as ‘a generalisation of unrestricted range
in time and space’. It means generalisation with universal validity (Jensen,
106). Two alternative routes of scientific enquiry were in vogue, namely 1.
Induction proceeding from numerous particular instances to universal
statements, and 2. Deduction proceeding from a priori premise to statements
about particular sets of events leading to generalisation. In other words, the
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latter is also called the hypothetic-deductive method. This method became
more popular among scientists and scholars in both-social, natural and
biological sciences (See the figure below and understand the routes to the
scientific explanation as proposed and summarised by Harvey, 1969).

Fig. 1.1: Inductive and hypothetic deductive routes to scientific explanation.

(Source: Harvey, D. (1969): Explanation in Geography, London: Edward Arnold, p. 34.)

The rejection of the regional method and acceptance of the systematic

method, which is analytical and predictive gave rise to regional science (Berry
(1964b), Isard (1975), and the study of spatial organisation and spatial pattern
became the main focus of geographical research.

SAQ 1
What are scientific explanations in geography?

1.3 CRITIQUE OF REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY

Dissatisfaction with the regional geographical approach had begun more
prominently in Europe and North America from the first quarter of the 20th
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century. Freeman (1961) suggests that the dissatisfaction with regional
geography emanated from its descriptive approach and exceptionalism. Three
reasons were identified- one, studies under regional geography were mostly
‘naive’, due to its scale (macro level studies); two, very little attention on the
relationships between the physical environment and inhabitants (having just
account of unrelated facts and physical history of an area), and three,
complete neglect of theory and generalisation (Dikshit, p 116). It was defined
as idiographic with nature-human interactions or interplay over time creating
unique regions. Regional geography focussed on historical developments and
not on the spatial relationships of things and phenomena.

The major points on which this approach were critiqued include its
deterministic-idiographic and descriptive nature, neglect of theory and model
building, lack of law formulations, non-predictive characteristics and absence
of analytical rigour. The lack of quantitative data analysis and excessive focus
on unique attributes of individual regions made regional geography descriptive
rather than analytic. The views were that places and regions are comparable.

William Bunge’s ‘Theoretical Geography’ (1962) brought another significant

impact on the rejection of the regional approach and acceptance of scientific
methods in Geography. He stated that geography is the science of spatial
relations, since it is related to space and space is represented by geometry
(shapes).

The exceptional nature of the regional approach as highlighted by Hartshorne

was challenged by F.K. Schaefer who came up with the alternative approach
in the light of positivism, theory building, law formulations and adaptation of
deductive-hypothetic approach as opposed to the inductive-empirical
approach. Schaefer’s critique of regional geography ‘Exceptionalism in
Geography’ led to a constructive debate leading to several articles contributed
by Hartshorne in his defence, but Schaefer was not around to respond due to
his untimely demise.

He projected this approach which gave rise to Quantitative Geography.

SAQ 2
What is the main criticism of the regional approach in geography?

1.4 HARTSHORNE–SCHAEFER DEBATE

A new methodological debate arose in Geography during the post-war period,
which generated a constructive debate and rethinking regarding the manner
in which geographical research was being conducted. In 1939 Hartshorne’s
elaborate treatise ‘The Nature of Geography’ presented a comprehensive
account of the evolution of geographical ideas and methods. Hartshorne
emphasises that geography is the study of areal differentiation. As history is
exceptional in studying events which are unique in time, geography is to study
the descriptions of unique regions, which are more or less homogenous from
inside and heterogenous among various regions as no regions are the same
due to varied characteristics resulting in each region as a unique entity. This

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led to the idea of exceptionalism in geography. Hartshorne following the
principles of Hettner established that geography was chorological and that the
regional approach formed the spirit and purpose of geography.

According to Hartshorne, geography was an idiographic discipline, describing

the unique, as opposed to nomothetic disciplines, which search for universal
laws. If all places are unique, there are either as many laws as there are
places (which defeats the purpose of laws). This methodological approach
distinguished Geography like history in terms of space and time from other
sciences, such as Physics, Mathematics, or Chemistry, which were
nomothetic. Geography was exceptional. Geographers collected facts from
places around the globe and therefore, created an inventory of knowledge
that could then be classified.

Fred K. Schaefer (1953) criticised the idea of exceptionalism in regional

geography and strongly advocated for taking up scientific positivism as its
philosophy and methodology of explaining unique phenomena or events as
other sciences do. He argued, ‘the methodology of geography is too
complacent’. His idea accelerated the movement towards what is popularly
known as the quantitative revolution and theoretical geography. “A science is
characterised by its explanations, and explanations require laws: ‘To explain
the phenomena one has described means always to recognise them as
instances of laws... Hence geography has to be conceived as the science
concerned with the formulation of the laws governing the spatial distribution of
certain features on the surface of the earth” (Schaefer, p. 227). Geography’s
major regularities refer to spatial patterns. ‘These spatial arrangements, not
the phenomena themselves, should be the subject of geographer’s search for
law-like statements” (Johnston, 2017, p. 60). Schaefer considered
geographical laws to be ‘morphological’ concerned with spatial forms and
geography is a source of laws of locations. The other social sciences are
morphogenetic concerned with processes.

Hartshorne, in his several thought-provoking responses to the Schaefer

proposition, which culminated into a book: ‘Perspective on the Nature of
Geography (1959)’, maintained that his account of geography is based on the
evidence contained in the works of geographers and that Schaefer was
completely oblivious of that. Schaefer is suggesting that ‘it ought to be’ and
not what geography has been. His first reaction was that there was a flaw in
the scholarship of Schaefer followed by limited references, unsupportable
conclusions, misrepresentation of other’s views, more of personal opinions
lacking literary and historical analysis, Kant being the source of the
exceptionalist view, (Johnston, 2017, p. 61). He strongly opposed Schaefer
on his critique of exceptionalism. In the end, Hartshorne responded and
addressed questions raised: i. meaning of geography as the study of Areal
Differentiation; ii. meaning of Earth Surface; iii. integration of Heterogenous
Phenomena a Peculiarity of Geography; iv. Measure of "Significance" in
Geography; v. Distinction between Human and Natural Factors; vi. Division of
Geography by Topical Fields - The Dualism of Physical and Human
Geography; vii. Time and Genesis in Geography; viii. Geography's Division
between Systematic and Regional Geography; and ix. Geography's position
whether as Formulating Scientific Laws or as Describing Individual Cases;
with the need and the purpose in the beginning and The Place of Geography

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in the Classification of Sciences in the end. He argued for his idea of
geography as the study of areal differentiation that it is the section of empirical
knowledge that studies the integration of phenomena (the total reality). He
was opposed to the division of geography into human and physical and said
that it is 'the discipline that seeks to describe and interpret the variable
character from place to place of the earth as the world of man (Hartshorne,
1959, p. 47 quoted in Johnston, 2017, p.62). He also supported both -
regional studies as well as topical (systematic) approaches in geography. On
the formulation of scientific laws by geography, he pointed out the difficulty as
these are established in the laboratory on individual cases, while geography
studies the complex (human-nature) integration in unique places. Scientific
laws are based on objectivity (deterministic and value-neutral) which restricts
the human aspects in geography (possibilism with motivation and scope for
humans to look beyond nature’s restrictions and human unpredictable human
behaviour). He also talks of logical positivism to make observations and draw
conclusions based on logic and rationale instead of laboratory
experiments/observations for generalisation. In the end, he places geography
as chorological science in the classification of sciences.

Some fundamental ideas have remained unchallenged for decades though

there is ample reason to doubt their power’ (Cloke et al, 1991, pp. 10-11).
What he meant was that geography had become characterised by
‘exceptionalism’, an idea that it was ‘quite different from other sciences and
was thus ‘methodologically unique’ (Cloke et al, 1991, p. 231) in that it sought
a description of unique occurrences: ‘Geography according to Hartshorne is
essentially idiographic. Whenever laws are discovered or applied, one is no
longer in the area of geography. All it contributes is facts’ (Cloke et al, 1991,
p. 240). By contrast, he argued, geography should focus not on uniqueness
but on similarity, by applying relevant laws in the manner of true science:
‘Description, even if followed by the classification, does not explain the
manner in which phenomena are distributed over the world. To explain the
phenomena one has described means always to recognise them as instances
of laws’ (Cloke et.al., 1991, p. 227).

Following the Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate, geographers got heavily influenced

and inclined towards quantification, in their zeal to law-making in geography.

The significance of the Hartshorne-Schaefer debate is immense as it gave

rise to spatial analysis in geography based on nomothetic-systematic, law–
making, generalised perspective as against idiographic-chorological, specific
perspective propagated by Hartshorne. His approach was qualitative and he
defined ‘geography as that discipline which seeks to describe and interpret
the variable character from place to place of the earth as the world of man’.
Schaefer on the other hand believed that ‘geography must be a science,
science is the search for laws and completely determinable by them’
(Johnston, 1997). As an economist, Schaefer was much more focused on
numerical forms of data collection, especially statistics. Schaefer’s view of
geography was that: “geography has to be conceived as the science
concerned with the formulation of the laws governing the spatial distribution of
certain features on the surface of the earth and these spatial arrangements of
phenomena, not the phenomena themselves, should be subject to
geographer’s search for law-like statements”(Schaefer, 1953, pp. 227-228).

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This article by Schaefer is seen as the beginning of the adoption of scientific
methods in Geography, ultimately leading to the quantitative revolution
(Kitchin, 2006). Schaefer further said that spatial relations are the ones that
matter in geography and no others.

Hartshorne, however, discussed some of the points raised by Schaefer in his

later publications in 1953 (Exceptionalism in Geography, AAAG, 44:108-109)
1955 (Exceptionalism in Geography” Re-examined, AAAG 45(3): 205-244),
and 1959 (Perspectives on the Nature of Geography) as discussed above.

The methodological debate over spatial-chorological and nomological-law

making approaches in the subsequent years gave birth to model–building
phase in geographical thought pioneered by Burton, Bunge, Chorley and
Haggett, Johnston and Harvey in the late 1950s and 60s.

1.4.1 The Rise of Spatial Analysis

Despite the counter-arguments, the period from 1960 saw a vigorous
expansion of geographical research using the quasi-scientific method
(Johnston, 1985, p. 137). The philosophical and methodological base for this
was described by Harvey (1969) and a number of textbooks in both human and
physical geography laid out the need for theory, laws, hypotheses,
measurements and statistical testing (e.g. Abler, Adams and Gould, 1971;
Young, 1972), but multiple problems emerged due to the fact that geography
as a whole deals with multi-variable open systems and the human geography
deals with knowing subjects (Abler et. al., 1971, p. 137). In order to put forth
some arguments in favour of the regional method, a few points have been
made by Hartshorne. He said that geography deals with unique events and
generalisation in the form of laws and theories are doomed to be a failure
(Hartshorne, 1939, pp. 378-97). Johnston (1985, pp.138-39) comments that “it
is clear that uniqueness is a valid objection to a theoretically based hypothesis-
testing approach, because a collection of unique cases may nevertheless
confirm or reject a hypothesised relationship: uniqueness is only an obstacle to
that if it can be shown that the causal relationships are themselves unique to
each instance and change inconsistently from place to place, and from time to
time. It is also arguable that uniqueness with respect to some trivial property or
some peripheral relationship is an insufficient reason to invalidate the scientific
method. The second point mentioned by Johnston is geographical systems
being large open systems present difficulty in carrying out experimental tests.
In this case, even in the field data collection process much of the control of
extraneous variables is achieved by purely statistical means which in theory
allows the isolation of a two-variable relationship when ‘all other variables are
held constant’. Yet even such methods can only ‘hold constant ‘recorded
variables; there is no way of controlling for the possible effects of unrecognised
and unrecorded additional variables. (Johnston, 1985, p.138). Johnston further
opined that the multi-variable nature of geographic systems concerns the use
of theory from other disciplines. Such borrowing is especially difficult if more
than one discipline is involved, each with a scale of analysis, a conceptual
framework and definitions which may not be compatible with each other or with
the geographical terms of reference. Finally, he argues that despite these
criticisms, scientific methods will be retained in both physical and human
geography for three reasons. First, the scientific method does have the ability

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to provide coherent and testable theories about the nature of geographical
phenomena. Second, the scientific method remains appealing because it is in
many respects a codified and logically connected extension of thought
structures developed in everyday life, including the willingness to correct
theories or hypotheses in the light of experience. Finally, and partly as a
consequence of these two points, knowledge of a scientific type is required by
society for its purposes of managing social and natural systems (Johnston,
1985, p. 139).

It may be thus summarised that Hartshorne- Schaefer debate brought in a

new insight in geographical methodology and many scholars put forth their
valuable comments in favour of scientific geography. At the same time,
humanistic and phenomenological approaches also hold considerable ground
in studying geographical phenomena. In recent years many geographers feel
that a methodological heterodoxy and a combination of inductive and
deductive approaches would bring in valuable results in terms of geographical
research.

In the following Units, you will learn more about spatial analysis and the
development of geography as spatial science.

SAQ 3
a) What is the result of the Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate?
b) How would you differentiate the inductive-idiographic approach from the
deductive-nomothetic approach?

1.5 SUMMARY
In this Unit, the focus of the study is on the scientific explanation of geography
with the help of the theoretical-deductive method as the inductive-empirical
method was rejected by many scholars. With the introduction of computers, a
large number of data could be analysed and the geographers started applying
quantitative techniques for building models in order to study spatial patterns of
geographic activities. This enabled them to be predictive. This period is
designated as the period of the quantitative revolution which lasted till the late
1960s. This period also witnessed a great debate between two eminent
scholars, notably Richard Hartshorne and F.K. Schaefer.

In this unit, you have studied:

 Geography in the early 1950s;
 Critique of regional geography;
 Scientific explanations in geography;
 Hartshorne- Schaefer Debate; and
 The rise of spatial analysis and geography as spatial science.

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Unit 1 Geography Since World War II
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1.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Discuss in detail the progress/nature of geography in the early 1950s.
2. Describe the basis and major arguments as a critique of regional
geography.
3. What are scientific explanations in geography? Discuss in detail.
4. Critically evaluate the Hartshorne -Schaefer Debate and discuss the
evolution of geography as spatial science.

1.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. Scientific explanation in geography is the analysis and explanation of
human-environment relationships through reasoning and logic as to why
things and phenomena exist as they are in the spatial framework. It is
beyond simple description of objects and phenomena.
2. The major criticism of the regional approach in geography
(exceptionalism) is its nature of being completely descriptive and lack of
scientific explanations with theory and generalisation.
3. a. The result of the Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate is the sharp criticism of
exceptionalism in regional geography and the rise of spatial analysis and
spatial science involving scientific explanations in geography.
b. These are the approaches of scientific studies where the inductive
idiographic approach involves the process of observation, pattern,
hypothesis and generalisation into established theories whereas the
deductive-nomothetic approach involves the inverse process from general
to particular- theory, hypothesis, observation and confirmation or rejection
for generalisation. Inductive-ideographic approach to scientific studies is
an explanation and description of a unique or particular
event/phenomenon or connections based on empirical observation, which
is on a single stance only not of a general trend. Deductive Nomological is
an approach opposite inductive-idiographic approach to scientific studies,
where empirical observation is made starting from general going to a
search for particular truth, which is not just an explanation and description
but draws law-like statements.

Terminal Questions
1. Give a detailed discussion on the progress and nature of geography in the
early 1950s. Refer to Section 1.2.
2. Discuss the critique of regional geography as purely descriptive with
exceptionalism lacking scientific law, theory and generalisation. Refer to
Section 1.3.
3. Explain the main properties of the scientific explanations in geography
with empiricism in the studies of human-environment relationships in
geography. Refer to Sections 1.3 and 1.4.

17
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4. Highlight the main point of the Hartshorne-Schaefer Debate including
exceptionalism with critique of both followed by scientific explanations and
the rise of geography as the spatial science. Refer to Section 1.4

1.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Abler, R., J.S. Adams and P. Gould, (1971): Spatial Organization: The
Geographer’s view of the World, Englehood Cliff, New York: The Prentice-
Hall; pp 72-88.
2. Berry, B.J.L. (1964): “Cities as systems within systems of cities”, Regional
Science Association, 13, pp. 147-63.
3. Bunge, W. (1962): ‘Theoretical Geography, Issue 1 of Lund studies in
geography: General and mathematical geography, Vol. 1, Lund Studies in
Geography’, the University of California: C. W. K. Gleerup.
4. Burton, I: 1963: ‘The quantitative revolution and theoretical geography’,
The Canadian Geographer 7, PP 151-162.
5. Chorley, R.J. and Haggett, P (eds)(1967): Models in Geography, London:
Methuen.
6. Christaller, W. (1966): Central Places in Southern Germany,(translated by
C.W. Baskin), Englewood Cliffs: Prentice –Hall.
7. Cloke, P., Chris, P. and D. Sadler (eds)(1991): Approaching Human
Geography, London, UK: Guilford Press.
8. Hartshorne, R. (1961): ‘The Nature of Geography: A Critical Survey of
Current Thought in the Light of the Past, 2ndedn, Lancaster, Pennsylvania:
Association of American Geographers.
9. Harvey, D. (1969): Explanation in Geography, London: Edward Arnold.
10. Isard, W. (1956): Location and Space Economy, New York: John Wiley.
11. Isard, W. (1960): Methods of Regional Analysis; An Introduction in
Regional Science, New York: John Wiley.
12. Johnston, R.J, D. Gregory, G. Pratt, L &M. Watts (eds) (2001): Dictionary
of Human Geography, Oxford, U K: Blackwell Pub, Ltd, pp. 664-667.
13. Johnston, R.J. (1979): Geography and Geographers Anglo-American
Human Geography since 1945, London: Edward Arnold, pp. 49-65.
14. Johnston, R.J. (ed) (1985): The Future of Geography, London: Methuen,
pp. 131-141.
15. King, L. J. (1960): “A note on theory and reality”, The Professional
Geographer, 12 (3), pp. 4-6.
16. King, L. J. (1969): “The analysis on spatial form and its relationship to
geographic theory”, Annals, Association of American Geographers,51, pp.
222-33.
17. Mann, M. (ed) (1983): Macmillan Student Encyclopaedia of Sociology, UK:
Macmillan International Higher Education.
18. Nagel, E. (1953): “On the method of verstehen as the sole method in
philosophy”, Journal of Philosophy, 50, pp. 154-7.

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19. O’Connor, D.J. (1964): A Critical History of Western Philosophy,
Pennsylvania State University, Free Press of Glencoe, pp. 52-53.
20. Young, A. (1972): Slopes, Edinburg: Oliver & Boyd.
21. Zipf, G.K. (1949): Human Behaviour and the Principles of Least Effort,
Hafne: New York.
22. Dikshit, R.D. (1997): Geographical Thought: A Contextual History of
Ideas, India: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
23. Johnston, R. and J.D. Sidaway (2017): Geography & Geographers: Anglo
American Human Geography since 1945, London: Routledge.
24. Holt -Jensen, Arild- (2018): Geography: History and Concepts, New Delhi:
Sage.
25. Schaefer, Fred K. (1953): “Exceptionalism in Geography: A
Methodological Examination”, Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, Vol. 43, No. 3. (Sept., 1953), pp. 226-249.

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20
 UNIT 2

POSITIVISM, EMPIRICISM AND

GEOGRAPHY
Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.3 Spread of Scientific and
Expected Learning Outcomes Quantitative Geography
2.2 Principles of Positivism 2.4 Summary
Logical Positivism 2.5 Terminal Questions
Empiricism 2.6 Answers
Historical Background of 2.7 References and Further
Scientific Approach
Reading
Some Key Elements in Scientific
Thinking Scientific Empiricism

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Positivism and empiricism are the philosophical concepts that have been
incorporated into geography that transformed its analytical system and
approach. This brought a paradigm shift in geographical thought in the early
20th century and laid the foundation of what is popularly known as quantitative
geography with its deductive-nomological approach. Geographers focused on
formulating laws, building models, and applying inferential statistics, and
simulation techniques to study spatial patterns and spatial organisation of
geographical phenomena.

As such during this period geographers like other natural scientists became
engaged in prediction based on data collection, compilation, and data
processing with the help of mathematical and statistical tools and techniques.

In the previous unit of this block, you have studied the progress and nature of
geography since World War II. In this Unit, you will study the principles of
Positivism, Empiricism and the spread of scientific and quantitative
geography/revolution.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 trace the historical background of the scientific approach in geography
Saswati Mookherjee 21
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 explain positivism, logical positivism and empiricism
 discuss the emergence and spread of scientific and quantitative
geography.

2.2 PRINCIPLES OF POSITIVISM

2.2.1 Positivism
Positivism is a philosophic system, which opposes metaphysics, and claims
that ‘science provides the only valid form of knowledge, and that sense
perceptions of observable phenomena provide the only road to scientific
knowledge’ (Holt-Jensen, 132). It is a philosophy given by August Comte
(1798-1857). Its core idea is that only science provides a valid form of
knowledge and knowledge acquired through scientific observations through
sensory experiences (collecting valid information) and interrelationships
between the observations. It is value-free, neutral and objective and believes
in the unity of science.

The philosophy of positivism dates back to the 19th century when the French
social philosopher August Comte (1798-1857) brought a revolutionary change
in the field of Social Science by introducing his concept of positivism. He was
highly influenced by Turgot (1727-1781), Burdin and Saint-Simon (1760-
1825), and the empiricism of John Locke and David Hume. Saint–Simonian
doctrine emerged from a rejection of egalitarianism, individualism, and
political sovereignty. Comte’s main purpose was to distinguish science from
both theology and metaphysics. He identified three stages in societal
evolution which are: 1) the theological, 2) the metaphysical and 3) positive-
scientific explanations in terms of universal law and focused on empirical
testing of theories. The Comtian thesis was a rejection of abstract,
metaphysical ideas on the basis of Kantian doctrine (Mann, pp.59-60).
Metaphysics was defined as that which lies outside our sense perceptions
and, therefore, should be considered as unscientific.

Comte’s lectures were published in a book entitled ‘Cours de Philisophie

Positive’ in six volumes (1830- 1842). Compte was of the opinion that the
methods of natural science can be applied in the study of social phenomena.
He argued that the scientific laws that are operative in Natural Sciences can
also be adopted in Social Sciences to enable social science analysis to be
predictive. These predictions based on laws then would be used to
manipulate causal variables with a view to bringing about desired
improvements in society through social-economic planning. Comte was
convinced that “In a positive society, scientific knowledge would replace both
religious belief and free speculation.” (Holt-Jensen, p. 119)

Five basic precepts of Positivism are as follows:

 All scientific knowledge must be based on direct experience of an

immediate reality since direct observation is the surest guarantee that the
knowledge acquired is scientific,
 The direct experience of reality should be complemented by la certitude,
that is the unity of scientific method. Sciences differ from one another in

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Unit 2 Positivism, Empiricism and Geography
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what they study (i.e. subject –matter) rather than how they study (their
method).
 The concept of the unity of scientific method required la précis, that is, a
common scientific goal of formulating testable theories. This implied that
there is no place for subjective value judgements in scientific enquiry,
since based on ethical assertions, value judgements are not products of
scientific observations and are as such not verifiable.
 The positivist view of science incorporated the principle of l’utile, which
means that all scientific knowledge must serve some usual purpose – it
should be utilisable; it should be a means to an end and a tool for social
engineering.
 The fifth precept was la relative, which meant that scientific knowledge is
essentially unfinished and relative because knowledge keeps progressing
by gradual unification of the theories which in turn enhances man’s
awareness of social laws. Great awareness demands more
comprehensive theory.

This was the original view of positivism that dominated scientific thinking for
almost a century.

SAQ 1
a. What is Positivism?
b. What are the five precepts of positivism?

2.2.2 Logical Positivism

Logical positivism is the name given in 1931 by A.E. Blumberg and Herbert
Feigl to a set of philosophical ideas put forward by the Vienna Circle.
Synonymous expressions include ‘consistent empiricism’, ‘logical empiricism’,
‘scientific empiricism’, and ‘logical neo-positivism’. Logical positivism is “an
elaboration of positivism associated with Vienna Circle. Unlike Comte's
positivism, logical positivism admits that some statements can be verified
without recourse to empirical experience. Encompassing the rules of formal
logic, it is possible to distinguish between analytical statements (i.e. priori
propositions whose truth is guaranteed by their internal definitions, as in
mathematics) and synthetic statements (whose truth has to be established by
hypothesis testing)” (Holt-Jensen, p. 223).

Unlike positivism, logical positivism recognised two kinds of statements as

scientifically meaningful: a) empirical or ‘synthetic’ statements, the truth of
which is to be established by verification; and b) analytical statements of logic
and mathematics, which were judged to be true by definition. Much of the
specific critique of logical positivism, as opposed to the more general critique
of positivism, has concentrated on the problems posed by this central
‘principle of verification’ and on the physicalism that it was often supposed to
entail. Many geographers in the 1950s and 1960s in emphasising the
importance of laws, theories and predictions adopted a logical positivist
stance of science and scientific explanation.

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SAQ 2
What is Logical Positivism?

2.2.3 Empiricism
Empiricism is a philosophy, which says that all knowledge is based on
experience derived from the senses empirically tested/experimented. It is that
philosophy of science that advocates all hypotheses and theories must be
based on/tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting
solely on a priori reasoning, intuition or revelation. It believes that knowledge
comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views of
epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and
scepticism. Empiricism emphasises the role of empirical evidence in the
formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions.

Empiricists advocate that all knowledge must be derived from experience, a

posteriori. The debate as to whether a priori knowledge is possible continued
through the following centuries. Bacon’s (1561-1626) philosophy emphasising
sense-experience as the source of scientific knowledge provided the
foundations for the movement later known as empiricism, although he
condemned the word. Most previous empiricists in his view were to be
condemned for conducting random experiments without systematic
organisation or trusting to chance experience instead of attempting to
exercise control over discoveries. He placed a premium on originality, thus
emphasising subjectivity rather than the sociology of knowledge, in a way that
was to become characteristic of the whole empirical movement in the
following century. Continental rationalism relied on the correct application of
human reason, the use of mathematics and logical deduction from universal
principles in science to achieve certainty during the first half of the 17th
century.

Mechanistic world view favoured by the rationalist school provided an added

complication for inquiries concerned with living organisms and particularly
with man.

2.2.4 Scientific Empiricism

Scientific empiricism is defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary as “A
philosophical movement that denies the existence of any ultimate differences
in the science, strives for unified science through a synthesis of scientific
methodologies, comprises in addition to logical positivists thinkers with similar
objectives, and is distinguished from earlier empiricism mainly by emphasis
upon the analysis of language, which is also called unity of science
movement” (https://www.merriam-webster.com)

Scientific empiricism is a philosophical movement that denies the existence of

any differences in the sciences. It adheres to the principle of unity of sciences
through a synthesis of scientific methodologies, comprises in addition to
logical positivist thinkers with similar objectives, and is distinguished from
earlier empiricism. Scientific empiricism moved to an extreme objectivist
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Unit 2 Positivism, Empiricism and Geography
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position, denying not only innate ideas but even the importance of a priori
knowledge in the form of concepts or expectations already in the individual’s
mind prior to present experience. The work of British empiricists is important
for their contribution, which provided the main basis for the emergence of
scientific empiricism in the 18th century, which was marked by the rise of
positivism in the context of sensationist and materialist views. The major
propounders of the British empiricist theory were J. Locke, G. Berkeley and D.
Hume.

SAQ 3
a. What is Empiricim?
b. What is Scientific Empiricism?

2.2.5 Historical Background of Scientific Approach

In this context of discussing geography as a scientific enterprise, (Marshsll,
1985), a few points on methodological differences between inductive-
empirical and deductive-nomological methods must be highlighted. In formal
terms, induction is a type of reasoning in which the premises do not logically
entail the conclusion. Another way of saying this is that induction increases
content, or simply the conclusion goes beyond the available evidence.
Deduction, in contrast, is a type of reasoning in which the conclusion follows
necessarily from the same premises. Deduction, in other words, does not
increase content, although one may require intellectual abilities of a high
order in order to trace all the steps that lead from the premises of a deductive
argument to its conclusion (Marshall, p.115). Induction is important in the
scientific method because of the role it plays in the formulation of empirical
generalisations. These generalisations may be divided into two types, namely
the summative and extended. A summative empirical generalisation describes
a property which has been confirmed by the actual observation of all the
relevant cases. On the other hand, an extended empirical generalisation
goes beyond the evidence on which it is based. It now becomes essential to
differentiate between idiographic and nomothetic attitudes towards scholarly
work. In brief, the idiographic attitude implies a concern with the uniqueness
of individual phenomena or events, whereas the nomothetic approach implies
a desire to subsume individual cases under law or law–like statements of very
general, if not universal applicability (Hartshorne, 1961, pp. 378-97).

The premises of a deductive-nomological explanation are of two kinds,

namely a) laws of nature and b) specific initial conditions (Marshall, p. 118).
Scientists do spend a lot of time making observations and measurements and
they look for regularities in their data. There are such things as deductive-
nomological explanations and at least some scientists subscribe to the band
of determinism implicit in the belief that all events can be subsumed under
natural laws. Now another aspect of the scientific approach is the ability to
make predictions. Here also the same difficulty arises. In the traditional view,
it is possible to accurately predict an event which has not yet taken place
provided we can specify a) the laws of nature which govern the occurrence of
events of the type in question, and b) the initial conditions which describe the
environment within which the event may or may not be about to take place. If
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accordingly to purely deductive reasoning, these laws and initial conditions
logically entail the event, then the occurrence may confidently be predicted.

It may be noted that the general form of the above predictive argument is
identical to that of a deductive–nomological explanation. In both cases, a
strictly deductive conclusion is derived from premises composed of general
laws and initial conditions. This view of knowledge is known to philosophers
as positivism (Marshal, p. 119).

There are the following logical steps (Marshall, p. 124) in any scientific inquiry
which are as follows:

1. statement of the problem;

2. formulation of an appropriate theory;

3. derivation of actual propositions;

4. carrying out empirical tests; and

5. evaluation of results

2.2.6 Some Key Elements in Scientific Thinking

According to Allan Hay (1985), there are four key elements which can be
identified. These elements are theory, law, logic and reduction.

Theory refers to an organised and coherent body of assumptions and

arguments (Theory of Continental Drift). The next important key is the law.
Any fully developed scientific theory contains embedded within it certain
statements about unvarying relationships (relationship between the pressure,
volume and temperature of a mass of gas). These laws may be evident at the
level of everyday experience (law of gravity) or only at the level of scientific
investigation. The next is logic. It is often seen that a theory which consists
entirely of laws based on experience and experiment is viewed with disfavour.
It is seen as more satisfactory if most of the laws and other links in the theory
can be shown to be logically derived from a much smaller number of
fundamental assumptions and laws. Scientists have tended to use
mathematics as the language for expressing and developing this logic, but
other abstract languages are also used. The final key in much scientific
thought is reduction- the idea that the laws and theories of a discipline can be
reexpressed as special cases of the outworking of the laws of a more
fundamental discipline. So for example it can be argued that meteorology is a
special case of physics. Weathering is an example of applied chemistry, and
some authors believe all social science is reducible to psychology. In
geography, reductionism leads from soil geography to soil chemistry and
hence to studies of molecular behaviour and from urban geography to the
behaviour of households and individuals and hence psychology (Marshall, p.
131). Hay is of the opinion that there is a fifth element - the research
hypothesis - which provides a link to the area of scientific practice. In a well-
developed natural science, a research hypothesis predicts the outcome of an
experiment or observation if the theory is correct. Hypotheses in the research
are statements to predict and test the relationship between independent and
dependent variables.

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SAQ 4
Name the four basic elements of scientific thinking.

2.3 SPREAD OF SCIENTIFIC AND

QUANTITATIVE GEOGRAPHY
The acceptance of positivism in geographical analysis became popular in
Geography after the 2nd World War and in the 1950s after the Hartshorne-
Schaefer debate, it emerged as a scientific geography that ushered in
Quantitative Revolution. The geographers of the quantitative school followed
the scientific path of empirical observation, data accumulation, and
mathematical formulation of universal laws and presented law-like
statements. The spatial analysis gave rise to geometric patterns, taxonomic
analysis, and models of various types in the analysis of human activities,
settlement growth, industrial locations, population growth, migration behaviour
and diffusion processes. Geography became spatial science and new sub-
disciplines such as Regional Science emerged. The universal law-making
decision processes were based on three processes of modelling, observation
and statistical analysis. Space and spatial patterns became the prime element
in the analysis of quantitative geography. The application of inferential
statistics as opposed to descriptive statistics became prevalent in
geographical studies. The objectives of the quantification were, i) to make a
prediction, ii) formulation of spatial pattern, iii) to study spatial behaviour, iv)
building topology, and v) building of location theories. This exercise continued
up to the 1950s and1960s. A number of mathematical and stochastic models
emerged (Richard J. Chorley & Peter Haggett,1967 and Torsten
Hagerstrand,1968). The specific models include the simulation model,
(Hagerstrand, 1953), the gravity model (William J. Reilly,1931) input-output
model (Walter Isard & Brian J.L.Berry, 1971), location models (Richard J.
Chorely& Peter Haggett, 1965) and many others.

In the spread of quantitative geography, the name of the following

geographers need special mention. They are William Bunge (Theoretical
Geography, 1962), Ian Burton (The Quantitative Revolution and Theoretical
Geography, 1963), David Harvey (Explanations in Geography, 1969), Walter
Isard (Location and Space Economy,1956, and Methods of Regional
Analysis, 1960), Brian J.L. Berry (Cities as Systems within Systems of Cities,
1964), King (A Note on Theory and Reality, 1960), etc. In America, four
schools pioneered research in quantitative geography (Johnston, 1979, pp.
50-58). These are: 1. Iowa School led by H. McCarty, L.J. King, J.C. Hook
and H.A. Stafford, 2. Wisconsin School led by J.C. Weaver andA.H.
Robinson, 3. Washington School pioneered by W.L. Garrison and E.L.
Ullman, and 4. Social Physics School, Princeton University led by J.Q. Stuart
and W. Warntz. Each of these schools focused on specific aspects of
quantification. McCarty and his co-workers emphasised how to establish the
degree of correspondence between two and more geographical patterns, akin
to the morphological laws as discussed by Schaefer (Johnston, p. 51).
Wisconsin school focused on representing areal data by point and application
of correlation and regression techniques in analysing agriculture and
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population studies. The Washington school being the largest producer of
quantitative papers in geographical studies emphasised the point and line
patterns analysis, the dominant thrust being on the derivation from other
systematic sciences of relevant theories, mathematical methods and
statistical procedures with which to develop morphological laws (Johnston, p.
54). Garrison, one of the leading geographers of this school dealt with
applications of the mathematical procedures of linear programming (Johnston,
55). The Social Physics School, however, focused on various aspects of
population distributions, regularities which were akin to the laws of physics.
The concept of macro-geography was developed by John Q. Stewart and
William Warntz (Johnston, 58).

The spread of scientific methods in geography continued with Harvey’s

introduction to scientific routes (Harvey, 1969), and was further expanded by
scholars like Berry, Isard, Haggett & Chorely, Zelinsky and others. Haggett
and his associates stress that geography is a science of distributions, and
their emphasis is on the regularities in various elements of these distributions
(Harvey, 1969, p. 85). Morrill in his The Spatial Organization of Society
(1970), emphasised the core elements of human geography which he termed
as space, space relations and change in space that is how physical space is
structured, how men relate through space, and how our conception and use
of space change. In this context, he also identified five qualities of space that
are relevant to the understanding of human behaviour which are: 1. Distance,
2. The spatial dimension of separation, 3. Agglomeration, 4. Size and 5.
Relative location. Thus quantitative geography established itself in spatial
arrangements and spatial structures (Haggett,1965). In social physics the
work of Stuart, Zipf and others, the distance was becoming an important
parameter for understanding spatial relationships.

During the late 1960s, a group of British geographers at Bristol University

started questioning the relevance of most statistical procedures in
geographical investigations (Johnston, pp. 94-95). The forecasting and
prediction issue was basic to the work of the Bristol group and their activities
were focused on spatial forecasting which established trend patterns. From
this, it was deduced that geography has a close association with geometry in
its emphasis on the spatial aspects of events but at the same time, it was also
admitted that geometry alone is insufficient as a basis for explanation and
prediction (Johnston, p. 97).

In India, since the early 1970s, the Centre for the Study of Regional
Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi has been engaged
with intensive teaching and research in quantification in geography with
specialisation in regional and urban development and planning.

SAQ 5
What is the major academic event in geography, which gave rise to
quantitative geography?

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2.4 SUMMARY
After examining the spread of scientific methods in geography it becomes
imperative to mention a few points that have been raised by the practising
geographers of quantitative approach. Many scholars have written profusely
about the geographical applications of scientific methods. There are some
inherent problems in this approach. The main problem arises from the twin
facts that geography as a whole deals with multi-variable open systems and
that human geography deals with knowing subjects (Johnston, p137). The
debate has continued for the last half a century or so. However, among a
number of arguments, some are highlighted. These have been summarised
below:

There are critiques of positivism and empiricism as mentioned below:

 The sheer size of a geographical system makes the laboratory

experiment impossible. Even if the system can be reproduced in the
laboratory there is no assurance that all the variables relevant in reality
have been included in the laboratory version.
 In field experiments also and certainly in field data collection much of
the control of extraneous variables is achieved by purely statistical
means which in theory allow the isolation of a two-variable relationship
when all other variables are held constant.
 Another problem which arises in applying the scientific method in
geography is the interference by the observer with the phenomenon
observed. Moreover, the interaction between the observer and the
observed may produce long-run changes which would not otherwise
have occurred (Johnston, pp. 138-139).
In spite of critiques, there are advantages of positivism and empiricism as
mentioned below:

 In spite of the above-mentioned problems is true that the scientific

method does have the ability to provide coherent and testable theories
about the nature of geographical phenomena.
 The scientific methods remain appealing because it is in many respects
a codified and logically connected extension of thought structures
developed in everyday life. Including the willingness to correct theories
or hypotheses in the light of experience.
 The knowledge of a scientific type is required by society for its purposes
of managing social and natural systems.
 At the level of practice, geography will need to retain most of the
elements of the scientific method. The research hypothesis, the
hypothesis test and the prediction as a testing device will be needed.
But the idea that any one sort of observation conclusively proves or
definitively falsifies a theory cannot be retained.
 It is also true that scientific geography in the future will require the
retention, development and refinement of measuring devices, guided by
the emergent geographical theories and by the cognate disciplines from
which they are derived. (Johnston, 141).
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 At the same time, it is also viewed by many scholars that humanistic and
phenomenological approaches may yield valuable new insights into the
nature of geographical phenomena (Nagel,1953).

In a nutshell, in this Unit you have studied:

 Principles of Positivism and Logical Positivism
 Historical background of scientific approach
 Empiricism and Scientific Empiricism
 Key elements in scientific thinking; and
 Spread of Scientific and Quantitative Geography

2.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is the philosophical basis of scientific and quantitative geography?
Critically analyse the merits and demerits of the quantitative approach in
geography throwing light on the contributions made by the Quantitative
geographers.

2. Explain the principles of positivism and logical positivism in detail. How did
positivism and logical positivism influence geographical thinking?

3. Discuss empiricism and logical empiricism in detail.

4. Elaborate the historical background of the scientific approach.

5. Give a detailed discussion on the spread of scientific and quantitative

geography.

2.6 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a. Positivism is a philosophy given by August Compte which is the
application of scientific theories and approaches to scientific knowledge
validated with observable facts.
b. Five basic precepts of positivism are direct experience is the basis of
all scientific knowledge; direct experience of reality should be
complemented by the unity of scientific method (la certitude); the
concept of the unity of scientific method requires a common scientific
goal of formulating testable theories (la precis); all scientific knowledge
should be a means to an end and a tool for social engineering (l’útile);
and scientific knowledge is essentially unfinished and relative (la
relative).
2. Logical positivism is another philosophy which says that some facts in
the form of statements can be verified without empirical experience
encompassing the rules of formal logic.
3. a. Empiricism is a philosophy that all knowledge is based on experience
derived from the senses empirically tested/experimented.

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b. Scientific empiricism is a philosophical movement that denies the
existence of any differences in the sciences. It adheres to the principle
of unity of sciences through a synthesis of scientific methodologies,
comprises in addition to logical positivist thinkers with similar objectives,
and is distinguished from earlier empiricism.
4. The four basic elements of scientific thinking are theory, law, logic and
reduction
5. The major academic event in Geography is the Hartshorne-Schaefer
Debate which gave rise to quantitative geography.

Terminal Questions

1. Write the philosophical background of scientific and quantitative

geography as how it got into existence out of the rejection of purely
descriptive geography and discuss the merits and demerits of the
quantitative approach in geography. You may give the arguments and
counter arguments with main propounders and their work and criticisms
of the approach. Refer to Section 1.2.

2. Explain the principles of positivism and logical positivism with their

influences on geographical thinking. Refer to Sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2.

3. Give a detailed analytical discussion on empiricism and logical

empiricism. Refer to Sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.4.

4. Discuss the historical background of the scientific approach. Refer to

Section 2.2.5.

5. Discuss in detail the spread of scientific and quantitative geography.

Refer to Section 2.3.

2.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Abler, R., J.S. Adams and P. Gould (1971): Spatial Organization: ‘The
Geographer’s view of the World’, Englehood Cliff, New York: The
Prentice-Hall, pp 72-88.
2. Berry, B.J. L. (1964): ”Cities as systems within systems of cities”,
Regional Science Association, Vol 13, Issue 1, pp 147-63.
3. Bunge, W. (1962): ‘Theoretical Geography, Issue 1 of Lund studies in
geography: General and mathematical geography, Vol. 1, Lund Studies
in Geography’, the University of California: C. W. K. Gleerup.
4. Burton, I: 1963: ‘The quantitative revolution and theoretical geography’,
The Canadian Geographer 7, PP 151-162.
5. Chorley, R.J. and Haggett, P (eds)(1967): Models in Geography,
London: Methuen.
6. Christaller, W. (1966): Central Places in Southern Germany,(translated
by C.W. Baskin), Englewood Cliffs: Prentice –Hall.
7. Cloke, P, P. and Chris, D. Sadler (eds)(1991): Approaching Human
Geography, London, UK: Guilford Press.

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Block - 1 Geography Since World War II
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Haggett, P. (1965): Locational Analysis in Human Geography, London:
Edward Arnold.
9. Hartshorne, R. (1961): ‘The Nature of Geography: A Critical Survey of
Current Thought in the Light of the Past, 2ndedn, Lancaster,
Pennsylvania: Association of American Geographers.
10. Harvey, D. (1969): Explanation in Geography, London: Edward Arnold.
11. Isard, W. (1956): Location and Space Economy, New York: John Wiley.
12. Isard, W. (1960): Methods of Regional Analysis; An Introduction in
Regional Science, New York: John Wiley.
13. Johnston, R.J, D. Gregory, G. Pratt, L &M. Watts (eds) (2001):
Dictionary of Human Geography, Oxford, U K: Blackwell Pub, Ltd,
pp.664-667.
14. Johnston, R.J. (1979): Geography and Geographers Anglo-American
Human Geography since 1945, London: Edward Arnold, pp. 49-65.
15. Johnston, R.J. (ed) (1985): The Future of Geography, London:
Methuen, pp. 131-141.
16. King, L. J. (1960): “A note on theory and reality”, The Professional
Geographer, 12 (3), pp. 4-6.
17. King, L. J. (1969): “The analysis on spatial form and its relationship to
geographic theory”, Annals, Association of American Geographers,51,
pp. 222-33.
18. Mann, M. (ed) (1983): Macmillan Student Encyclopaedia of Sociology,
UK: Macmillan International Higher Education.
19. Nagel, E. (1953): “On the method of verstehen as the sole method in
philosophy”, Journal of Philosophy, 50, pp. 154-7.
20. O’Connor, D.J. (1964): A Critical History of Western Philosophy,
Pennsylvania State University, Free Press of Glencoe, pp. 52-53.
21. Young, A. (1972): Slopes, Edinburg: Oliver & Boyd.
22. Zipf, G.K. (1949): Human Behaviour and the Principles of Least Effort,
Hafne: New York.
23. Marshall, J.U. (1985): "Geography as a scientific enterprise" in
Johnston, R.J. (ed.): The Future of Geography, London: Methuen, pp.
113-128.
24. Hay, Allan (1985): "Scientific Method Geography" in Johnston, R.J.
(ed.): The Future of Geography, London: Methuen, pp. 129-142.
25. Holt-Jensen, Arild (2018): Geography- History and Concepts, Sage:
New Delhi.

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Block - 1 Search for Relevance
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
GLOSSARY
Deductive : In this method of research, the approach is from general to
Method particular. The observations are tested based on the general
principles and hypotheses are tested on whether to accept
the general principle or not. The research starts with known
to unknown.
Empiricism : Empiricism is a philosophy, which says that all knowledge is
based on experience derived from the senses empirically
tested/experimented. It is that philosophy of science that
advocates all hypotheses and theories must be tested
against observations of the natural world rather than resting
solely on a priori reasoning, intuition or revelation.
Hartshorne- : During the post-Second World War period, geography was
Schaefer greatly shaped by an idea of spatial science through the
Debate Quantitative Revolution. During this period there was a
series of articles by Richard Hartshorne and F.K. Schaefer
where Schaefer argued that Geography cannot remain with
exceptionalism means just differentiation with uniqueness as
regions, but it was more than that - emerging as the spatial
science. This exchange of ideas between Hartshorne and
Schaefer about the nature of geography evolving from
exceptional Discipline to spatial science.
Idiographic : It is related to the description of uniqueness very closely
related to exceptionalism or regional geography or history
both of which deal with a particular region or event.
Inductive : In this method of research, the generalisation is derived
Method after making observations and measuring and testing the
hypotheses. It is the method, which moves from particular to
general. Here the research starts with the unknown.
Logical : Logical positivism is another philosophy, which says that
Positivism some facts in the form of statements can be verified without
empirical experience encompassing the rules of formal logic.
Nomological : It is a branch of the scientific method that is concerned with
Method explaining natural phenomena leading to the formulation of
law.
Nomothetic : It is related to the universal and the general by drawing or
formulating general laws through the observations of
common properties.
Percepts of : Five basic percepts of positivism are direct experience is the
Positivism basis of all scientific knowledge; direct experience of reality
should be complemented by the unity of scientific method (la
certitude); the concept of the unity of scientific method
requires a common scientific goal of formulating testable
theories (la precis); all scientific knowledge should be a
means to an end and a tool for social engineering (l’útile);
and scientific knowledge is essentially unfinished and

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Block -1 Glossary
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
relative (la relative).
Positivism : Positivism is a philosophy given by August Compte, which is
an application of scientific theories and approaches to
scientifically validated knowledge with observable facts.
Regional : Geographical study of any region or unit of area holistically
Geography covering physical and human aspects as a synthesis or
integrative study. In other words, regional geography is the
geographical study of regions with their total features and
phenomena as single composition with their complex
interrelationships through synthesis and integration of both
the aspects- physical as well as human with causal
relationships considering both as cause and effect
simultaneously. Regional geography covers all topics of
physical geography and human geography at the macro,
meso or micro level region.
Scientific : Scientific explanation in geography means the explanation
Explanation of what exists or what is going to exist based on answering
in Geography the questions of why and how following systematic
observation of data and formulation and testing of
hypothesis (empiricism).
Spatial : The study of the distribution of specific features or
Analysis phenomena from spatial perspectives or their locational
perspective.
The Scientific : Scientific empiricism is a philosophical movement that
Empiricism denies the existence of any differences in the sciences. It
adheres to the principle of unity of sciences through a
synthesis of scientific methodologies, which comprises in
addition to logical positivists thinkers with similar objectives,
and is distinguished from earlier empiricism.

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