Lens formula and magnification

Lens formula

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Lens formula is the same as spherical mirror formula. Object distance
(u), image distance (v) and the focal length (f ) are related by the lens
formula:

1 1 1
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
Magnification of a lens (m) is given by:
ℎ′ 𝑣
𝑚= =−
ℎ 𝑢

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Sign conventions in calculations
Sign convention
Quantity Positive when Negative when
Object Object in front of lens (real Object is in back of lens
location, u object) (virtual)
Image Image is in back of lens Image is in front of the lens
location, v (real image) (virtual image)
Image height,
Image is upright Image is inverted
h’
Focal length Converging lens Diverging lens
Center of curvature is in Center of curvature is in
R1 and R2
back of lens front of lens
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 6.6 Human Eye and Optical Instrument
The Human Eye:
- is light sensitive sense organ
- The human eye is like a camera.
- Its lens system forms an image on a
light-sensitive screen called the retina.
- Light enters the eye through a thin
membrane called the cornea.
The human eye consists of a lens system that focuses images
on the retina, where the optic nerve transfers the messages to
the brain.
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Eyeball: - is approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of
about 2.3cm.
Cornea: - the clear dome shaped covering at the front of eye.
- It has fluid filled space at its back called anterior
chamber. The fluid in the anterior chamber is called
aqueous humor
Lens:- is crystalline lens composed of fibrous, jelly like material.
- has ability to change its focal length by changing its
curvature.
- provides finer adjustment of focal length required to focus
images of objects at different distances on the retina.
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 - forms inverted image on retina.
➢Pupil: - readjustable opening at the center of iris.
- regulates and controls the amount of light entering the eye.
➢Iris:- is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the
pupil.
➢Sclera (white of the eye):- is strong tissue that wraps around
eye ball.
- helps to maintain eye’s shape
- protects eye from injury
➢Ciliary body and muscle: - changes curvature of eye lens being
stretched and contracted.
▪ When the muscles are relaxed the lens becomes thin. 6
- Thus, focal length of the lens increases.
- This enables to see distant objects.
➢When the muscles are contracted the lens becomes thicker.
Thus, focal length of the lens decreases.
This enables to see closer objects.
➢Vitros body: - modifies curvature of eye-lens
➢Retina: - It is light sensitive screen
- is a delicate membrane with an enormous number of light
sensitive cells.
➢Light sensitive cells: - are within retina.
- get activated upon illumination and generate electric signal
Optical nerve: - transports electric signal generated by light sensitive
cells.
Optical lobe: - It is part of brain where the electric signals from optical
nerve are interpreted. 7
 How objects can be seen?
1. Reflection of light rays comes from objects to cornea.
2. Light rays passes in cornea getting refracted.
3. The primarily refracted light rays passes through pupil (readjust-able
opening at the center of iris)
4. The primarily refracted light rays passes eye lens and gets refracted
again.
5. The twice refracted ray passes through vitros body and reaches retina
where the image is formed.
6. Rod cell and cone cell within retina gets stimulated and generate
electric signal (pulse).
7. The electric signal (pulse) is sent to brain (optical lobe) and
interpreted. 8
Generally image formed in the eye is all ways:
➢Formed at focal point
➢Real
➢Inverted
➢Diminished
However, you see things upright not inverted. How?

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 Power of accommodation
- The ciliary muscles can modify to some extent its curvatures.
- The change in the curvature of the eye lens can thus change its focal
length.
- When the muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin.
- Thus, its focal length increases. This enables us to see distant objects
clearly.
➢When you are looking at objects closer to the eye, the ciliary muscles
contract.
- This increases the curvature of the eye lens.
- The eye’s lens then becomes thicker.
- Consequently, the focal length of the eye lens decreases.
- This enables us to see nearby objects clearly. 10
 The ability of the eye’s lens to adjust its focal length is called
accommodation.
➢However, the focal length of the eye’s lens cannot be decreased
below a certain minimum limit.
➢The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most
clearly without strain, is called the least distance of distinct
vision /or the near point of the eye/.
➢normal eye can see objects clearly that are between 25 cm and
infinity.

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 Defects of Vision and Their Correction
(a) Myopia/near-sightedness
▪A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot
see distant objects distinctly.
▪A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity.
▪Such a person may see clearly up to a distance of a few meters.
In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in
front of the retina and not at the retina itself.
This defect may arise due to:
➢Excessive curvature of eye
lens
➢Elongation of the eye ball
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➢This defect can be corrected
by using a concave lens of
suitable power.

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(b) Hypermetropia/far-sightedness
➢A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly
but cannot see nearby objects distinctly.
➢This is b/c the light rays from a close by object are focused at
a point behind the retina,
➢The near point, for the person, is farther away from the normal
near point.
This defect arises either because:
(i)the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or
(ii)the eyeball has become too small.

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Eye Glass with convex (converging) lens can correct Far
sightedness .

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They can be corrected with an appropriate lens.

Corrected sight

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 (c) Presbyopia
The power in accommodation of the eye usually decreases with age.
Without corrective eyeglasses, they have difficulty seeing nearby objects
comfortably and clearly
This defect is called presbyopia.
It arises due to:
➢to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing
flexibility of the eye lens.
➢Suffering from both myopia and hypermetropia.
Such a defect is often corrected by require bi-focal lenses.
• Bi-focal lens consists of both concave and convex lenses.
• The upper portion consists of a concave lens, w/c facilitates distant
vision. The lower part is a convex lens, w/c facilitates near vision. 17
 Optical instruments
A number of optical devices and instruments have been designed
utilizing the reflecting and refracting properties of mirrors and
lenses.
The following are some examples of optical devices and
instruments that are in common use
➢Periscope,
➢kaleidoscope,
➢binoculars,
➢camera,
➢telescopes, and
➢microscopes
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 Simple microscope
➢has a limited maximum magnification for realistic focal lengths.
➢A simple magnifier or microscope is a converging lens of
small focal length.
➢the lens is held near the object, one focal length away or less,
and the eye is positioned close to the lens on the other side.
➢The idea is to get:
- an erect,
- magnified and
- virtual image.
➢The image formed by a
magnifying glass (simple
Figure of A simple microscope.
microscope) is erect, magnified and virtual. 19
Compound microscope
➢For much larger magnifications,
one has to use two lenses, one
compounding the effect of the
other.
➢This is known as a compound
microscope.
A compound microscope has,
more than one objective lens,
each providing a different
magnification.

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An object is placed close to a convex lens called the objective
lens.
➢This lens produces an enlarged image inside the microscope
tube.
➢The light rays from that image then pass through a second
convex lens called the eyepiece lens
➢This lens further magnifies the image formed by the objective
lens.
Total magnification of compound microscope is product of
magnification of objective lens and magnification of eyepiece
lens
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 × (𝑚𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 )
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 Telescopes
• Two fundamentally different types of telescopes exist.
1st type: refracting telescope
- uses a combination of lenses to form an image.
- uses two convex lenses to form an
image of a distant object.
➢Just as in a compound microscope,
light passes through an objective lens
that forms an image.
➢That image is then magnified by an eyepiece.
➢The main purpose of a telescope is not to magnify an image,
but to gather as much light as possible from distant objects. 22
2nd type: the reflecting telescope
- can be made much larger than refracting telescopes.
- Reflecting telescopes have a concave mirror instead of a
concave objective lens to gather the light from distant objects.
- the large concave mirror focuses light onto a secondary mirror
that directs it to the eyepiece, which magnifies the image.

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 6.7 Primary colors of light and human vision
➢Light travels into the eye to
the retina, w/c is covered with
millions of light receptive cells
called cones (which are
sensitive to color) and rods
(which are more sensitive to
intensity).
➢You are able to perceive all colors because there are three sets of cones
in your eyes:
1. First cone cells that is most sensitive to red light,
2. Second cone cells that is most sensitive to green light, and
3. Third cone cells that is most sensitive to blue light. 24
 6.8 Color addition of light
➢The colors of red, green, and blue light are classically
considered the primary colors because they are fundamental to
human vision.
➢All other colors of the visible light spectrum can be produced
by properly adding different combinations of these three colors.
➢Adding equal amounts of red, green, and blue light produces
white light.
Red + Green = Yellow
Red+ Blue = Magenta
Blue + Green = Cyan
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Secondary Colors of Light
- are yellow, magenta and cyan.
• This is b/c they can be produced by the addition of equal
intensities of two primary colors of light.
• The absence of all three colors results in black.
• The addition of these three primary colors of light with varying
degrees of intensity will result in the countless other colors that
you are familiar (or unfamiliar) with.

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 6.9 Color subtraction of light using filters
➢The colors that are absorbed are ’subtracted’ from the reflected
light that is seen by the eye.
➢A black object absorbs all colors where as a white object
reflects all colors.
➢A blue objects reflects blue and absorbs all
other colors.
➢The primary and secondary colors of light for
the subtractive colors are opposite to the colors
addition. Cyan - Blue = (Green + Blue) - Blue = Green
Yellow - Green = (Red + Green) - Green = Red
Magenta - Red = (Red + Blue) - Red = Blue 27
The subtractive primary colors: Yellow, magenta and cyan
The secondary subtractive colors: red, green and blue.
• Or the complimentary colors are the colors that are absorbed by
the subtractive primaries.
➢Cyan’s complement is red;
➢magenta’s complement is green; and
➢yellow’s compliment is blue.
Pigments: are substances which give an object its color by
absorbing certain frequencies of light and reflecting other
frequencies.
For example, a red pigment absorbs all colors of light except red
which it reflects. 28
• Paints and inks contain pigments which give the paints and inks
different colors.
Filter: is also defined as a substance or device that prevents certain
things from passing through it while allowing certain other things to
pass.
• The following shows the color subtraction of light using filters or
pigments.
Color subtraction by single color filter
i. Yellow filter
(or a pigment):
➢absorbs blue light
➢ transmits red and green light.
➢Red and green light together are seen as yellow. 29
ii. Magenta filter (or a pigment):
➢absorbs green light
➢transmits red and blue light.
➢Blue and red light together
are seen as magenta.
iii) Cyan filter (or pigment):
➢absorbs red light
➢transmits blue and green
light.
➢Blue and green light together are seen as cyan.

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Color Subtraction by Combination of Color Filters
iv. Yellow and Magenta Filter:
Yellow filter (or a pigment)
absorbs blue and Magenta
filter (or a pigment)
absorbs green and reflect
the red light.
v. Yellow and Cyan Filter:
Yellow filter (or a pigment)
absorbs blue and cyan
filter (or a pigment)
absorbs red and reflect the green light.
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vi. Magenta and Cyan Filter:
Magenta filter (or a pigment)
absorbs green and cyan
filter (or a pigment) absorbs
red and reflect the blue light.
➢When you mix colors using paint, or through the printing
process, you are using the subtractive color method.
➢Subtractive color mixing means that one begins with white and
ends with black; as one adds color, the result gets darker and
tends to black.

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The End

By Tolina G. (M.Sc)

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