Overview

Last time, we used coordinate axes to describe points in space and we

introduced vectors. We saw that vectors can be added to each other or
multiplied by scalars.

Question: Can two vectors be multiplied?

dot product
cross product

(From Stewart, §10.3, §10.4)

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 1 / 26

The dot product
The dot or scalar product of two vectors is a scalar:
Definition
   
a1 b1
 a2  b2 
   
Given a = 
 ..  , b =  .. , the dot product of a and b is defined by
  
. .
an bn
 
b1
b2 
i
h 
a·b = aT b = a1 a2 . . . an 
 .. 

.
bn

= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 2 / 26

Example 1
   
1 −4
Let u =  4  and v =  5 , then
   
−2 −1

u·v = (1)(−4) + (4)(5) + (−2)(−1) = 18.

The following properties come directly from the definition:

1 u·v = v·u
2 u·(v + w) = u·v + u·w
3 k(u·v) = (ku)·v = u·(kv), k ∈ R

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 3 / 26

Magnitude and the dot product

 
a
Recall that if v = b , the length (or magnitude) of v is defined as
 
c
p
kvk = a2 + b 2 + c 2 .

The dot product is a convenient way to compute length:

√
kvk = v·v

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 4 / 26

Direction and the dot product
The dot product u · v is useful for determining the relative directions of u
and v.
−→ −→
Suppose u = OP, v = OQ. The angle θ between u and v is the angle at
O in the triangle POQ.

z
Q

O v-u
θ
x u
y
P

Necessarily θ ∈ [0, π].

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 5 / 26
Calculating:
−→
kPQk2 = (v − u)·(v − u)
= v·v + u·u − v·u − u·v
= kuk2 + kvk2 − 2u·v .

But the cosine rule, applied to triangle POQ, gives

−→
kPQk2 = kuk2 + kvk2 − 2kuk · kvk cos θ

whence
u·v = kuk · kvk cos θ (1)
If either u or v are zero then the angle betwen them is not defined. In this
case, however, (1) still holds in the sense that both sides are zero.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 6 / 26

Theorem
If θ is the angle between the directions of u and v (0 ≤ θ ≤ π), then

u·v = kuk · kvk cos θ

Definition
Two vectors are called orthogonal or perpendicular or normal if u·v = 0,
that is, θ = π/2.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 7 / 26

Scalar and vector projections
Just as we can write a vector in R2 as a sum of its horizontal and vertical
components, we can write any vector as a sum of piece parallel to and
perpendicular to a fixed vector.

u-uv
u
u
v
uv
h
u=(h)+(u-h)

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 8 / 26

Scalar and vector projections
Definition
The scalar projection s = compv u of any vector u in the direction of the
nonzero vector v is the scalar product of u with a unit vector in the
direction of v.
v u·v
compv u = u· = = kuk cos θ
kvk kvk
where θ is the angle between u and v.

u - uv
u
v
s
θ uv

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 9 / 26

Definition
The vector projection uv = projv u of u in the direction of the nonzero
vector v is the scalar multiple of a unit vector v̂ in the direction of v, by
the scalar projection of u in the direction v:
u·v u·v
projv u = v̂ = v.
kvk kvk2

u - uv
u
v
s
θ uv

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 10 / 26

In words:

The scalar projection of u onto v is. . .

The vector projection of u onto v is. . .

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 11 / 26

In words:

The scalar projection of u onto v is. . .

The vector projection of u onto v is. . .
Remember that we can write u as a sum of a vector parallel to v and a
vector perpendicular to v. We call the summand parallel to v the
component in the v direction.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 11 / 26

In words:

The scalar projection of u onto v is. . .

The vector projection of u onto v is. . .
Remember that we can write u as a sum of a vector parallel to v and a
vector perpendicular to v. We call the summand parallel to v the
component in the v direction.
The scalar projection of u onto v is the length of the component of u
in the v direction.
The vector projection of u onto v is the component of u in the v
direction.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 11 / 26

Definition of the cross product

In R3 only, there is a product of two vectors called a cross product or

vector product. The cross product of a and b is a vector denoted a×b.
To specify a vector in R3 , we need to give its magnitude and direction.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 12 / 26

Definition of the cross product
Definition
Given a and b in R3 with θ ∈ [0, π] the angle between them, the cross
product a × b is the vector defined by the following properties:
|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ
a×b is orthogonal to both a and b

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 13 / 26

Definition of the cross product
Definition
Given a and b in R3 with θ ∈ [0, π] the angle between them, the cross
product a × b is the vector defined by the following properties:
|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ
a×b is orthogonal to both a and b
{a, b, a × b} form a right-handed coordinate system

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 13 / 26

Computing cross products

Given a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, how can we find the

coordinates of a × b?

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 14 / 26

Computing cross products

Given a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, how can we find the

coordinates of a × b?

If a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, then the cross product of a and b

is the vector

a×b = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 14 / 26

Computing cross products

Given a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, how can we find the

coordinates of a × b?

If a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, then the cross product of a and b

is the vector

a×b = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i.

You should check that this formula gives a vector satisfying the definition
on the previous slide! Alternatively, we could give this formula as the
definition and then prove those properties as a theorem.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 14 / 26

In order to make the definition easier to remember we use the notation of
determinants. Recall that a determinant of order 2 is defined by

a b
= ad − bc.
c d

Further a determinant of order 3 can be defined in terms of second order

determinants:

a1 a 2 a3
b b b b b b
b1 b2 b3 = a1 2 3 − a2 1 3 + a3 1 2
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 15 / 26

We now rewrite the cross product using determinants of order 3 and the
standard basis vectors i, j and k where a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and
b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k

a2 a 3 a a a a
a×b = i − 1 3 j + 1 2 k.
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
In view of the similarity of the last two equations we often write

i j k
a×b = a1 a2 a3 . (2)
b1 b2 b3

Although the first row of the symbolic determinant in Equation 2 consists

of vectors, it can be expanded as if it were an ordinary determinant.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 16 / 26

Example 2
Find a vector with positive k component which is perpendicular to both
a = 2i − j − 2k and b = 2i − 3j + k.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 17 / 26

Example 2
Find a vector with positive k component which is perpendicular to both
a = 2i − j − 2k and b = 2i − 3j + k.

Solution The vector a×b will be perpendicular to both a and b:

i j k
a×b = 2 −1 −2
2 −3 1

= −7i − 6j − 4k.

Now we require a vector with a positive k. It is given by h7, 6, 4i.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 17 / 26

Properties of the cross product

Lemma
Two non zero vectors a and b are parallel (or antiparallel) if and only if

a×b = 0.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 18 / 26

Properties of the cross product

If u v and w are any vectors in R3 , and t is a real number, then

1 u×v = − . . . .
2 (u + v)×w = . . . .
3 u×(v + w) = . . . .
4 (tu)×v = u×(tv) = . . . .
5 u·(v×w) = . . . .
6 u×(v×w) = . . .

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 19 / 26

Properties of the cross product

If u v and w are any vectors in R3 , and t is a real number, then...

1 u×v = −v×u.
2 (u + v)×w = u×w + v×w.
3 u×(v + w) = u×v + u×w.
4 (tu)×v = u×(tv) = t(u×v).
5 u·(v×w) = (u×v)·w.
6 u×(v×w) = (u·w)v − (u·v)w
Note the absence of an associative law. The cross product is not
associative. In general

u×(v×w) 6= (u×v)×w!

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 20 / 26

Comparing the dot and cross product

Where is each defined?

What is the output?
What’s the significance of zero?
Is it commutative?

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 21 / 26

Example 3
A triangle ABC has vertices (2, −1, 0), (5, −4, 3), (1, −3, 2). Is it a right
triangle?

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 22 / 26

Example 3
A triangle ABC has vertices (2, −1, 0), (5, −4, 3), (1, −3, 2). Is it a right
triangle?
     
3 −1 −4
−→ −→ −→   −→   −→  
The sides are AB = OB − OA = −3, AC = −2 , BC =  1 .
3 2 −1

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 22 / 26

Example 3
A triangle ABC has vertices (2, −1, 0), (5, −4, 3), (1, −3, 2). Is it a right
triangle?
     
3 −1 −4
−→ −→ −→   −→   −→  
The sides are AB = OB − OA = −3, AC = −2 , BC =  1 .
3 2 −1

Since
−→ −→
AC ·BC (−1)(−4) + (−2)(1) + (2)(−1) 0
cos θC = −→ −→ = −→ −→ = −→ −→ = 0,
kAC kkBC k kAC kkBC k kAC kkBC k
−→ −→
the sides AC and BC are orthogonal.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 22 / 26

Example 4
For what value of k do the four points
A = (1, 1, −1), B = (0, 3, −2), C = (−2, 1, 0) and D = (k, 0, 2) all lie in a
plane?

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 23 / 26

Example 4
For what value of k do the four points
A = (1, 1, −1), B = (0, 3, −2), C = (−2, 1, 0) and D = (k, 0, 2) all lie in a
plane?

Solution The points A, B and C form a triangle and all lie in the plane
containing this triangle. We need to find the value of k so that D is in the
same plane.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 23 / 26

Example 4
For what value of k do the four points
A = (1, 1, −1), B = (0, 3, −2), C = (−2, 1, 0) and D = (k, 0, 2) all lie in a
plane?

Solution The points A, B and C form a triangle and all lie in the plane
containing this triangle. We need to find the value of k so that D is in the
same plane.
−→ −→
One way of doing this is to find a vector u perpendicular to AB and AC ,
−→
and then find k so that AD is perpendicular to u.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 23 / 26

Example 4
For what value of k do the four points
A = (1, 1, −1), B = (0, 3, −2), C = (−2, 1, 0) and D = (k, 0, 2) all lie in a
plane?

Solution The points A, B and C form a triangle and all lie in the plane
containing this triangle. We need to find the value of k so that D is in the
same plane.
−→ −→
One way of doing this is to find a vector u perpendicular to AB and AC ,
−→
and then find k so that AD is perpendicular to u.
−→ −→
A suitable vector u is given by AB×AC . We then require that
−→
u·AD = 0.

Putting this together we require that

−→ −→ −→
(AB×AC )·AD = 0.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 23 / 26

Example (continued)
For what value of k do the four points
A = (1, 1, −1), B = (0, 3, −2), C = (−2, 1, 0) and D = (k, 0, 2) all lie in a
plane?

Now
−→ −→ −→
AB = −i + 2j − k, AC = −3i + k, AD = (k − 1)i − j + 3k.
Then
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
(AB×AC )·AD = AD·(AB×AC )
k − 1 −1 3
= −1 2 −1
−3 0 1

= (k − 1)2 − (−1)(−4) + 3(6)

= 2k − 2 − 4 + 18
= 2k + 12
−→ −→ −→
So (AB×AC )·AD = 0 when k = −6, and D lies on the required plane
Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 24 / 26
Example 5
One use of projections occurs in physics in calculating work.

R
F

Ɵ S
P Q
D

~ moves an object from P to Q. The

Suppose a constant force F = PR
~
displacement vector is D = PQ. The work done by this force is defined
to be the product of the component of the force along D and the distance
moved:
W = (kFk cos θ) kDk = F·D.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 25 / 26

Example 6
Let a = h1, 3, 0i and b = h−2, 0, 6i, Then

a·b
compa b =
kak
−2 + 0 + 0 −2
= √ =√ .
1+9+0 10
a·b
proja b = â
kak
a·b a
 
=
kak kak
−2 h1, 3, 0i
= √ √
10 10
h−2, −6, 0i
= = h−1/5, −3/5, 0i.
10

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 26 / 26