Unit 11 : Sense Relations 2 (OPPOSITENESS AND DISSIMILARITY OF SENSE)

AND AMBIGUITY

Entry test:

(1) Analyticity is a sense property of sentences. Therefore, the correct answer is (b).
(2) The sentence “John is older than himself” is a contradiction because it is logically impossible for someone
to be older than themselves. Therefore, the correct answer is (c).
(3) The relationship between the sentences “I detest semantics” and “I am not fond of semantics” is that the
first entails the second. The first sentence implies a stronger negative feeling towards semantics than the
second sentence. Therefore, the correct answer is (b).
(4) The correct statement is (d): If a sentence X entails a sentence Y and sentence Y also entails sentence X,
then X and Y are paraphrases of each other.
(5) The correct answer is (b): Synonymy is to paraphrase as hyponymy is to entailment. This is because
synonymy is a relationship between words with similar meanings, while paraphrase is a relationship
between sentences with similar meanings. Similarly, hyponymy is a relationship between words where one
word’s meaning is included in the other word’s meaning, while entailment is a relationship between
sentences where one sentence’s meaning implies the other sentence’s meaning.

Practice

Step 1: Opposites of Given Words

(1) hot – cold

(2) thick – thin

(3) buy – sell

(4) lend – borrow

(5) male – female

(6) dead – alive

(7) lunch – no real opposite

(8) liquid – no real opposite

Step 2: Binary Antonyms

(1) chalk – cheese: No

(2) same – different: Yes

(3) copper – tin: No

(4) dead – alive: Yes

(5) married – unmarried: Yes

(6) love – hate: No

Step 3: Four-Way Contrast

(1) Man woman

Boy girl

(2) Husband wife

Bachelor spinster

Step 4: Antonyms
(1) No, girl is not normally the antonym of man.

(2) No, wife is not normally the antonym of bachelor.

Important Concept: Binary antonymy refers to the relationship between two predicates that come in pairs and
exhaust all relevant possibilities.

Practice Exercise 1

(1) Are below and above converses?

Answer: Yes, if X is below Y, Y is above X.

(2) Are grandparent and grandchild converses?

Answer: Yes

(3) Are love and hate converses?

Answer: No

(4) Are conceal and reveal converses?

Answer: No

(5) Are greater than and less than converses?

Answer: Yes

(6) Are own and belong to converses?

Answer: Yes

Practice Exercise 2

(1) If John bought a car from Fred, is it the case that Fred sold a car to John?

Answer: Yes

(2) Are buy and sell converses?

Answer: Yes

(3) Are borrow and lend converses?

Answer: Yes, if X borrows something from Y, Y lends that thing to X.

(4) Are give and take converses?

Answer: No, if X takes something from Y, Y does not necessarily give that thing to X.

(5) Are come and go converses?

Answer: No, if Mohammed goes to the mountain, the mountain does not come to Mohammed.

Important Concept: Converseness is a sense relation between two predicates that describe the same relationship
between two things or people, but with the order of the things or people reversed.

Practice Exercise 1

(1) What would you call the system of oppositions to which the words Spring and Summer both belong?

Answer: The season system.

(2) How many members does this system have altogether?

Answer: Four.

(3) What would you call the system to which solid and gas belong?
Answer: The physical-state system.

(4) How many members does this system have?

Answer: Three: liquid, solid, and gas.

(5) Can you think of an example of a seven-member system?

Answer: The system of days of the week (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, etc.).

(6) Four-member systems are quite common. How many can you think of?

Answer: Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades; earth, air, fire, water; North, East, South, West.

Practice Exercise 2

(1) How many English colour words (like red, grey) are there?

Answer: An indefinite number.

(2) How many names of plants are there in English (e.g. holly, daffodil)?

Answer: An indefinite number.

(3) How many names of different metals are there in English (e.g. brass, tin)?

Answer: An indefinite number.

(4) Think of three further examples of such open-ended systems of multiple incompatibility.

Answer: The vehicle system (car, bus, train, etc.); the animal system (bat, bear, tiger, etc.); the flower system
(pansy, primrose, poppy, etc.).

Important Concept: Systems of multiple incompatibility are semantic systems where all the terms are mutually
incompatible and together cover all the relevant area. These systems can be open-ended, meaning that new terms
can be added to the system.

Here are the answers with justifications:

Practice Exercise 1

(1) Are tall and short gradable antonyms?

Answer: Yes

(2) Are long and short gradable antonyms?

Answer: Yes

(3) Are clever and stupid gradable antonyms?

Answer: Yes

(4) Are top and bottom gradable antonyms?

Answer: No

(5) Are love and hate gradable antonyms?

Answer: Yes

Practice Exercise 2

(1) Is near gradable?

Answer: Yes (G)

(2) Is cheap gradable?

Answer: Yes (G)

(3) Is beautiful gradable?

Answer: Yes (G)

(4) Is electrical gradable?

Answer: No (NG)

(5) Is triangular gradable?

Answer: No (NG)

Practice Exercise 3

(1) Classify the pair cat – dog.

Answer: Multiple incompatibles (M)

(2) Classify the pair easy – difficult.

Answer: Gradable antonyms (G)

(3) Classify the pair good – bad.

Answer: Gradable antonyms (G)

(4) Classify the pair better than – worse than.

Answer: Converses (C)

(5) Classify the pair deciduous – evergreen.

Answer: Binary antonyms (B)

(6) Classify the pair pass – fail.

Answer: Binary antonyms (B)

(7) Classify the pair urban – rural.

Answer: A debatable case – probably Binary antonyms (B) for some people, Gradable antonyms (G) for others.

Important Concept: Gradable antonyms are pairs of predicates that are at opposite ends of a continuous scale of
values. They can be tested for gradability by checking if they can combine with very, or very much, or how? Or how
much?

Here are the answers with justifications:

Practice Exercise 1

(1) Are John murdered Bill and Bill was murdered by John contradictories?

Answer: No

(2) Are John murdered Bill and John did not kill Bill contradictories?

Answer: Yes

(3) Are Bill died and James can’t swim contradictories?

Answer: No

(4) Are Mary is Ann’s parent and Mary is Ann’s child contradictories?

Answer: Yes

(5) Are Room 404 is below this one and Room 404 is above this one contradictories?
Answer: Yes

(6) Are This doorhandle is brass and This doorhandle is plastic contradictories?

Answer: Yes

Practice Exercise 2

(1) Do This cat is male and This cat is female conform to Statement A?

Answer: Yes

(2) Do John hates Californians and John loves Californians conform to Statement A?

Answer: Yes

(3) Do This mouse is dead and This mouse is alive conform to Statement A?

Answer: Yes

(4) Do John owns three male cats and John owns three female cats conform to Statement A?

Answer: No, John might own three male and three female cats.

(5) Do Some people love Californians and Some people hate Californians conform to Statement A?

Answer: No

(6) Do I found a dead mouse in the shower and I found a live mouse in the shower conform to Statement A?

Answer: No, I might have found two mice, one dead, one alive.

Important Concept: Contradictoriness is a relationship between two propositions (or sentences) that cannot both be
true at the same time and of the same circumstances. Statement A provides a way to determine if two sentences
are contradictories based on the antonymy relationship between the words they contain.

Practice Exercise 1

(1) The chicken is ready to eat

Answer: The chicken is ready to be eaten vs The chicken is ready to eat some food

(2) Visiting relatives can be boring

Answer: It can be boring to visit relatives vs Relatives who are visiting can be boring

(3) They passed the port at midnight

Answer: They passed the seaport at midnight vs They passed the port wine at midnight

(4) The thing that bothered Bill was crouching under the table

Answer: It was crouching under the table that bothered Bill vs The creature that bothered Bill was crouching under
the table

(5) The captain corrected the list

Answer: The captain corrected the inventory vs The captain corrected the tilt

Practice Exercise 2

(1) Bust

Answer: sculpture of a person’s head, shoulders and chest vs broken

(2) Plane

Answer: aeroplane vs flat surface

 (3) Crop

Answer: harvest vs handle of a riding whip

(4) Pen

Answer: handwriting instrument using ink vs enclosure

(5) Sage

Answer: wise vs herb (Salvia officinalis)

Important Concept: Ambiguity refers to the phenomenon where a word or sentence has more than one sense or
meaning. In the case of words and phrases, ambiguity occurs when a word or phrase has two or more synonyms
that are not themselves synonyms of each other.

Practice Exercise 1

(1) Chimney (pipe or funnel-like structure on a building for smoke to escape through vs narrow vertical space
between rocks up which a climber can wriggle by pressing against the sides)

Answer: Both senses contain the concept of a narrow vertical shaft in some solid material.

(2) Cup (drinking vessel vs brassiere cup)

Answer: Both senses have the concept of container with a particular round shape.

(3) Guard (person who guards, sentinel vs solid protective shield, e.g. around machinery)

Answer: Both contain the concept of protection against danger.

(4) Ceiling (top inner surface of a room vs upper limit)

Answer: Both contain the concept of a maximum upper boundary.

(5) Earth/earth (our planet vs soil)

Answer: Both contain the concept of land at different levels of generality.

(6) Drive (as in drive a nail vs as in drive a car)

Answer: Both contain the concept of causing something to move in a particular direction.

Important Concept: Polysemy occurs when a word has multiple related senses, while homonymy occurs when a
word has multiple unrelated senses. The distinction between polysemy and homonymy can be blurry, and different
linguists may categorize the same word differently.

Practice Exercise 1

(1) Bark (of a dog vs of a tree)

Answer: Homonymy (H), because the two senses are unrelated and distinct.

(2) Fork (in a road vs instrument for eating)

Answer: Polysemy (P), because the two senses are related, both referring to a division or separation.

(3) Tail (of a coat vs of an animal)

Answer: Polysemy (P), because the two senses are related, both referring to an extension or appendage.

(4) Steer (to guide vs young bull)

Answer: Homonymy (H), because the two senses are unrelated and distinct.

(5) Lip (of a jug vs of a person)

Answer: Polysemy (P), because the two senses are related, both referring to an edge or border.
 (6) Punch (blow with a fist vs kind of fruity alcoholic drink)

Answer: Homonymy (H), because the two senses are unrelated and distinct.

Important Concept: Homonymy occurs when a word has multiple unrelated senses, while polysemy occurs when a
word has multiple related senses. The distinction between homonymy and polysemy can be blurry, and different
linguists may categorize the same word differently.

Practice Exercise 1

(1) Rock

Answer: The ship hit a rock and sank (sense: a large stone) vs I will buy an electric guitar and become a rock star
(sense: a genre of music)

(2) Hard

Answer: This wood is hard (sense: resistant to pressure) vs Playing the violin is hard (sense: difficult)

(3) File

Answer: We will open a file for our overseas contracts (sense: a collection of documents) vs I sharpened the scissors
with a file (sense: a tool for sharpening)

Practice Exercise 2

(1) Sack

Answer: Verb (e.g. sack the employee) vs Noun (e.g. a sack of potatoes)

(2) Fast

Answer: Verb (e.g. fast the door) vs Noun (e.g. a fast) vs Adjective (e.g. a fast car) vs Adverb (e.g. she runs fast)

(3) Flat

Answer: Noun (e.g. a flat) vs Adjective (e.g. a flat tire)

Important Concept: Homonymy occurs when a word has multiple unrelated senses. Disambiguation can be achieved
by providing different environments or contexts in which the word is used, or by indicating the part of speech of the
word.

Practice Exercise 1

Statement B is the correct one.

Practice Exercise 2

(1) (a) A KIND young man helped me to CROSS the road: NA

(b) A pike is a KIND of fish: NA

(c) I’m very CROSS with you: NA

(3) Statements A and D are shown to be incorrect by these examples

Practice Exercise 3

(1) I observed John in the garden

(a) No

(b) Yes

(2) We had to decide on the bus

(a) No
(b) Yes

(3) Fred said that he would pay me on Thursday

(a) No

(b) Yes

(4) Statement C is eliminated by these examples.

Important Concept: The relationship between ambiguous sentences and ambiguous words is complex. Statement B
is the correct one, indicating that some sentences with ambiguous words are ambiguous, while others are not, and
some sentences without ambiguous words are ambiguous, while others are not.

Practice Exercise

Sentence | Ambiguous sentence | Unambiguous sentence | Sentence containing ambiguous words | Sentence
containing no ambiguous words

-----------|----------------------|-----------------------|----------------------------------------|------------------------------------------

(1) | | |X |

(2) | |X | |X

(3) |X | |X |

(4) |X | |X |

(5) | |X | |X

The correct chart is:

Sentence | Ambiguous sentence | Unambiguous sentence | Sentence containing ambiguous words | Sentence
containing no ambiguous words

-----------|----------------------|-----------------------|----------------------------------------|------------------------------------------

(5) | |X | |X

(2) | |X | |X

(3) |X | |X |

(4) |X | |X |

(1) | | |X |

Important Concept: Statement B is the correct one, indicating that some sentences with ambiguous words are
ambiguous, while others are not, and some sentences without ambiguous words are ambiguous, while others are
not.

Summary

This text provides a concise summary of the key concepts related to sense relations and ambiguity in linguistics.
Sense relations include binary antonymy (opposite meanings), converseness (one predicate is the converse of the
other), gradable antonymy (opposite meanings that can be graded), and multiple incompatibility (three or more
predicates that are mutually incompatible). Ambiguity encompasses lexical ambiguity (words with multiple
meanings due to homonymy or polysemy), grammatical ambiguity (ambiguity arising from sentence structure),
referential versatility (words or phrases referring to different things or people), and referential vagueness (lack of
clear boundaries in word or phrase meanings). A key statement notes that some sentences with ambiguous words
are ambiguous while others are not, and some sentences without ambiguous words are ambiguous while others are
not, highlighting the complexities of sense relations and ambiguity in linguistics.

Important Terms

Binary Antonyms

Binary antonyms are predicates that come in pairs and exhaust all relevant possibilities, where one predicate
entails the negative of the other. True and false are binary antonyms, as a sentence cannot be both true and false
at the same time. Binary antonyms are opposing predicates with no middle ground.

Converses

Converses are predicates that describe a relationship between two things or people, where the order of the things
or people is reversed. “Husband” and “wife” are converses, as they describe a marital relationship from different
perspectives. Converses are predicates that describe a relationship from opposite directions.

Gradable Antonyms

Gradable antonyms are predicates that are at opposite ends of a continuous scale of values, where the scale can
vary depending on context. Hot and cold are gradable antonyms, as they represent opposite ends of a temperature
scale. Gradable antonyms are opposing predicates with a range of values in between.

Contradictoriness

Contradictoriness occurs when two propositions cannot both be true at the same time and in the same
circumstances. “This beetle is alive” and “This beetle is dead” are contradictory propositions, as they cannot both
be true simultaneously. Contradictoriness occurs when two propositions are mutually exclusive.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase, or sentence has multiple meanings or interpretations. The sentence “I saw
a bat” is ambiguous, as “bat” can refer to either a flying mammal or a sports equipment. Ambiguity occurs when a
linguistic expression has multiple meanings.

Homonymy

Homonymy occurs when two or more words are spelled and/or pronounced the same but have different meanings
and are not related. “Bank” (financial institution) and “bank” (slope or incline) are homonyms, as they are unrelated
words with the same spelling. Homonymy occurs when unrelated words are spelled and/or pronounced the same.

Polysemy

Polysemy occurs when a single word has multiple related meanings or senses. “Head” can refer to the upper part of
the human body, the source of a river, or the leader of a group, illustrating polysemy. Polysemy occurs when a
single word has multiple related meanings.

Structural Ambiguity

Structural ambiguity occurs when a sentence’s meaning is unclear due to its grammatical structure. The sentence
“The chicken is ready to eat” is structurally ambiguous, as it can be interpreted in different ways depending on the
grammatical structure. Structural ambiguity occurs when a sentence’s meaning is unclear due to its grammatical
structure.

Lexical Ambiguity

Lexical ambiguity occurs when a word or phrase has multiple meanings or interpretations. The word “bank” can
refer to either a financial institution or the side of a river, illustrating lexical ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity occurs
when a word or phrase has multiple meanings.

Referential Versatility

Referential versatility occurs when a phrase or word can be used to refer to a wide range of different things or
people. The pronoun “she” can be used to refer to any female person, illustrating referential versatility. Referential
versatility occurs when a phrase or word can refer to many different things or people.
EXERCISE

1 ) Here are the key terms and concepts from Unit 11,

Types of Antonymy

Types of antonymy include binary antonymy, converseness, gradable antonymy, and multiple incompatibility. These
categories help classify opposing relationships between words. Understanding antonymy is crucial in semantics.

Contradictoriness and Ambiguity

Contradictoriness refers to the relationship between two propositions that cannot both be true. Ambiguity, on the
other hand, occurs when a word, phrase, or sentence has multiple meanings. Ambiguity can be structural or lexical.

Homonymy, Polysemy, and Referential Versatility

Homonymy occurs when two or more words are spelled and/or pronounced the same but have different meanings.
Polysemy happens when a single word has multiple related meanings. Referential versatility refers to the ability of a
word or phrase to refer to different things or people.

The Distinction between Vagueness and Ambiguity

Vagueness and ambiguity are two distinct concepts in semantics. Vagueness refers to the lack of clear boundaries
or distinctions in the meaning of a word or phrase. Ambiguity, on the other hand, occurs when a word, phrase, or
sentence has multiple meanings.

2) Oppositeness of Meaning

Oppositeness of meaning is not as simple as it sounds because words can have multiple meanings, connotations,
and relationships. For two words to be classed as antonyms, they must have a clear and consistent opposition in
meaning, which can be tested using various criteria such as negation, contradiction, or gradability.

3) Binary Antonyms Test

Using the test for binary antonyms, we can determine which of the following pairs of predicates are binary
antonyms:

a. Wood/metal: No, as the negation of one term does not entail the other (e.g., “not wood” does not
necessarily mean “metal”).
b. Big/small: Yes, as the negation of one term entails the other (e.g., “not big” implies “small”).
c. Awake/asleep: Yes, as the negation of one term entails the other (e.g., “not awake” implies
“asleep”).
d. Honest/dishonest: Yes, as the negation of one term entails the other (e.g., “not honest” implies
“dishonest”).
e. Happy/sad: No, as the negation of one term does not necessarily entail the other (e.g., “not
happy” does not necessarily mean “sad”)
f. Give/receive: No, as the negation of one term does not necessarily entail the other (e.g., “not
give” does not necessarily mean “receive”).
g. Present/absent: Yes, as the negation of one term entails the other (e.g., “not present” implies
“absent”).
h. In/out: Yes, as the negation of one term entails the other (e.g., “not in” implies “out”).

5. Additional Systems of Multiple Incompatibility

Some additional systems of multiple incompatibility include:

- Colors of the rainbow

- Directions (north, south, east, west)

- Musical notes

- Days of the month

6. Type of Antonymy or Incompatibility

Here are the answers to the type of antonymy or incompatibility for each pair of words:

a. high/low – Gradable antonyms

b. punch/slap – Multiple incompatibles

c. husband/wife – Converses

d. higher/lower – Gradable antonyms

e. pregnant/not pregnant – Binary antonyms

f. legal/illegal – Binary antonyms

g. lessor/lessee – Converses

h. expensive/cheap – Gradable antonyms

i. table/chair – Multiple incompatibles

j. parent/offspring – Converses

7. Contradictories

Here are the answers to which pairs of sentences are contradictories:

a. Not contradictories

b. Contradictories

c. Contradictories

d. Contradictories

8. Contradictoriness

Here are the explanations for how the contradictories entail the negation of each other:

b. If Max is Sam’s father, then Max cannot be Sam’s child.

c. If the class begins at 9:45 a.m., then it cannot begin at 8:45 p.m.

d. If Jane died, then Jane cannot be still alive.

9. Examples of Contradictories

Here are the examples:

Example of contradictories: “The door is open” and “The door is closed”.

Example of non-contradictories: “The book is expensive” and “The book is cheap”.

10. Disambiguation

Here are the disambiguated sentences:

a. Climbing plants can look strange (unusual) / Climbing plants can look strange (as in, they can appear to be
climbing)

b. Jane waited by the bank (financial institution) / Jane waited by the bank (riverbank)

c. They are moving sidewalks (walkways that move) / They are sidewalks that are moving (being relocated)

d. The English history teacher knows a lot (about English history) / The English history teacher knows a lot (of
people)

e. The minister married my sister (performed the wedding ceremony) / The minister married my sister (is married to
my sister)
f. She’s selling synthetic buffalo hides (made from synthetic materials) / She’s selling buffalo hides that are
synthetic (fake or artificial)

g. The long drill was boring (uninteresting) / The long drill was boring (making holes)

h. The grass was very expensive (costly to maintain) / The grass was very expensive (to purchase)

i. The boy saw the man with a telescope (using a telescope to see the man) / The boy saw the man who had a
telescope (the man possessed a telescope)

j. He gave me a punch (hit me) / He gave me a punch (a drink made from fruit juice)

11. Structural vs. Lexical Ambiguity

Sentences with structural ambiguity:

- They are moving sidewalks

- The boy saw the man with a telescope

Sentences with lexical ambiguity:

- The grass was very expensive

- He gave me a punch

12. Polysemous Words

Here are the polysemous words with their common senses and relationships:

a. iron - metal, device for pressing clothes, golf club

Relationship: All senses are related to a hard, strong material or object.

f. around - in a circle, nearby, approximately

Relationship: All senses are related to a sense of proximity or circular motion.

g. flight - act of flying, departure of a plane, fleeting

Relationship: All senses are related to movement or a sense of fleetingness.

13. Polysemous Senses of "Run"

Some additional polysemous senses of "run" include:

- Run a business

- Run a computer program

- Run a risk

Relationship: All senses are related to a sense of movement, flow, or continuity.

14. Homonymy vs. Polysemy

It is difficult to draw a clear line between homonymy and polysemy because some words may have multiple related
senses that are not clearly distinct.

Example: The word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the side of a river. While these senses are related,
they are not identical, making it difficult to classify "bank" as either a homonym or a polysemy.

This is an important question for lexicographers because it affects how words are defined and categorized in
dictionaries.

15. Polysemous Senses of "Over"

Some additional polysemous senses of "over" include:

- Over the top (excessive)

- Over the moon (delighted)

- Over and over (repeatedly)

Relationship: All senses are related to a sense of movement, position, or extent.

16. Ambiguous Sentences and Words

Example of an unambiguous sentence with an ambiguous word:

- "I went to the bank to deposit my paycheck." (Here, "bank" is ambiguous, but the sentence is unambiguous
because of the context.)

Example of an ambiguous sentence with an ambiguous word:

- "I saw a bat flying overhead." (Here, "bat" is ambiguous, and the sentence is also ambiguous because it's unclear
whether the speaker saw a flying mammal or a sports equipment.)

17. Ambiguous Sentences without Ambiguous Words

Example of an unambiguous sentence with no ambiguous words:

- "The sun rises in the east."

Example of an ambiguous sentence with no ambiguous words:

- "Visiting relatives can be boring." (Here, the sentence is ambiguous because it's unclear whether the speaker finds
visiting relatives boring or whether the relatives themselves are boring.)

18. Referential Vagueness vs. Ambiguity

The different senses of "punch" in the given example are:

- To hit or strike something

- A type of drink made from fruit juice

This test can be used to demonstrate that "pig" is also ambiguous:

- I saw a pig (animal) but I didn’t see a pig (police officer)

In this example, "pig" is ambiguous because it can refer to either an animal or a police officer.