9.

Relations

Relations are discrete structures that are used to represent relationships between
elements of sets.
• between a business and its telephone number
• between an employee and his or her salary
• between a program and a variable it uses

Relations can be used to solve various problems in computer science such as:
 Determining which pairs of cities are linked by airline flights in a network
 Computing the distance between a pair of registered Facebook users
 Finding an efficient order for different phases of a complicated project
 Producing a useful way to store information in computer databases
9.1 Relations and Their Properties

Definition: Binary relation

Let A, B be sets.
A binary relation R from A to B is a set of ordered pairs, where the first element
of each ordered pair comes from A and the second element comes from B.
Note: A×B is the set of
Hence R is a subset of A×B.
all such ordered pairs.

Notation: Let aA, bB

(a,b)R a is “related to” b by R aRb

means
(a,b)R a is “not related to” b by R aRb
e.g.
A ={a1, a2, a3}
B ={b1, b2}

One can define many relations from A to B:

R1 = {(a1, b1), (a1, b2), (a2, b1), (a3, b2)}

R2 = {(a1, b1), (a2, b2), (a2, b1), (a3, b1), (a3, b2)}
and so on…

a1
b1
a2
b2
a3

A B
R1
Some relations make sense:

e.g.
A: set of cities
B: set of countries
R: (a,b)R if city a is in country b.

(Izmir, Turkey)  R
(Paris, France)  R
(Paris, Turkey)  R

A relation is a set of ordered n-tuples!!

Function is a special case of relation

A function ƒ from A to B can be thought of as the set of ordered pairs (a,b) s.t. b = ƒ(a).

Hence function is a special case of relation with one restriction:

Every element of A is the first element of exactly one ordered pair of the function.


0 a
a b
1 b
0 ×
2
1 ×
A B 2 ×
Relations defined on a single set:
This reads like “R is the set of all pairs
A relation on a set A is a relation from A to A. (a,b) such that a divides b, where a and b
are both elements of A”.
e.g.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(a,b) | a | b, (a,b) A×A}
= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

e.g.
How many relations are there on a set with n elements?
|A×A| = n2
2
 2𝑛 (# of subsets of A×A)
Properties of Relations defined on a set:

A relation R on a set A is called reflexive iff

(a,a)R aA

e.g.
A= {1, 2, 3}

R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 3)} (not reflexive)

R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 3)} (reflexive)
R3 = {(1, 3), (3, 1)} (irreflexive)

e.g.
R: The set of pairs of people having the same eye color (reflexive)
e.g. on integers
R1 = {(a, b) | a ≤ b} ??
R2 = {(a, b) | a > b} ??
R3 = {(a, b) | a = b  a = -b} ??
R4 = {(a, b) | a = b} ??
R5 = {(a, b) | a = b + 1} ??
R6 = {(a, b) | a + b ≤ 3} ??
Definition:
A relation R on a set A is called

symmetric iff the following holds

(b,a)R → (a,b)R a, bA
e.g.
R = {(a,b) | a+b+ab = 12; a,b  Z} symmetric
R = {(1,1), (2,2)} symmetric
R = { } (empty set) symmetric

anti-symmetric iff the following holds

(a,b)R and (b,a)R → a = b a, bA
e.g.
Rt = {(a,b) | a is taller than b} anti-symmetric

asymmetric iff a,bA (a,b)R → (b,a)R

e.g.
Rt = {(a,b) | a is taller than b} is also asymmetric
e.g.
R = {(1,1), (1,2), (3,1)} anti-symmetric but not asymmetric
Definition:
R on set A is called transitive iff
(a,b)R and (b,c)R → (a,c)R a,b,c  A

e.g.
Rt = {(a,b) | a is taller than b} transitive

e.g.
A= {1, 2, 3}

R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} (transitive)

R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 3)} (not transitive)
R3 = {(1, 2)} (transitive)
e.g.
How many reflexive relations are there on a set with n elements?

If R is reflexive, then:
there are n pairs such that (a,a)R (this is a requirement for reflexivity),
and there exist n(n–1) pairs such that a  b;
any combination of these n(n–1) pairs can also be in R.
 # of reflexive relations = 2n(n-1)

e.g.
How many symmetric relations are there on a set with n elements? (Exercise)
Combining relations:

Let A = {a, b} B = {1, 2, 3}

R1 = {(a,1), (b,3)}
R2 = {(a,1), (a,2), (b,1), (b,2)}
R3 = {(b,1), (b,2)}
R4 = {(a,1), (b,2)}

R1  R3 = {(a,1), (b,1), (b,2), (b,3)}

R1  R2 = {(a,1)}
R2 – R3 = {(a,1), (a,2)}
R1  R4 = {(b,2), (b,3)}

 is called “symmetric difference”, acts like XOR

Definition: Let R: A→B and S: B→C.

Then the composite relation of R and S

S○R: A → C is defined s.t.
(a,c)S○R iff (a,b)R and (b,c)S.

Definition:
Let R be a relation on A.
S○R = {(a1, c4), (a2, c3), (a4, c4), (a4, c1)}
The powers Rn, n = 1, 2, 3, …, are defined by
R1 = R, R2 = R○R,… Rn = Rn-1 ○ R.

e.g. R = {(a,b) | b is a parent of a}

 R2 = {(a,c) | c is a grand-parent of a} why?
because (a,b)R means “b is a parent of a”, and (b,c)R means “c is a parent of b”.
Theorem:
R on a set A is transitive iff Rn  R for all n = 1, 2, 3,…

Proof:

If part: (if Rn  R for n = 1, 2, 3,…, then R is transitive)

If Rn  R, in particular R2  R.
Then, a,b,c if (a,b)R and (b,c)R, by definition (a,c)R2.
Since R2  R, (a,c)R.
 R is transitive.

Only if part: (If R is transitive, then n Rn  R) Use induction on n.

Basis step: R1  R; always true for n = 1.

Inductive step: Assume Rn  R and R is transitive. Show Rn+1  R.

Let (a,b)Rn+1 = Rn ○ R.
Then xA s.t. (a, x)R and (x,b)Rn, by definition of composition
Since Rn  R, (x,b)  R.
Then since R is transitive and (a, x)R, we have (a,b)R.
 Rn+1  R
Inverse of R: R-1 = {(b, a) | (a, b)  R}

Complementary of R: R = {(a, b) | (a, b)  R }

e.g.
Let R = {(a, b) | a < b} R: A → B.

Inverse of R: R-1 = {(b, a) | a < b}

Complementary of R: R = {(a, b) | a  b}

Note that if R is a relation representing a function f, then R-1 is a relation representing a

function f-1 assuming the inverse of the function f is defined.
R = {(a, b) | b = f(a)}
R-1 = {(b, a) | a = f-1(b)}
 e.g.
R, S are reflexive relations on A.

a) RS is reflexive? Yes since (x, x)  R

b) RS is reflexive?  so does R  S
c) R S is irreflexive? 
d) R-S is irreflexive? 
e) S○R is reflexive? 
f) R-1 is reflexive? 
g) Complementary of R is irreflexive?

 is called “symmetric difference”, acts like XOR

e.g.
Suppose R is irreflexive. Is R2 also irreflexive?
No. Counter-example: Let a  b and R = {(a, b), (b, a)}

e.g.
How many relations are there on a set with n elements?
|A×A| = n2
n2
 2 (# of subsets of A×A)

e.g.
How many reflexive relations are there on a set with n elements?
If R is reflexive, then:
there are n pairs such that (a, a)R
and n(n–1) pairs such that (a, b)R where a  b
# of reflexive relations = 2n(n-1)
9.3 Representing Relations
Definition: A relation R can also be represented by a matrix MR = [mij]:
1 if (ai , bj )  R

mij   m11 … mN1
0 if (ai , b j )  R MR = ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
m1K … mNK
K×N
e.g. Let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b, c} and R: A→B such that
R = {(1,b), (2,a), (2,b), (2,c)}

0 1 0 
MR =  
 1 1 1 

e.g.
Let R be a relation defined on A = {1, 2, 3}: R = {(1,2), (2,2), (1,3)}

0 1 1
MR = 0 1 0 Note that we get a square matrix whenever R: A→ A.
0 0 0
Remark: The matrix representation of a relation assumes a certain ordering of the elements as given in the sets. If
you change the order of the elements, the matrix representation changes.
- Reflexive relation R s.t. i (ai, ai)R
 i mii = 1

i.e. , diagonal with all ones

- Symmetric relation R s.t. (ai, aj)R ↔ (aj, ai)R i, j

 i,j mij = mji
Symmetric matrix
MR = (MR = MTR)
Inverse and Complementary:

If MR = [mij]K×N then

Inverse: MR–1 = MRT = [mji]N×K (transpose)

Complementary: MR = [mij]K×N (negation)

Inverse of R: R-1 = {(b, a) | (a, b)  R}

Complementary of R = {(a, b) | (a, b)  R }

e.g.

Let R = {(a, b) | a < b} R: A → B.

Inverse of R: R-1 = {(b, a) | a < b} R-1: B → A.

Complementary of R = {(a, b) | a  b} A→B
Zero – One Matrices:
The matrix representation of a relation is always a zero-one matrix, a
matrix with entries that are either 0 or 1.

We can define operations on relations using their matrix representations:

Let A = [aij] B = [bij] be m×n zero-one matrices.

Join of A, B: A  B = [aij  bij]

Meet of A, B: A  B = [aij  bij]
e.g.

Remark: Let R1: A→B and R2: A→B

Boolean product:
Let A = [aij]: m×k, B = [bij]: k×n zero-one matrices.

A B = [cij] : m×n, where

cij = (ai1  b1j)  (ai2  b2j)  ….  (aik  bkj)

Hence, to obtain cij , we take the ith row of A and jth column of B and then
compute the dot product:

ith row

jth column

Remark: Let R: A→ B and S: B→ C

MS○R = MR MS (Note the order of matrices)

e.g.

Remark: Let R: A→ B and S: B→ C

MS○R = MR MS
Recall the following example:

S○R = {(a1, c4), (a2, c3), (a4, c4), (a4, c1)}

How would you then compute S○R by using matrices?

MS○R = MR MS
rth Boolean Power:
Let A be a square (M×M) zero-one matrix and r be a positive integer.
Ar = A A … A
r times
A0 = I

Remark: Let R: A→ A

MRn  [MR ]
n
 Representing Relations Using Graphs:

Pictorial representation.

Definition:
A directed graph (digraph) consists of a set V of vertices (or nodes) along with a set E
of edges (or arcs) which are ordered pairs of vertices.
Edge(a, b): a is initial vertex (node), b is terminal vertex (node)

e.g.
a
loop
Graph
representation
0 1 0 Matrix
b c
𝑀𝑅 = 0 0 1 representation
Set 0 1 1
R = {(a,b), (b,c), (c,b), (c,c)} representation

Relation R on a set A is defined with

i) elements of A: vertices (nodes)
ii) ordered pairs (a,b)R: edges
Relation R is:
- reflexive iff every node has a loop
- symmetric iff every edge between two nodes has an edge in the opposite
direction.
- transitive iff edge (a,b)  edge (b,c) → edge (a,c) a,b,c
e.g.

a . .b
reflexive

c.
Example to graph representation of a relation:

Connectivity problems:

1) Which nodes are connected?

2) What is the shortest path between two nodes?
9.4 Closures of Relations

e.g. Let R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (3, 2)} on A = {1, 2, 3}

R is not reflexive; what is the smallest possible reflexive relation containing R?

S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)}

S is the reflexive closure of R.

Definition: Closure
Let R be a relation on A
P: some property, such as symmetry, reflexivity, transitivity
R may or may not have the property P.

The closure S is the smallest possible relation with property P, which contains R.

More formal definition of closure:

If there is a relation S with property P containing R s.t. S is the subset of every relation
with property P containing R, then S is called the closure of R with P.
Reflexive Closure:

Let R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (3, 2)} on A = {1, 2, 3}

The smallest possible reflexive relation containing R:

S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)}

S = Reflexive closure of R = R  ,
where  = {(a, a) | a  A} : diagonal relation

e.g.
R = {(a, b) | a < b}, reflexive closure?

R   = {(a, b) | a < b}  {(a, a) | a  Z}

= {(a, b) | a  b}
Symmetric Closure: The smallest possible symmetric relation containing R

Let R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}
We should add all ordered pairs (b, a), where (a, b) is in R but (b, a) is not.
Symmetric closure of R = R  {(3, 2), (1, 3)}

Symmetric closure of R = R  R-1 (since R-1 = {(b, a) | (a, b)  R})

e.g.
R = {(a, b) | a < b}

Symmetric closure of R = R  R-1

= {(a, b) | a < b}  {(b, a) | a < b}
= {(a, b) | a  b}
Transitive Closure: The smallest possible transitive relation containing R

Let R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on {1, 2, 3, 4}
R is not transitive since there are pairs (a, c)R although (a, b), (b, c)R.

(i) R  {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1)}

Is it transitive? NO!

It has (3, 1),(1, 4), but not (3, 4).

We have a more difficult problem!!!

We might repeat step (i) until reaching a transitive relation. But there are better ways.

Remark: The transitive closure of a transitive relation R is R, itself.

Remark: The transitive closure of R contains all the pairs (a, b) of R, where a is
directly or indirectly linked to b via transitions
e.g. Draw transitive closure of

a. .b

c. .d

How about symmetric closure? Reflexive closure?

Paths in Directed Graphs
We now introduce a new terminology that we will use in the construction of transitive
closures.
Definition:
A path from node x0 to node xn in a directed graph G is a sequence of edges (x0, x1),
(x1, x2), … (xn-1, xn) in G. This path is denoted by x0, x1, …, xn and has a length of n.

If x0 = xn, the path is called a cycle or circuit.

Two vertices are said to be connected if there’s a path between them.

e.g.
a. . b A path:
a, b, d, a, e

c. .d .e a is connected to e, but e is not connected to a.

The term path also applies to relations.

Theorem:
Let R be a relation on A. Then n > 0, there is a path of length n from a to b iff (a, b)Rn.

e.g.
a. . b A path:
a, b, d, e

c. .d .e

(a,e)R3 since there is a path of length 3 between a and e.

But also (a,e)R6 since there is also another path of length 6 between a and e:
a,b,d,a,c,d,e
Theorem:
Let R be a relation on A. Then n > 0, there is a path of length n from a to b iff (a, b)Rn.
Proof: Use induction, where P(n): There is a path of length n from a to b iff (a, b)Rn

Basis step:
By definition there is a path of length 1 from a to b iff (a, b)R. Hence P(n) is T for n = 1.

Inductive step: Assume P(n) is T for some arbitrary fixed n  1. Show P(n+1) is T.
There is a path of length n+1 from a to b iff
cA s. t. there is a path of length 1 from a to c and a path of length n from c to b
that is, cA such that (a,c)R and (c,b)Rn (by inductive hypothesis)
which means (a, b)  Rn+1 = Rn ○ R (by definition of composite relation).

 P(n+1) is T.

 By induction, n > 0 there is a path of length n from a to b iff (a, b)Rn

Connectivity Relation:

Connectivity relation R* consists of all those pairs (a, b) s.t. there is a path between a
and b in R.

Since Rn includes all the paths of length n by the previous theorem, There is a path of length n
from a to b iff (a, b)Rn

e.g.
Let R be a relation on the set of people in the world that contains (a,b) if a has met b.

R2: ? if (a, b)  R2 then c s.t. (a, c)R and (c, b)R

R*: ? (a, b)R* if there is a sequence of people, starting with a and ending with b.
Connectivity Relation = Transitive Closure

Finding transitive closure is equivalent to determining all pairs of vertices that are
connected through a path.

Recall that, to find the transitive closure of a relation, we need to iteratively add to
the relation all the missing transitions.
Theorem:
The transitive closure of a relation R equals to the connectivity relation R*.

Proof:
We must show that,
(i) R* is transitive
(ii) R* is the smallest possible transitive relation that contains R
(any transitive relation that contains R also contains R* )

i. R* is transitive?
If (a, b)R*, there is a path from a to b.
If (b, c)R*, there is a path from b to c.
 There is a path from from a to c, which means (a, c)R*, hence R* is transitive.
ii. Let S be any transitive relation that contains R, i.e., R  S. Show R* S.
Since S is transitive, S n  S for all n (by the theorem in Section 9.1) R on a set A is transitive
iff Rn  R for all n
S n  S and 𝑆∗ =  S* S
Also, since R  S (given), R*  S * (by definition of connectivity relation)
 R* S.
Hence, any transitive relation that contains R also contains R*
 |A| = 5
Given R, how can we compute the connectivity relation R*?

Lemma:
Let R be a relation in A and |A| = n. If there is a path from a to b in R, then one can
always find a path from a to b with length not exceeding n.

Hence
 |A| = 5
Given R, how can we compute the connectivity relation R*?

Lemma:
Let R be a relation in A and |A| = n. If there is a path from a to b in R, then one can
always find a path from a to b with length not exceeding n.

Proof:
Suppose there is a path x0, x1, …, xm from x0 = a to xm = b with length m.
If m  n, then there are at least two vertices on this path, equal to each other xi = xj such
that 0  i  j  m –1. (by the pigeonhole principle)

We can cut this circuit and form a new path

x0, x1, …, xi, xj+1, …, xm
If we do the same for all such two vertices, we get a path of length  n.
Given MR, how can we compute the connectivity relation MR* ?

MR* = MR  M2R M3R  …  MnR

e.g.
Let R = {(a, a), (a, c), (b, a), (c, a), (c, c)}. Find R*.

no need to compute
powers beyond n = 3

MR* = MR  M2R  M3R =

Algorithm for computation of connectivity relation (or transitive closure) :

Transitive closure (MR: zero-one matrix representation of R)

A := MR
B := A
for i := 2 to n
A := A MR
B := B  A
return B

Recall that transitive closure is identical to connectivity relation.

Algorithm for computation of connectivity relation (or transitive closure) :

Transitive closure (MR: zero-one matrix representation of R)

A := MR
B := A
for i := 2 to n
A := A MR
B := B  A
return B

Note: Although in general S○R ≠ R○S, while computing powers of a relation, the order
of compositions does not matter, hence

Rn+1 = Rn ○ R = R○ Rn 
Algorithm for computation of connectivity relation (or transitive closure):

Transitive closure (MR: zero-one matrix representation of R)

A := MR
B := A
for i := 2 to n
MR* = MR  M2R M3R  …  MnR
A := A MR
B := B  A
return B

Complexity:
A MR : T(n) = (n 1) (n2(2n 1) + n2)
(n + (n –1))n2 operations = (n 1)(2n3)
BA:  T(n) is O(n4). (Polynomial complexity)
n2 operations
e.g. Let (a, b)R if there is a non-stop flight from city a to b. When is (a, b) in
R2?
If c s.t. (a, c) R, (c, b)R.
R3?
If c,d s.t. (a, c)  R, (c, d)R, (d, b)R.
R*?
If it is possible to fly from a to b.

R* can be computed using the algorithm of the previous slide given the flight nework.
9.5 Equivalence Relations
e.g. Consider the relation R = {(a, b)  a  b (mod 4)}
R is symmetric, transitive and reflexive.
Hence we say, R is an equivalence relation.

What matters?

R divides (or partitions) the set of integers into four disjoint subsets:

{…,-8,-4,0,4,8,…}, {…,-7,-3,1,5,9,…}, {…,-6,-2,2,6,10,…}, {…,-5,-1,3,7,11,…}

where any two integers in a given subset are related with R, hence said to
be “equivalent” to each other.

(4,8)R hence 4 is equivalent to 8, and so is (1,5).

Remark: These subsets are referred to as equivalence classes.

Definition: Equivalence Relation
If a relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive then it is called an equivalence
relation.
Equivalent elements: Two elements that are related by an equivalence relation.

 R (defined previously) is an equivalence relation, more specifically a “modular”

equivalence relation.
 (4,8)R hence 4 is equivalent to 8, and so is (1,5).
Another relation example that defines an equivalence between strings:

Let R be a relation on the set of strings :

R = {(a, b)  L(a) = L(b)}, where L(x) is the length of string x.

 R is reflexive since a L(a) = L(a) which implies that (a, a)R.

 R is symmetric since a,b (a, b)R  L(a) = L(b)  L(b) = L(a)  (b, a)R
 R is transitive since a,b,c (a, b)R  (b, c)R  L(a) = L(b)  L(b) = L(c)
 L(a) = L(c)  (a, c)R

 R is an equivalence relation.

“discrete” is equivalent to “computer” with respect to R.

Another relation example that defines an equivalence between strings:

Let R be a relation on the set of strings :

R = {(a, b)  L(a) = L(b)}, where L(x) is the length of string x.

 R is reflexive
 R is symmetric
 R is transitive

 R is an equivalence relation.

“discrete” is equivalent to “computer” with respect to R.

 R divides (or partitions) the set of strings into disjoint subsets, where each subset contains all
strings of the same length.

 These subsets are equivalence classes. Any two strings in a given subset are equivalent to each
other (with respect to the relation).
e.g.
Relations on a set of people:
a) {(a, b)  a and b are at the same age}
b) {(a, b)  a and b speak a common language}

Are they equivalence relations?

e.g.
Relations on a set of people:
a) {(a, b)  a and b are at the same age} Yes
b) {(a, b)  a and b speak a common language} No

Are they equivalence relations?

Definition: Equivalence class
Let R be an equivalence relation on A.
The set of all elements that are related to an element a of A is called the equivalence
class of a:
[a]R = { s  (a, s)R}

e.g.
R = {(a, b)  a  b (mod m)}

What is the equivalence class of 1 with respect to R?

1 is equivalent to 1m, 1, 1+m, and so on.

Hence, the equivalence class of 1:

[1]R = {…., 1m, 1, 1+m, 1+2m, ….}
Equivalence Classes and Partitions:

Equivalence classes partition (or divide) a set into disjoint, nonempty subsets.

e.g.
R = {(a, b)  a  b (mod m)}

m equivalence classes:
[0]R , [1]R, ….., [m 1]R
All are disjoint and form a partition.
Equivalence Classes and Partitions:

Equivalence classes partition (or divide) a set into disjoint, nonempty subsets.

e.g. Consider the equivalence relation on the set S of all strings.

R = {(a, b)  L(a) = L(b)}, where L(x) is the length of string x.

Infinitely many equivalence classes:

S1, S2, S3, …
where Sn denotes the set of all strings with n characters.

All are disjoint and form a partition in S.

Equivalence Classes and Partitions:

Equivalence classes partition (or divide) a set into disjoint, nonempty subsets.

e.g.
Relation R on a set of people: {(a, b)  a and b are at the same age}

R partitions the set of people into equivalence classes (hence into nonempty disjoint
subsets).

Each equivalence class is the set of people who are at the same age, for example [a]R is
the set of people who are 18 years old (if a is 18 years old).
Equivalence Classes and Partitioning:

Theorem: Equivalence classes partition (or divide) a set into disjoint,

nonempty subsets.

Proof: See Chapter 9.5 of your textbook.

e.g.
Let R be a relation on the set of positive real-number pairs s.t.
((a, b), (c, d ))  R ↔ ad = bc
Show that R is an equivalence relation.

R is reflexive since a,b ab = ab, which implies that ((a, b), (a, b ))  R
R is symmetric since a,b,c,d ((a, b),(c, d ))  R  ad = bc  da = cb
 ((c, d), (a, b))  R.

R is transitive since
a,b,c,d,e,f ((a, b), (c, d )) R and ((c, d ), (e, f )) R  (ad = bc and cf = de)
 af = be  ((a, b), (e, f )) R

Thus, equivalence classes for this relation partition the set of positive real number pairs
into disjoint nonempty subsets such that

[(a,b)]R = {(x,y) | x/y = a/b = c, c is a positive real number}

Remark: If the relation R were not defined on a set of positive valued number pairs,
(including 0 in particular), then R would not be an equivalence relation. Why?
e.g. a) Let R be the relation on the set of functions from Z+ to Z+ such that (f, g) belongs to R iff f is Θ(g).
Show that R is an equivalence relation. Use the definition of big-O notation whenever necessary.
b) Describe the equivalence class containing f (n) = n2 for the equivalence class of part (a).
a) We need to show that R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

- We know that f is Θ(g) iff f is O(g) and g is O( f ).

Thus f, g if f is Θ(g) then g is also Θ( f ). Therefore R is symmetric.

- f f is O( f ) since |ƒ(n)|  C | f (n)| n > k with C = 1 and k = 1.

Then f is also Θ( f ) by definition, R is reflexive.

- Let’s first show that the “big-O’’ relation is transitive.

f, g, h if f is O(g) and g is O(h), then we can write
C1, k1 such that |ƒ(n)|  C1|g(n)| whenever n > k1
 |ƒ(n)|  C1 C2 |h(n)| n > max(k1, k2 )
C2, k2 such that |g(n)|  C2|h(n)| whenever n > k2
Choose C = C1 C2 and k = max(k1, k2 ). Hence f is O(h).

Now consider R, hence the “big-Θ’’ relation.

f, g, h if f is Θ(g) and g is Θ(h), then
 f is O(g) and g is O( f ) and g is O(h) and h is O(g)
 ( f is O(g) and g is O(h)) and (h is O(g) and g is O( f ))
 f is O(h) and h is O( f ) since “big-O’’ relation is transitive
 f is Θ(h) Therefore R is transitive.
e.g. a) Let R be the relation on the set of functions from Z+ to Z+ such that (f, g) belongs to R iff f is Θ(g).
Show that R is an equivalence relation. Use the definition of big-O notation whenever necessary.
b) Describe the equivalence class containing f (n) = n2 for the equivalence class of part (a).

b) Let F denote the set of all functions from Z+ to Z+

[ n2 ]R = { f (n) | f (n) is Θ(n2), f (n)F }

Things to remember about equivalence relations:

• If a relation R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, then it is called an

equivalence relation.

• An equivalence relation R divides (or partitions) the set on which it is defined

into non-empty disjoint subsets, each of which is an equivalence class

• Any two elements a and b in an equivalence class are then related, hence
“equivalent” with respect to R
9.6 Partial Order Relations

We can use relations to order/sort elements of a set.

Definition: Partial Order(ing)
A relation R on a set S is called partial order(ing) if it is reflexive, anti-symmetric, and
transitive.
A set S together with a partial ordering R is called a partially-ordered set, or poset, and is
denoted by (S, R).
e.g.
R = {(a, b)  a  b} is a partial order.

e.g.
R = {(a, b) a | b}

‘Less than or equal to’ is a paradigm for partial order.

Poset notation: a ≼b means (a, b)R. (R is a partial order)
a ≺b means (a, b)R, but a  b.
Definition:
The elements a, b of a poset (S, ≼) are called comparable if either a ≼b or b ≼a.
Otherwise they are called incomparable.
e.g.
Poset (Z+, R) with R = {(a, b) a | b}
3, 6 are comparable, thus (3,6)R, thus 3 ≼6 (≼here represents divisibility)
3, 10 are incomparable, thus (3,10)R, thus 3 ≼10

e.g.
Let R = {(1, 1), (2,2), (3, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1)} on S = {1, 2, 3}.
R is reflexive, anti-symmetric and transitive  R is a partial order  (S, R) is a poset.
1 ≼1 2 ≼2 3 ≼3 2 ≼1 2 ≼3 3 ≼1

e.g.
Poset (Z+, R) with R = {(a, b) b | a}.
1 ≼1 4 ≼2 10 ≼5

e.g. Poset (P(Z) -power set-, R) with R = {(a, b) a  b}.

Definition:
If (S, ≼) is a poset and every two elements of S are comparable, S is called a totally-ordered set
and ≼is called a total order(ing).

e.g. Poset (Z+, R ) with R = {(a, b) a | b}.

R is not a total ordering since there are elements incomparable such as 5 and 6.

e.g. R = {(1, 1), (2,2), (3, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1) } on S = {1, 2, 3}.
R is a total ordering; every two elements are comparable.

e.g. R = {(a, b)  a  b} on the set of integers.

R is a total ordering; every two elements are comparable.

e.g. R = {(a, b)  b  a} on the set of integers.

R is a total ordering; every two elements are comparable, for instance 10 ≼5.

e.g. Rt = {(a,b) | a is taller than b or a = b} on the set of people.

R is a total ordering; every two elements are comparable.

e.g. Poset (P(Z) -power set-, R) with R = {(a, b) a  b} ??

Lexicographic (Alphabetic) Order

We can define the lexicographic order on the Cartesian product of n posets:

(A1, ≼1), (A2, ≼2), …., (An, ≼n)

(a1, a2, …, an) ≺ (b1, b2, …., bn)

if
a1 ≺b1 or i, 1 i n, such that
a1 = b1, ...., ai = bi, and ai+1 ≺ bi+1
where the ordering ≺= {(a,b) | a is alphabetically before b, a and b are letters}.

e.g. Comparing strings...

“that” ≺ “this”
Topological Sorting
A compatible total ordering can be constructed with a partial ordering R.

Topo-sort (S,R: finite poset)

k=1
while S   {
ak = minimal element of S
S = S – {ak}
k = k +1
}

{a1 ,a2 ,…,an} is a compatible total ordering of S (compatible with relation R).

You will learn this in COMP 202 in 2nd year.

Maximal and Minimal Elements:

Definition:
An element a is maximal in poset (S, ≼) if there is no bS s.t. a ≺b.
An element a is minimal in poset (S, ≼) if there is no bS s.t. b ≺a.

An element a is the greatest element in poset (S, ≼) if bS b ≼a.

An element a is the least element in poset (S, ≼) if bS a ≼b.

An element aS is an upper bound of A  S in poset (S, ≼) if bA b ≼a.

An element aS is a lower bound of A  S in poset (S, ≼) if bA a ≼b.
(bound is not necessarily in the set)

An element aS is the least upper bound of A  S in poset (S, ≼) if bA b ≼a

and also for all upper bounds c of A, a ≼c
An element aS is the greatest lower bound of A  S in poset (S, ≼) if bA a ≼b.
and also for all lower bounds c of A, c ≼a
Lattices:

A poset in which every pair of elements has both the least upper bound and the greatest lower
bound is called a lattice.

Lattice-based cryptography: Lattices have many special properties useful in various

applications. One new trend in cryptography is to create cryptosystems based on lattice
problems (e.g., finding the element in a lattice closest to a given point in the lattice-space)

e.g. Is the poset (Z+, | ) a lattice?

Yes. The greatest lower bound of a,b is gcd(a,b)
The least upper bound of a,b is lcm(a,b)

e.g. Is the poset (P(S),  ) a lattice?

The greatest lower bound of a,b is ??
The least upper bound of a,b is ??