7

Orthographic Projections
7.1
INTRODUCTION
Any object has three dimensions i.e., length, breadth and
shape of an object is described by projection which is the image thickness.
of
In graphic language, the
the object formed by rays of sight,
taken in same particular direction from the object into a picture plane,
stationed at the point from or towards which the projection is made. The as it appears to an observer
be considered while drawing a following are the elements to
() The object
projection:
(1) The plane of projection
(ii) The point of sight
(iv) The lines of sight
7.2 METHODS OF PROJECTIONSs
In an engineering drawing, four methods of projections are generally used which are
as follows:
() Orthographic Projections
(i) Axonometric Projections
(ii) Oblique Projections
(to) Perspective Projections
In the orthographic projections, an object is represented by two or
more than two views on the
mutual perpendicular planes of projections or picture planes. Each view represents two dimensions
of an object. For the complete description of the three
required. dimensional object, atleast two views are
In the other three methods, the objects are represented by a
of projections,a three dimensional object is represented pictorial view only. In these methods
on a projection plane by single view only.
7.3 PLANES OF PROJECTION
The plane on which the projection is taken is called as plane of
orthographic projections, three planes are used for getting the differentprojection or picture plane. In
up in the vertical position is called the vertical plane (VP) or frontal views of an object. One is set
horizontal position ie. perpendicular to the VP, is called horizontalplane (FP), The second, set up in
up perpendicular to both HP and VP is called profile plane (PP). plane (HP), The third plane, set
Both horizontal and vertical planes, which are called as principal
on one side of the profile plane in four parts, called the planes, divide the whole space
four dihedral angles or quadrants as shownu
Fig.7.1. The lines of intersection of these three planes are called coordinate axes., The
of HP and VP is commonly called as line of intersecto
reference line and is generally denoted by the letters xy the
projection on VP is called the front viewor elevation ofthe object. The projection on HPis called
top view or plan of the object. The projection on the PP is called the side view or end view oreend
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 81

planes is called the origin. In

olevation of the object. The point of intersection of the three coordinatedenoted
iebook, actual points, ends of lines, corners of solids etc. in space are by capital letters A, B,
cetc., and frontviews
Cetc. Their top views or plan are marked by corresponding small letters a, b,elevation
orelevation by small letters with dashes a', b',c' etc. The side views or end are denoted
conventions that will be
by smal1 letters with double dashes a", b", c etc. These are the standard
used throughout in this book.
Vertical Plane (VP)
Profile Plane (PP)

-2d Quadrant 1 Quadrant

Horizontal Plane (HP)

3rd Quadrant 4h Quadrant

Fig. 7.1 Three pianes of projectinns

7.4 FOUR QUADRANTS

When the planes of projections are extended beyond the line of intersectiorn, they fornm four
quadrants or dihedral angles, which may be numbered as shown in Fig. 7.2. The object may be
situated in any one of the quadrants, its relative position to the planes being described as 'above or
below the HP' and 'infront of or behind the VP.
V e r t i cP
a ll a n(
eV P )

Second Quadrant First Quadrant

Above HP Above HP
Behind VP Infront of VP
Reference LIne

Horizontal Plane (HP)

Second Angle First Angle
Third Angle Fourth Angle
Third Quadrant Fourth Quadrant
Below HP Below HP
Behind VP Infront of VP

Fig. 7.2 Four quadrants

 ENGINEERING DRAWING AND COMPUTER
82 GRAPHICs
projection issaid to bethefirst angle, secondangle,third angle or fourth angle when the object
is imagined to be either in first quadrant, second quadrant, third quadrant or tourth quadrant
holding VP and rotating E
respectively. The two principal planes are made to lie in one plane by angle projections are beine
third
through 90°, clockwise. However, only two systems i.e., the first andout
followed, because only first and third quadrants are always opened while rotating the planes, Th
positions of views donot overlap in these quadrants. Whereas in second and fourthused. quadrants, the
positions of views overlap. That is why second and fourth angle projections are not
7.5 FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION

In first-angle projection, an object is imagined to bepositioned in first quadrant. The front viewis
obtained by looking at the object from right side of quadrant. In this case, the object will be in between
observer and plane of projection.
Similarly,top view and side view are obtained by looking at the object, normal to its surface. As
there are two sides for an object (left side and right side), so two possible views from the side i.e. left side
view and ight side view may be obtained for any object.
In the first-angle projection, aleft side view is obtained on the profile plane by placing it to the
right side of the object. Thus, in first-angle projection any view is so placed that it represents the side
of the object away from it, as shown in Fig. 7.3.
Top view
VP

PP
Front view Left side view
X
4545

HP Top view

Left slde vlew Front view

Fig. 7.3 Presentation of orthographic views in first angle projection

7.6 THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION
In third-angle projection, an object is imagined to be positioned in third quadrant. The frontYe
isincbtained
betweern by
thelooking at theobserver.
objectand objectfrom
The right
plane side of quadrant.
of projection In this case,
is imagined to bethe plane of projection
transparentand raysof
sight pass through it and then reach the object.
It
Similarly, its top view and side view are obtained by looking at the object, 1normalto itssurface.to
may be noted that in third-angle projection, aleft side viewis obtained by placing the profile,plane
the left side ofthe object. Thus in third-angle theslde
represents
of the object nearer to it, as shown in Fig.7.4. projection any view is so placed that it
 83
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
Top view

HP

/ Left slde view PP VP Front view

Top view

453
y X

Left side view Front view

Z

Fig. 7.4 Presentation of orthographic views in third-angle projection

Table 7.1 Difference between first-angle projection method and third-angle projection method
S. Nol Common point First-angle projection method Third angle projection method
1. Quadrant The object lies in the first quadrant. The object is assumed to lie in the
third quadrant.
2 Octant The object lies in the first octant. The object lies in the seventh octant.
3. Position of object The object lies in between the observer The plane of projection lies in
and plane of projection. between the object and the observer.
4.
Plane of projectioni The plane of projection is assumed to The plane of projection is assumed
be non-transparent. to be transparent
5. Position of views In this method, front viewor elevation In this method, front view or
lies above the xy, top view or plan below elevation lies below the xy, top view
the xy and left side view is drawn to theor plan above the xy and left side
right of elevation. view is drawn to the left of elevation.
6. Commonly Used This method is commonly used by This method is commonly used in
Countries tlhe Bureau of Indians Standards (BIS) USA and other countries.
and European countrles.
84 ENGINEERING DRAWING AND COMPUTER
GRAPHICs
7.7 SYMBOLS USED FOR FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD AND THIRD-ANGLE
PROJECTION METHOD
For every drawing, it is absolutely essential to indicate the method of projection adopted. This is
done by means of asymbolic figure drawn on atitle block. The symbol drawn for first-angle projection
method is shown in Fig. 7.5, while that for the third-angle projection method is shown in Fig. 7.6.
These symbols are actually obtained from the projections of frustum of acone as shown in Fig. 7.7.

Front view Left side view Left side view Front view

Fig. 7.5 Symbol for first-angle projection method Fig. 7.6 Symbol for third-angle projection method

Fig. 7.7 Frustum of a cone

EXERCISES

7.1 What do you mean by orthographic projection. Describe briefly the method of obtaining the
orthographic projection of an object ?
7.2 Explain with the help of neat sketches, the difference between first-angle projection method
and third-angle projection method ?
7.3 Why the projections of an object are not drawn in second and fourth quadrants ?
7.4 Write short notes on
() Principal planes (i) Reference line (tii) Projection
(v) Front view () Top view (vi) Side view

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
7.1 In....projection, the object is positioned in between the observer and the
7.2 In third angle projection, the .....ispositioned in between the observerplane of projecton
and object.
7.3 Draw the symbols for first-angle projection method and third-angle projection
7.4 Asurface of an object appears in its true shape, when it is.....to the plane ofmethod.
7.5 Whatis aplan of projection ? projectio
7.6 In orthographic projection the lines of sight are .....t0the plane of
7.7 The three planes of projection are projection.
.....and. .
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 85

7.8 Following symbol represents first or third angle projection.

7.9 What is the full name of 'HP' and VP?
7.10 Distinguish between the terms Projector' and Projection' by means of suitable sketches.
7.11 What is a profile plane and state its °se?

ANSWERS
7.1 First-angle 7.2 Plane of projection 7.4 Parallel
7.6 Perpendicular 7.7 Horizontal, vertical, profle planes 7.8 Third-angle projection
7.9 HPHorizontal plane, VP’ Vertical plane
 8
Projections of Points
8.1 INTRODUCTION

Apoint may be situated in space, in any one of the four quadrants formed by two principal
planes of projection or may lie in any one or both of them. Its projections are obtained by extending
projectors perpendicular to the planes.
The two principal planes are made to lie in one plane by holding VP and rotating HP through
90° clockwise, so that the first and third quadrants are opened out. Then the projections are shown
on a flat surface in their respective positions either above or below or in xy.
8.2 A POINT IS SITUATEDINTHE FIRST QUADRANT
The pictorial view Fig. 8.1(0) shows apoint Ais situated above the HP and infront of the VP ie.
in the firstquadrant. When the point is viewed in the direction of l, the view fronm front a' is obtained
as the intersection point between the ray of sight through Aand the VP. When the point is viewed in
the direction m, the view from above or topais obtained as the intersection point between the ray of
sight and the HP. a' its front view and a the top view. Hold VP and rotate HP 90° in the clockwise.
these projections are seen in the Fig.8.1(b). The front view a' is above xy and top view a below it.
(Top view)
VP

a
d

A a a'

ao

(Front view)
y X
HP

Direction of rotation
of HP clockwise, 90°

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 8.1 Projections of a point Ain first quadrant
 87
PROJECTIONS OF POINTS
xy at right angles atá point a, Itis quite
The line joining a' and a (which is called as projector), intersectvicw
ovident from pictorialview that a'a, =Aa; i.e., distance of front from xy= distance of Afrom the HP
d. Fig. 8.1
uiz. H. Similarly, aa, = Aa' i.e., distance of the top view from xy = distance of A from the VP viz.
(c). shows only the relative positions of the views, as it is customary not to show the planes of projection.
The following points may be noted from the study of Fig. 8.1.
() The line xy is the intersection line between HP and VP, as shown in Fig. 8.1(a). In
Figs 8.1(b) and 8.1(c), the line isrepresented by xy, which is known as the reference line or
common axis. Actually, xy is the line about which the rotation of the plane is made.
() letters
t is customary to vse capital letters to specify the position of the points in space and small
for their projections. As an example, for the point A in space, the views fromn front,
top and side are represented by a', a and a".
8.3 APOINT IS SITUATEDIN THE SECOND QUADRANT
As shown in Fig.8.2 (a), apoint Bis above the HP and behind the VP i.e., inthe second quadrant
#and bare the front and top views obtained on VP and HP by viewing the points in the direcetion
Iand mrespectively. Fig. 8.2(b) shows the relative positions of the views. These are obtained by
rotating the HP clockwise till it coincides with the VP. It may be noted that both the views are seen
above reference line xy. Also b' bo =Bb and bi, =Bb'.
(Top view)
m

HP bo

bo (Front view)
X
(a) (b)

Fig. 8.2 Projections of apoint Bin second quadrant

8.4 APOINT IS sITUATED IN THE THIRD QUADRANT
As shown in Fig. 8.3(a), a point Cis below the HP and behind the VP ie.,in the third quadrant.
Cand care the front and top views obtained on VP and HP by viewing the points in the direction !
and mrespectively. Here, it is assumed that both HP and VP are transparent. Fig. 8.3 (b) shows the
relative positionsof the views. These are obtained by rotating the HP clockwise till it coincides with
the VP. It may be noted that front view c' is belowthe xy and top view cabove the xy. Also c'co =Cc
and cc, = Cc.
88 ENGINEERING DRAWING AND COMPUTER
(Top view)
GRAPHICS
m

HP

VP
(Front view)
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.3 Projections of a point C in third quadrant
8.5 A POINT IS SITUATED IN THE FOURTH QUADRANT

As shown in Fig. 8.4(2), a point Dis below the HP and infront of the VP i.e., in the fourth quadrant.
d' and d are the front and top views obtained on VP and HP by viewing the points in the direction
and m respectively. Fig. 8.4 (b) shows the relative positions of the views. These are obtained by
rotating the HP in the clockwise direction till it coincides with the VP. It may be noted that both the
views are below xy. Also d' do = Dd and dd, = Dd'.
(Top view)

dy

HP
do

(Front viev)

VP (a) (b)
Fig. 8.4 Projections of a point Din fourth quadrant
 89
PROJECTIONS OF POINTS
8.6 SPECIAL CASES
() A point E, is situated in the HP and infront of the VP.
(i) A point F, issituated in the VP and above the HP.
(ii) A point G, is situated both in HP and VP.
All the three cases are shown in Fig. 8.5 (a). Fig. 8.5 (b) shows the relative positionsof the views for
cach case.

(Top view)
m

VP/

g'. 9o 9 fo f g'.9o 9

HP
(Front view)

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.5 Special cases of points E, Fand Gin first quadrant

The following points may be noted from the Fig. 8.5 (6).
() When a point lies in the HP, its front view will lie on xy.
(i) When a point lies in the VP, its top view will lie on xy.
(ii) When a point lies on both HP and VP, its front and top views will lie on xy.
8.7 A POINT IS SITUATED IN THE THREE PLANES OF
PROJECTION
Sometimes two views of an object are not sufficient to describe the shape and size completely, then
it is necessary to drawa third view preferably a side view or an end view on a
been described HP and VP divide the space into four quadrants. profile plane. As already
Introduction of PP will divide each
quadrant, further into two parts i.e., four to the left and four to the right of the PP. Thus there become
eIght spaces called octants as shown in Fig. 8.6. Only anticlockwise or left hand
system will be used
throughout the book.
Apoint may be situated in either of the eight octants. As discussed in the
hrough 90° clockwise and PP through 90° anticlockwise, so as to be Chapter7, rotate the HP
the first octantt opens out. On the same coplanar with the VP, such that
pattern, it can be noted that the planes after rabatment donot
90
ENGINEERING DRAWING AND COMPUTER GRAPHIOe
Overlap each other in the seventh octant. Except first and seventh octants, in other octants, there i
overlapping of planes, which will result into overlapping of views too. So only first and seventh
octants will be discussed here.

PP
Top viewN

VP

Direction of rotatlon
of PP anticlockwlse, 90°
HP

HP
IV

Direction of rotation
of HP clockwise, 90°

Left side view Front view

+y
VP

PP

views
projection with front, top and side
Fig. 8.6 Three planes of
situated in the first octant quadrant along with the profilen.plarTh
(a) A point is is placed in the first
point E
As shown in Fig. 8.7 (a), aon the PP is obtained by viewing the pointthe in the direction
projection of a point E view. Fig. 8.7 (b) shows relative positions
(PP). The i.e., e" is known as left
side
the relative positions of th
view obtained on the PP three planes of projections. Fig. 8.7 (c) shows
the
the views along with planes of projection.
the
views without showing
 91
PROJECTIONS OF POINTS
(Top view)
"! VP
PP

VP

PP

(Front view)

(End view) HP (b)

(a) HP

45°

457

(c)
E in first octant
Fig.8.7 Projections of a point
in the seventh octant plane
along with the profileHere
(b) A point is situated in the third quadrant it
point Fis placed directionn.
As shown in Fig.8.8 (a), a the PP is obtained by viewing the point in the positions of the
point F on the relative
(PP). The projection of athree planes are transparent. Fig. 8.8(b) shows
is assumed that all the(Top view)
views.
m

45°

HP
e
450
y

f
VP f
PP

(Front view)
(b)
(End view)
(a) point F in seventh octant
Fig. 8.8 Projections of a
92 ENGINEERING DRAWING AND
COMPUTER
PROBLEM 8.1 Draw the projections of the following points ona common xy
between tvo consecutive projectors as 20 minl.
A, 30 mm above the HP and 30 nm infront of the VP
B,
line. GRAPiHstaICncSe
Keep the
30 mm above the HP and 30 mm bekind the VP
C. 30 unn belov the HP and 30 mm behind the VP
D, 30 nn below the HP and 30 mn1 infront the VP
E, in HP and 30 mm ivifront of tlhe VP
F, in VPand 40 num above the HP
G, in VP and 40 mun1 below the HP
H, both un HP and VP.
SOLUTION. The solution to this problem is self-explanatory. See Fig. 8.9.

b, b'
40

X
fo f 9o9 ho, h, h
20
30 30
40

a d, d' e

Fig. 8.9 Solution to problem 8.1

PROBLEM 8.2 A
point Ais 30 mm above HP and 20 mn infront of the VP. Another point Bis 40 mm
below HP and 25 mm behind the VP.The distance betuween the end projectors is 40mm. Draw the projection
of the points. Also draw straight lines joining their front and top views.
SOLUTION. () Draw two projectors 40 mm apart on reference line xy.
40
a

30
25

20 Do -y

a'b' = Front yiew

ab =Top view

b
Fig. 8.10 Solution to problem 8.2
 93
PROJECTIONS OF POINTS
projectors.
(i) Locate front and top views for points A andB on the
lines.
(iti) Join a'b' and ab with straight respectively. See Fig. 8.10.
(iv) a' b'and ab are the required front and top views infront ofthe VP. Determine its least distance
PROBLEM 8.3 A point A is30 mm above the HP and 25 mm (PTU,Jalandhar December 2008)
from xy line.
SOLUTION. (i) Draw reference line xy.
A.
(ii) Locate front and top views for the point
will intersect at point o.
(it) Draw another reference line yz perpendicular to xy, which
(iv) Through point a, draw a line parallel to xy to intersect yzjat o
meet xy at oq.
() With o as cerntre and radius oo, draw an arc to

Atpoint o,, draw an angle of 45° to meet xy at O

projectors drawn from o, and a'.
(vi) Locate the side view a" as the intersection point between the
from xy line. See Fig. 8.11.
(vii) Joinowith a", which will represent the least distance

a a"

45°
Least distance = 0a"

O2

Fig. 8.11 Solution to problem 8.3

PROBLEM 8.4 A point P is 25 mm below the HP and 30 mm behind the VP. Determine its least distance
from xy line. (PTU, Jalandhar May 2009)
SOLUTION.
() Draw reference line xy.
() Locate front and top views for the point P.
(ii) Draw another reference line yz perpendicular to xy, which willintersect at point o.
(i0) Through point p, draw a line parallel to intersect yz at o,.
(0) Atpoint o,, draw an angle of 45° to meet xy at o,
(or) Locate the sideview y" as the intersection point between the projectors drawn from o, and p'.
 ENGINEERING DRAWINVG A
OMPUTER GRAPHIC,
94 line. See Fig. 8.12.
represent the least distancefrom xy
; which will
(vii) Join owithhp",
O

45°
30

Po

25

Least dlstance =op"

p'

Fig. 8.12 Solution to problem 8.4

PROBLEM 8.5 Apoint Cis in the HP and 40 nm infront of the VP. Another point Dis 30 mm belouH
and 25 mm behind the VP. The distance between the end projectors is 40 nm. Draw the projections of the points
Also draw straight lines joining their front and top views.
SOLUTION. (1) Draw two projectors 40 mm apart on the reference line xy.
(i) Locate front and top views for the points Cand Don the projectors.
(iüi) Join cd'and cd with straight lines.
(to) cd'and cd are the required front and top views respectively See Fig. 8.13.

25

C'

Co, C
X
-y Distance of point D
do 30 45°
below HP is 17 mm
30
40 c'd' = Front view
cd = Top view
45°
|Co, C

40
50

Fig. 8.13 Solution to problem 8.5

problem 8.6
Fig. 8.14 Solution to
 95
PROJECTION, OF POINTS
above HP while point D is below the HP.
PROBLEM 8.6 Tvo points Cand Dare in VP. Point Cis 30 mm views of the two potnts makes angles
joining the front
The distance letween the end projectors is 50 mm. The line CD andfind the distance of the point D below the
of45° with the reference line. Draw the projections of theline
HP.
sOLUTION.The solution to this problem is self-explanatory. See Fig. 8.14.
EXERCISES

8.1 Draw the projections of the following points on a common xy ine, keeping the distance
between two consecutive projectors as 20mm.
A, 30 mm above HP and 40 mm infront of the VP
B, 30 mm above HP and 40 mm behind the VP
C, 30 mm below HP and 40 mm behind the VP
D, 30 mnm below HP and 40 mm infront of the VP
E, in HP and 40 mm infront of VP
F in VP and 30 mm above the HP
E in VP and 30 mm below the HP
G, in HP and 40 mm behind the VP
H both in HP and VP.
8.2 State the quadrants in which the following points are situated:
(a) A point A, its top view is 30 mm above xy line and front view is 40 mm below xy line.
() Apoint B, its top view and front view coincide with each other 40 mm above xy line.
(c) A point C, its top view on xy line and front view 30 mm above the xy line.
(a) Apoint D, its top view is 35 mm below xy line and front view on xy line.
8.3 Apoint Ais 40 mm above HP and 25 mm infront of VP. knother point Bis 20 mm below HP
and 30 mm behind VP. The distance between end projectors is 50 mm. Draw the projections
of the points. Also draw straight lines joining their front and top views.
8.4 A point P is 20 mm above HP and 40 mm infront of VP. Another point Q lies in the first
quadrant and the distance between the vertical projections of P and Q be equal to 60 mm
and the distance between the projectors through P and Q be 45 mm and the point Q is
35 mm infront of VP. Draw its projections.
8.5 Apoint Ais 30 mm above HP and is in the first quadrant. Its shortest distarce from xy line is 55
mm. Draw its front and top views.
S.6 Apoint P is 40 mm below HP and 35 mm behind VP. Determine its least distance from xy.
8.7 Apoint Pis 20 mm below HP and is in third quadrant. Its shortest distance from xy line is
50 mm. Draw its projections.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

$1 each
Drawother.
the projection of apoint P' when it is lying on the xy line ie. where HP and VP meet
B.2 To represent the projections on a sheet, the planes must be rotated such that or
quadrant always open out.
8.3 When a point is below the HP, its front view is xy line.
8.4 When a point lies on both HP and VP, its front view and top view xy line.