Wind and Solar Energy Systems (EE74CPE, PE-IV)

Unit-II Wind Generator Topologies

(Lecture Notes)

Dr. Ravi Dharavath

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Nalla Malla Reddy Engineering College

Hyderabad, Telangana
August 22, 2023

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Contents
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Darrieus Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Savonius Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Hybrid Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Offshore Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Floating Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Small-Scale and Micro Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Review of modern wind turbine technologies 6

2.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 AC Generator 9
3.1 Induction Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.2 Wound Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.3 Doubly-Fed Induction Generators and their characteristics . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.1 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.2 Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator (WRSG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Power electronics converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Generator configurations 16

5 Converter Control 16

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 UNIT – II
WIND GENERATOR TOPOLOGIES
Syllubus: Review of modern wind turbine technologies, Fixed and Variable speed wind tur-
bine, Induction Generators, Doubly-Fed Induction Generators and their characteristics, Perma-
nent Magnet Synchronous Generators, Power electronics converters. Generator configurations,
Converter Control

1 Introduction
Wind generators, also known as wind turbines, are devices that convert the kinetic energy of
wind into mechanical energy, which is then transformed into electrical energy. There are several
different wind generator topologies, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Here are
some of the most common wind generator topologies:

1.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs):

These are the most common type of wind turbines. They have a horizontal main shaft and
blades that rotate around this axis. HAWTs are further classified based on the number of
blades they have, such as two-bladed, three-bladed, or even more. The three-bladed design is
the most prevalent due to its efficiency and stability.

Figure 1: Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

Advantages: High efficiency, mature technology, suitable for both small-scale and large-
scale applications.
Disadvantages: Requires yaw control mechanism to face the wind, larger tower and foun-
dation requirements.

1.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs):

VAWTs have a vertical main shaft, and the blades rotate around this axis. There are different
designs for VAWTs, including Darrieus, Savonius, and helical designs.

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 Figure 2: Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs)

Advantages: Potentially easier maintenance since components are located closer to the
ground, no need for yaw control, can capture wind from any direction.
Disadvantages: Generally lower efficiency compared to HAWTs, more complex mechanical
design, less common and mature.

1.2.1 Darrieus Wind Turbines

A type of VAWT with curved blades that resemble an egg beater. They can start and stop
rotating without the need for active pitch control.

Figure 3: Darrieus Wind Turbines

The Darrieus wind turbine is a type of vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) used to generate
electricity from wind energy. The turbine consists of a number of curved aerofoil blades mounted
on a rotating shaft or framework. The curvature of the blades allows the blade to be stressed
only in tension at high rotating speeds. There are several closely related wind turbines that
use straight blades. This design of the turbine was patented by Georges Jean Marie Darrieus,
a French aeronautical engineer; filing for the patent was October 1, 1926. There are major
difficulties in protecting the Darrieus turbine from extreme wind conditions and in making it
self-starting.

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1.2.2 Savonius Wind Turbines
These are VAWTs with S-shaped blades. They are simpler in design but have lower efficiency
compared to other types.

Figure 4: Savonius Wind Turbines

They have several advantages over horizontal axis wind turbines, notably, low noise levels,
the ability to operate with low wind speeds and relative independence on the wind direction.

1.3 Hybrid Wind Turbines

Hybrid turbines combine features of both HAWTs and VAWTs to capture wind energy from
different directions and speeds. These designs aim to improve efficiency and performance.

1.4 Offshore Wind Turbines

Offshore wind turbines are installed in bodies of water, such as oceans or large lakes. They are
typically larger and more powerful than onshore turbines due to the higher and more consistent

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wind speeds offshore.

1.5 Floating Wind Turbines

These turbines are designed to float on the surface of the water using buoyant platforms. They
enable the deployment of wind turbines in deep waters, where fixed foundations are not feasible.

1.6 Small-Scale and Micro Wind Turbines

These turbines are designed for residential, commercial, or remote applications where grid
connection is not available. They come in various sizes and designs, including vertical and
horizontal axis designs.
Each wind turbine topology has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of
topology depends on factors such as wind conditions, available space, cost considerations, and
intended application.

2 Review of modern wind turbine technologies

As of my last knowledge update in September 2021, I can provide a review of some modern
wind turbine technologies that were prominent up to that point. Please note that advancements
may have occurred since then, and I recommend checking more recent sources for the latest
developments in wind turbine technology. Here are some key trends and innovations up to
2021:
Turbine Size and Power Output Increase: Wind turbines have been increasing in size,
resulting in higher power output. Larger rotor diameters enable turbines to capture more wind
energy and generate more electricity. This trend aims to improve efficiency and reduce the cost
per unit of electricity produced.
Direct-Drive Generators: Traditional wind turbines use gearboxes to increase the ro-
tational speed of the rotor to match the generator’s speed. Direct-drive generators eliminate
the need for gearboxes, leading to improved efficiency, reduced maintenance, and increased
reliability.
Variable-Speed Operation: Many modern wind turbines utilize variable-speed operation,
where the rotor’s rotational speed can be adjusted to match the varying wind speeds. This
improves energy capture efficiency and reduces mechanical stress on the turbine.
Advanced Blade Designs: Research has focused on designing more aerodynamically
efficient and quieter turbine blades. These designs aim to maximize energy capture while
minimizing noise and vibrations, which can have environmental and community impacts.
Smart Control and Monitoring: Advanced control systems use real-time data from
sensors to optimize turbine performance. These systems adjust parameters such as blade pitch,
yaw control, and generator output to respond dynamically to changing wind conditions and
maximize energy production.
Floating Offshore Wind Turbines: Offshore wind energy has expanded with the devel-
opment of floating wind turbines. These turbines can be deployed in deep waters, where fixed
foundations are not feasible. Floating turbines offer the potential to access higher and more
consistent wind speeds.
Hybrid Systems and Energy Storage Integration: Some wind farms have integrated
energy storage systems, such as batteries, to smooth out fluctuations in electricity production
due to variable wind conditions. Hybrid systems that combine wind power with solar or other
renewable sources are also being explored to enhance overall energy reliability.

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 Digital Twin Technology: Digital twin technology involves creating virtual replicas of
physical wind turbines. This enables remote monitoring, predictive maintenance, and perfor-
mance optimization, resulting in reduced downtime and maintenance costs.
Material Advancements: Research into lightweight and durable materials, such as ad-
vanced composites, has aimed to improve the structural integrity of turbine components and
reduce manufacturing costs.
Grid Integration and Power Electronics: Wind turbines are increasingly equipped with
advanced power electronics to ensure stable grid integration. These systems enable dynamic
reactive power control and grid frequency stabilization, contributing to grid stability.
Noise Reduction Strategies: Wind turbine noise has been a concern for nearby com-
munities. Innovations in aerodynamics, blade design, and tower construction have aimed to
reduce operational noise levels.
It’s important to note that the wind energy industry is dynamic, and ongoing research and
development continue to drive advancements in wind turbine technology. To get the most up-
to-date information on modern wind turbine technologies, I recommend consulting industry
reports, research publications, and news sources covering developments in the field.
Wind turbines can operate either with a fixed speed or a variable speed. Fixed-speed and
variable-speed wind turbines refer to different methods of controlling the rotational speed of
the turbine’s rotor and the generator’s output in response to varying wind conditions. Each
approach has its own advantages and disadvantages. Here’s an overview of both:

2.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines:

In the early 1990s the standard installed wind turbines operated at fixed speed. That means
that regardless of the wind speed, the wind turbine’s rotor speed is fixed and determined by
the frequency of the supply grid, the gear ratio and the generator design.
It is characteristic of fixed-speed wind turbines that they are equipped with an induction
generator (squirrel cage or wound rotor) that is directly connected to the grid, with a soft-starter
and a capacitor bank for reducing reactive power compensation. They are designed to achieve
maximum efficiency at one particular wind speed. In order to increase power production, the
generator of some fixed-speed wind turbines has two winding sets: one is used at low wind
speeds (typically 8 poles) and the other at medium and high wind speeds (typically 4–6 poles).

Figure 5: Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines

The fixed-speed wind turbine has the advantage of being simple, robust and reliable and
well-proven. And the cost of its electrical parts is low. Its disadvantages are an uncontrollable
reactive power consumption, mechanical stress and limited power quality control. Owing to its
fixed-speed operation, all fluctuations in the wind speed are further transmitted as fluctuations
in the mechanical torque and then as fluctuations in the electrical power on the grid. In the

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case of weak grids, the power fluctuations can also lead to large voltage fluctuations, which, in
turn, will result in significant line losses (Larsson, 2000).
In fixed-speed wind turbines, the rotational speed of the rotor is fixed or locked at a spe-
cific speed regardless of the wind speed. This fixed speed is typically chosen to optimize the
turbine’s energy capture at a specific wind speed range, often near the average wind speed at
the turbine’s location.

Advantages:
Simplicity: Fixed-speed turbines are simpler in design and have fewer complex control
systems.
Reliability: With fewer moving parts and control mechanisms, they can be more reliable
and require less maintenance.
Cost: Fixed-speed turbines tend to be less expensive to manufacture and maintain.

Disadvantages:
Efficiency: These turbines are less efficient in capturing energy from variable wind speeds.
They may operate below their optimal efficiency at low or high wind speeds.
Grid Compatibility: Fixed-speed turbines can be less flexible when it comes to grid
integration and power quality control.

2.2 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines:

During the past few years the variable-speed wind turbine has become the dominant type among
the installed wind turbines. Variable-speed wind turbines are designed to achieve maximum
aerodynamic efficiency over a wide range of wind speeds. With a variable-speed operation it
has become possible continuously to adapt (accelerate or decelerate) the rotational speed of the
wind turbine to the wind speed. This way, the tip speed ratio is kept constant at a predefined
value that corresponds to the maximum power coefficient.(1) Contrary to a fixed-speed system,
a variable-speed system keeps the generator torque fairly constant and the variations in wind
are absorbed by changes in the generator speed.

Figure 6: Variable-Speed Wind Turbines

The electrical system of a variable-speed wind turbine is more complicated than that of a
fixed-speed wind turbine. It is typically equipped with an induction or synchronous generator
and connected to the grid through a power converter. The power converter controls the gener-
ator speed; that is, the power fluctuations caused by wind variations are absorbed mainly by
changes in the rotor generator speed and consequently in the wind turbine rotor speed. The
advantages of variable-speed wind turbines are an increased energy capture, improved power

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quality and reduced mechanical stress on the wind turbine. The disadvantages are losses in
power electronics, the use of more components and the increased cost of equipment because of
the power electronics.
The introduction of variable-speed wind-turbine types increases the number of applicable
generator types and also introduces several degrees of freedom in the combination of generator
type and power converter type.
Variable-speed wind turbines have the ability to adjust the rotational speed of the rotor
and the generator’s output to match the incoming wind speed. This allows the turbine to cap-
ture more energy over a wider range of wind speeds, making them more adaptable to changing
conditions.

Advantages:
Energy Capture: Variable-speed turbines can capture more energy from varying wind
speeds, leading to higher overall efficiency and increased power output.
Reduced Loads: The ability to adjust rotor speed can help reduce mechanical stresses on
the turbine, leading to longer component lifespan.
Grid Integration: Variable-speed turbines offer more control over power output, enabling
better integration with the grid, including dynamic reactive power control.

Disadvantages:
Complexity: Variable-speed turbines require sophisticated control systems and power elec-
tronics, which can lead to increased complexity and maintenance needs.
Cost: These turbines are generally more expensive due to the advanced control systems
and power electronics required.
In practice, the wind energy industry has been shifting toward variable-speed turbines as
they offer higher energy capture efficiency and better grid integration capabilities. As wind
technology continues to advance, variable-speed turbines are becoming the preferred choice
due to their ability to respond to varying wind conditions and improve overall performance.
However, fixed-speed turbines can still be suitable for certain applications, especially in regions
with relatively consistent wind conditions or for smaller-scale installations where simplicity and
cost-effectiveness are priorities.

3 AC Generator
3.1 Induction Generators
Induction generators, also known as asynchronous generators, are a type of electrical generator
used in various applications, including wind turbines, hydroelectric plants, and some types
of industrial machinery. These generators operate based on the principles of electromagnetic
induction, which is the process of producing an electric current in a conductor by moving it
through a magnetic field.
Here’s an overview of how induction generators work and their characteristics:
Principle of Operation: Induction generators work by inducing an electric current in the
rotor (rotating part) of the generator through the process of electromagnetic induction. When
the rotor is rotated within a magnetic field, it cuts across the magnetic lines of flux, inducing
an electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the rotor windings. This induced voltage causes
a current to flow in the rotor, creating a rotating magnetic field. This rotating magnetic field
interacts with the stator windings (stationary part) and induces voltage in the stator windings,
generating electric power.
Characteristics:

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 Synchronous Speed: Induction generators do not operate at a fixed synchronous speed
like synchronous generators. Instead, they operate slightly below synchronous speed, a con-
dition known as ”slip.” The slip ensures that there’s a relative motion between the rotating
magnetic field in the rotor and the stator windings, inducing the necessary voltage.
Self-Excitation: Induction generators are often self-excited, meaning they don’t require
a separate excitation source to establish a magnetic field. The voltage is induced in the rotor
windings by the relative motion between the rotor and the stator.
Variable Speed: Induction generators can operate over a range of speeds, making them
suitable for applications where the input speed may vary, such as wind turbines and certain
hydroelectric installations.
Simplicity: Induction generators are relatively simple in design compared to other types
of generators like synchronous generators. They have fewer components and require less main-
tenance.
Efficiency: While induction generators can be efficient, their efficiency can be influenced
by factors like the level of slip and the load conditions.
Voltage Regulation: Induction generators can experience voltage variations under varying
load conditions, and voltage regulation can be a challenge. In some applications, additional
equipment such as capacitors may be used to improve voltage regulation.
Applications:
Wind Turbines: Induction generators were historically used in some older wind turbine
designs due to their simplicity and robustness. However, modern wind turbines have shifted
toward using synchronous generators or doubly-fed induction generators (DFIGs) due to their
better control capabilities.
Hydroelectric Plants: Induction generators have been used in small-scale hydroelectric
plants where the available water flow and pressure are relatively constant.
Industrial Applications: Induction generators can also be found in some industrial ap-
plications where variable speed operation is desirable.
It’s worth noting that induction generators have limitations in terms of control, efficiency,
and voltage regulation compared to more advanced generator technologies like synchronous
generators and permanent magnet generators. As a result, in many modern applications,
alternative generator technologies are preferred to optimize performance and efficiency.
The three types of Induction generators used in wind power generation are:-
ˆ Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)
ˆ Wound Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG)
ˆ Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
Though these belong to the same category of generators, they use different power converters
depending on which, there are different speed concepts (fixed, limited variable or variable). As
Induction Generators are asynchronous generators i.e. they can have variable speeds, therefore
they are said to be best suited for wind power generation because of the wide range wind speeds
involved. But even among this class of generators, DFIG is the most popular, and the reason
for this has been explained later.

3.1.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)

The SCIG uses a power converter and a capacitor bank, for maintaining the magnetising cur-
rent. A multiple-stage gearbox is used and the SCIG is directly connected to the Grid through
a transformer as shown. Because the SCIG operates only in a narrow range around the syn-
chronous speed (that too at speeds greater than the synchronous speed), the wind turbine
equipped with this type of generator is often called the fixed speed wind generator system.

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 Figure 7: Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)

This is the conventional concept applied by many Danish wind turbine manufacturers in
the 1980s and 1990s that is, an upwind, stall regulated, three bladed wind turbine system using
an SCIG, so it is also referred to as Danish concept. Smoother Grid connection was achieved
by incorporating a soft starter as power converter. Further, a pole changeable SCIG can be
used which leads to rotation speeds.

3.1.2 Wound Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG)

The schematic shows a limited variable speed concept with multiple-stage gearbox is known
as the Optislip Concept. This uses WRIG with a variable resistance and a power electronic
converter. The stator of the IG is connected to the grid via a power converter and a transformer,
whereas the rotor winding is connected in series with a controlled resistor.

Figure 8: Wound Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG)

Variable-speed operation can be achieved by controlling the energy extracted from a WRIG
rotor; however this power must be dissipated in the external resistor. With increase in vari-
able speed range, a higher slip means a high power extracted by the rotor and lower generator
efficiency, so that the rating of the resistor must also be higher. Therefore the dynamic speed
control range depends on the size and rating of the variable rotor resistance, and the energy
extracted from the external resistor is dumped as heat loss across the controllable rotor resis-
tance. A typical limited variable speed range is less than 10% above the synchronous speed.
Furthermore reactive power compensation (capacitor bank) and a soft starter are used in this
concept. Additionally slip rings may be avoided by building the power converter and exter-
nal resistor on the rotor and transmitting the control signals to the rotating electronics by an
optical coupling .

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3.1.3 Doubly-Fed Induction Generators and their characteristics
Doubly-Fed Induction Generators (DFIGs) are a type of electrical generator commonly used
in modern wind turbines. They are a variation of the traditional induction generator that
addresses some of the limitations associated with fixed-speed induction generators. DFIGs
offer improved control over power output and efficiency, making them well-suited for variable
wind conditions.

Figure 9: Doubly-Fed Induction Generators

Here are the key characteristics of DFIGs:

Principle of Operation: DFIGs consist of a wound rotor (rotating part) and a stator
(stationary part), much like traditional induction generators. However, what sets DFIGs apart
is the rotor’s unique design and the ability to control the electrical power flow between the
rotor and the grid.
In DFIGs:
The rotor windings are connected to the grid through power electronics, usually in the form
of a back-to-back converter system. The stator is directly connected to the grid, while the rotor
is indirectly connected through the converter. Characteristics:
Variable Speed Operation: DFIGs can operate at variable speeds, allowing them to
capture energy efficiently across a wide range of wind speeds. This is achieved by controlling
the rotor’s slip and speed through the converter.
Power Control: The ability to control the power flow between the rotor and the grid
through the converter allows for better control over the generator’s power output. This feature
enables the turbine to provide grid support services, such as voltage and frequency regulation.
Partial Power Conversion: Only a portion of the total power generated by the rotor
passes through the converter. This partial power conversion reduces the size and cost of the
converter compared to fully-rated power electronics, as used in full-converter systems.
Variable Torque Control: DFIGs allow for variable torque control, which is beneficial
for optimizing energy capture and reducing mechanical loads on the turbine’s components.
Grid Fault Ride-Through: DFIGs can be designed to ride through grid faults (temporary
power disturbances) without disconnecting from the grid, enhancing the stability of the power
system.
Efficiency: DFIGs offer higher efficiency compared to traditional fixed-speed induction
generators, as they allow for better control of the generator’s operating point to match changing
wind conditions.
Cost: DFIGs are generally less expensive than full-converter-based solutions, making them
a cost-effective choice for wind turbines.
Applications: DFIGs are primarily used in modern wind turbine applications. They are
commonly found in large-scale onshore and offshore wind farms. Their ability to efficiently
capture energy across varying wind speeds, coupled with their controllability and grid support
capabilities, has made them a popular choice for many wind energy projects.

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 While DFIGs have significant advantages over fixed-speed induction generators, they do
have some limitations, such as limited control over reactive power and the complexity of the
converter system. As wind turbine technology continues to evolve, other generator technologies
like direct-drive permanent magnet generators (PMGs) are also gaining popularity due to their
higher efficiency and reduced maintenance requirements.

3.2 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators (PMSGs) are a type of electrical generator that
utilize permanent magnets to create a magnetic field in the rotor. PMSGs have gained signifi-
cant attention and adoption in various applications, including wind turbines, electric vehicles,
and industrial machinery, due to their high efficiency, compact size, and excellent controllability.
Here are the key characteristics and features of PMSGs:
Principle of Operation: PMSGs consist of a stator (stationary part) and a rotor (rotating
part). The rotor is equipped with permanent magnets that create a fixed magnetic field. The
stator is wound with coils of wire to produce an alternating magnetic field when electric current
flows through them.
The interaction between the fixed magnetic field of the rotor and the rotating magnetic field
of the stator induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the stator windings, generating electrical
power.
Characteristics:
High Efficiency: PMSGs offer high efficiency due to the absence of rotor windings and
associated losses. The direct interaction between the permanent magnet field and the stator
windings reduces energy losses and improves overall efficiency.
High Power Density: PMSGs have a high power-to-weight ratio, allowing them to gen-
erate a significant amount of power in a relatively compact size.
Variable Speed Operation: PMSGs can operate at variable speeds while maintaining
their efficiency, making them suitable for applications with fluctuating input speeds, such as
wind turbines.
No Rotor Excitation Power: Unlike traditional synchronous generators, PMSGs do not
require a separate power source to create the rotor’s magnetic field. This eliminates the need
for additional components and reduces losses.
Low Maintenance: The absence of rotor windings and brushes (if equipped with brushless
technology) reduces maintenance requirements compared to other generator types.
Precise Control: PMSGs offer excellent controllability through the use of power electronics
and control algorithms. This enables fine-tuning of power output and optimal operation in
varying conditions.
Regenerative Braking: In applications like electric vehicles, PMSGs can be used for
regenerative braking, converting kinetic energy back into electrical energy during braking.
Cost: PMSGs may initially have higher manufacturing costs due to the permanent magnets,
but their long-term efficiency and reduced maintenance costs can offset the initial investment.
Applications: PMSGs are used in a variety of applications, including:
Wind Turbines: PMSGs are common in modern wind turbine designs due to their effi-
ciency and ability to capture energy across varying wind speeds.
Electric Vehicles: PMSGs can be used in electric and hybrid vehicles to generate elec-
tricity during regenerative braking and to provide power to the vehicle’s electrical systems.
Industrial Machinery: PMSGs are used in various industrial applications where high
efficiency and precise control are crucial.
Hydropower: PMSGs can also be used in small-scale hydropower installations, especially
where variable speed operation is desirable.

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 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators have become a popular choice in various in-
dustries due to their efficiency, controllability, and adaptability to different applications. Their
continued development and integration into renewable energy and electric vehicle systems con-
tribute to the advancement of sustainable technologies.
Synchronous generators are of two major types -
ˆ Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)

ˆ Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator (WRSG)

3.2.1 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)

In permanent magnet based WECS the output voltage and current is proportional to electro-
magnetic torque and rotor speed. A diode rectifier with a dc link capacitor followed by inverter
circuit is most widely used converter with PMSG based WECS as shown in the figure below.
It has the benefit of being simple and there is no need of controlling at rectifier side. On the
other hand, it has some limitations. The dc link capacitor is bulky and having short life-span.
There are much more ripples in inverter voltage.

Figure 10: Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)

In place of dc link capacitor a dc/dc boost stage (by diode rectifier) can also be used as
shown in the figure below. It provides control of generator side dc voltage through variation
in switching ratio. Since one additional switching stage is used, it decreases its efficiency and
increases the cost.

3.2.2 Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator (WRSG)

The amplitude and frequency of the voltage can be fully controlled by the power electronic
converter at the generator side, so that the generator is fully controllable over a very wide
range, even to very low speeds.

Figure 11: Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator (WRSG)

In addition, the WRSG has the opportunity of controlling the flux for minimised loss in
different power ranges, because the excitation current can be controlled by means of the power

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converter on the rotor side. Moreover it does not require the use of permanent magnets which
would represent a large fraction of the generator costs, and might suffer from performance loss
in harsh atmospheric conditions. Therefore it is the most used direct-drive generator in market.

3.3 Power electronics converters

Power electronics converters are devices that transform and manipulate electrical energy be-
tween different voltage, current, and frequency levels. They play a crucial role in various
applications where efficient energy conversion, control, and management are essential. These
converters are widely used in renewable energy systems, electric vehicles, industrial processes,
consumer electronics, and more. Here are some common types of power electronics converters:
AC-DC Converters (Rectifiers): AC-DC converters, also known as rectifiers, convert
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). They are used in various applications such as
battery charging, computer power supplies, and more. Depending on the design, they can be
uncontrolled (half-wave rectifiers) or controlled (full-wave rectifiers with diodes or thyristors).
DC-DC Converters (Choppers): DC-DC converters, also called choppers or voltage
regulators, convert one DC voltage level to another. They are used in applications like voltage
regulation, battery charging, and power supply systems. Common types include buck convert-
ers, boost converters, and buck-boost converters.
DC-AC Converters (Inverters): DC-AC converters, known as inverters, transform di-
rect current (DC) into alternating current (AC). They are used in applications such as solar
inverters, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), and motor drives. Inverters can generate si-
nusoidal or modified sinusoidal output waveforms.
AC-AC Converters: AC-AC converters change the amplitude, frequency, or phase of an
AC waveform while keeping it in AC form. Examples include cycloconverters, which change
frequency and amplitude simultaneously, and matrix converters, which allow bidirectional AC-
AC conversion.
Voltage Source Converters (VSCs): VSCs are a type of power electronics converter
used in applications requiring voltage and reactive power control. They are commonly used in
renewable energy systems like wind turbines and photovoltaic inverters.
Current Source Converters (CSCs): CSCs are another type of power electronics con-
verter used to control current output. They find applications in high-voltage DC transmission
systems and industrial processes.
Matrix Converters: Matrix converters are AC-AC converters that directly connect input
phases to output phases using a matrix of bidirectional switches. They offer advantages such
as bidirectional power flow and compact size.
Multilevel Converters: Multilevel converters use multiple levels of voltage to generate
high-quality output waveforms with reduced harmonic content. They are used in high-voltage
and medium-voltage applications.
Resonant Converters: Resonant converters are designed to operate at specific resonant
frequencies, resulting in reduced switching losses and higher efficiency. They are often used in
applications where efficiency is critical, such as wireless charging and medical equipment.
Solid-State Circuit Breakers: These are power electronics devices used to interrupt
and control the flow of electrical current. They offer faster response times and finer control
compared to traditional mechanical circuit breakers.
These are just a few examples of power electronics converters, and there are many other
specialized converter topologies and configurations used in various applications. The choice
of converter type depends on the specific requirements of the application, including efficiency,
control capabilities, voltage and current levels, and power quality considerations.

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4 Generator configurations
There are several generator configurations used in various applications to generate electrical
power. These configurations differ based on factors such as the type of generator, the power
source, and the intended use. Here are some common generator configurations:
Single-Phase Generators: Single-phase generators produce a single alternating current
(AC) waveform. They are often used in residential applications and smaller devices that don’t
require a high level of power.
Three-Phase Generators: Three-phase generators produce three separate AC waveforms
with a 120-degree phase shift between them. These generators are commonly used in industrial
and commercial applications because of their higher power output and better efficiency.
Standalone Generators: Standalone generators, also known as backup generators, are
used to provide power during outages or in remote areas without access to the main electrical
grid. They can run on various fuels, including diesel, natural gas, propane, or gasoline.
Grid-Tied Generators: Grid-tied generators are designed to work in synchronization with
the main electrical grid. They can supplement the grid’s power supply or feed excess power
back into the grid when generating more than what’s needed.
Portable Generators: Portable generators are compact and designed for temporary power
needs. They are often used for construction sites, camping, outdoor events, and emergency
situations.
Stationary Generators: Stationary generators are permanently installed and often used
for backup power in homes, businesses, hospitals, and critical facilities. They can be either
standby (automatically activated during power outages) or prime (used as the primary power
source in remote locations).
Diesel Generators: Diesel generators use diesel fuel to power an internal combustion
engine, which drives the generator to produce electricity. They are known for their fuel efficiency
and durability.
Gas Generators: Gas generators can run on natural gas or propane. They are often
chosen for their cleaner emissions compared to diesel generators.
Steam Turbine Generators: Steam turbine generators use steam to drive a turbine
connected to a generator. They are commonly used in power plants where steam is produced
using fossil fuels, nuclear energy, or renewable sources.
Wind Turbine Generators: Wind turbine generators convert the kinetic energy of wind
into electrical energy through the rotation of turbine blades. They come in various sizes and
configurations, including horizontal-axis and vertical-axis designs.
Hydroelectric Generators: Hydroelectric generators use the energy from flowing water
to turn a turbine, which drives a generator. They are used in hydroelectric power plants, where
water is stored in reservoirs and released to generate electricity.
Solar Photovoltaic Generators: Solar photovoltaic (PV) generators, also known as solar
panels, convert sunlight directly into electricity using semiconductor materials. They are widely
used in residential, commercial, and utility-scale applications.
These are just a few examples of the many generator configurations used in different con-
texts. The choice of generator configuration depends on factors such as power requirements,
application, fuel availability, and environmental considerations.

5 Converter Control
Converter control refers to the management and regulation of power electronics converters in
various electrical systems. Power electronics converters are devices that convert electrical energy
from one form to another, typically changing the voltage, frequency, or current characteristics.

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Converter control is crucial in applications such as renewable energy systems, electric vehicles,
industrial processes, and more. It involves adjusting the operation of the converter to achieve
specific objectives, such as efficient energy conversion, grid integration, or motor control. Here’s
an overview of converter control:
Key Concepts in Converter Control:
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): PWM is a widely used technique in converter control.
It involves rapidly switching the converter’s semiconductor devices (like transistors) on and off
to create a series of voltage pulses. The width of these pulses determines the effective output
voltage or current, allowing for precise control.
Voltage and Current Regulation: Converter control aims to regulate the output voltage
or current to achieve desired levels. This is important for ensuring stable and reliable operation
of connected devices or systems.
Current Limiting and Overcurrent Protection: Converters can be equipped with
current limiting and overcurrent protection mechanisms to prevent excessive currents that could
damage the system or the converter itself.
Voltage and Frequency Control in Grid-Connected Systems: In renewable energy
systems like solar and wind power plants, converters play a critical role in converting the
variable DC output from solar panels or wind turbines into stable AC power that matches the
grid’s voltage and frequency.
Active Power and Reactive Power Control: Converters in grid-connected systems can
also control the active power (real power) and reactive power (voltage control) output. This is
important for grid stability and maintaining power quality.
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT): In solar power systems, MPPT is a control
strategy that optimizes the operation of converters to extract the maximum available power
from solar panels under varying sunlight conditions.
Synchronization with the Grid: Converters in grid-connected systems need to synchro-
nize their output with the grid’s voltage and frequency. This involves phase-locked loop (PLL)
control mechanisms.
Regenerative Braking in Electric Vehicles: Converters in electric vehicles can control
the energy flow during regenerative braking, where the electric motor acts as a generator to
convert kinetic energy back into electrical energy.
Voltage Source vs. Current Source Converters: Different types of converters, such
as voltage source converters (VSCs) and current source converters (CSCs), require different
control strategies based on their characteristics.
Feedback and Control Algorithms: Converter control often involves feedback loops that
continuously monitor the output and adjust the converter’s operation based on the feedback
signals. Advanced control algorithms like Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers or
model predictive control can be employed.
Effective converter control is crucial for optimizing energy conversion efficiency, ensuring
system stability, and meeting performance requirements in various applications. It involves a
combination of hardware design, software programming, and system-level integration to achieve
the desired outcomes.

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