AS

VISION AND MISSION STATEMENT OF AJIET
Vision of the Institute

To produce top-quality engineers who are groomed for attaining excellence in their profession
and competitive enough to help in the growth of nation and global society.
Mission of the Institute
o To offer affordable high-quality graduate program in engineering with value education

and make the students socially responsible.
o To support and enhance the institutional environment to attain research excellence in
both faculty and students and to inspire them to push the boundaries of knowledge
base.
o To identify the common areas of interest amongst the individuals for the effective
industry- institute partnership in a sustainable way by systematically working together.
o To promote the entrepreneurial attitude and inculcate innovative ideas among the
engineering professionals.
Department of Civil Engineering

Vision of the Department
To produce competent and professional civil engineers with academic excellence and ethics to
meet societal challenges at global level.
Mission of the Department
M1: To impart students with strong theoretical and practical skills through the state-of-the-art
concepts and fundamentals of various civil engineering subjects.
M2: To prepare the students to be competent and skilled enough to take up the challenges in
research to meet the ever-changing needs of society and to continue learning.
M3: To promote active learning, critical thinking, industry - institute collaborative activities
and contribute to social development with ethical conduct.
M4: To nurture innovative ideas and develop entrepreneurial attitude among the engineering
professionals.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
Apply concepts of interdisciplinary sciences and technology to solve any civil
PEO1
engineering problem.
Execute civil engineering projects effectively by addressing the ever-changing needs

PEO2
of society and aim for continuous improvement.
Competent enough to pursue higher studies and also to monitor and manage the
PEO3 research project with the effective utilization of resources to suit the needs and face the
challenges involved to meet the global demands.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
PO1 fundamentals, and specialization in Mechanical Engineering for the solution of complex
engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyse complex
PO2 engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
PO3
consideration for public health and safety, and cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
PO4 research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
PO5 modern engineering and IT tools, including prediction and modelling to complex
engineering activities, with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
PO6 assess societal, health, safety, legal, and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
PO7 solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
PO8
norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
PO9
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with the society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
PO10
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
PO11 engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environment.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
PO12
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
Should be able to understand the various domain concepts of civil engineering and execute
PSO1
the projects effectively.
Demonstrate competency in the technical community and arrive at sustainable solutions
PSO2
to the real-world problems.
PSO3 Take up challenging roles by focusing on a systematic approach
Course outcomes
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
CO1 Identify the different forms of structural systems and analyse the trusses.
CO2 Evaluate the slope and deflections in beams, frames and trusses by using
moment area method and energy principle.
CO3 Analyse and determine the stress resultants in arches and cables.
CO4 Analyse the indeterminate structures and construct BMD AND SFD using slope
deflection methods.
CO5 Analyse the indeterminate structures and construct BMD AND SFD using
Moment Distribution Method.
Suggested Learning Resources:
1. Text Books
1. Reddy, C.S., Basic Structural Analysis, 3 rd. ed., Tata McGraw-Hill Education Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, 2011.
2. Hibbeler, R.C., Structural Analysis, 9 th edition., Pearson publications., New Delhi,
2012
3. Thandavamoorthy, T.S., Structural Analysis, 6 th edition., Oxford University
press., New Delhi,2015.
4. L S Negi and R S Jangid, “Structural Analysis”, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Ltd.
5. D S Prakash Rao, “Structural Analysis: A Unified Approach”, Universities Press
4
6. K.U. Muthu and H. Narendra, “Indeterminate Structural Analysis”, IK
International Publishing Pvt. Ltd.
7. Gupta S P, G S Pundit and R Gupta, “Theory of Structures”, Vol II, Tata McGraw
Hill Publications company Ltd.
8. V N Vazirani and M M Ratwani, “Analysis of Structures”, Vol. 2, Khanna
Publishers.
9. Wang C K, “Intermediate Structural Analysis”, McGraw Hill, International
Students Edition. S. Rajashekhara and G. Sankarasubramanian, “Computational
Structural Mechanics”, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.,
10. S S Bhavikatti, structural analysis, vikas publishing house pvt. ltd., new Delhi
11. S Ramamrutham and R Narayanan, Theory of structures, Dhanpat Rai Publishing
Company.
2. Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105166
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BELGAUM
ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
(Subject Code: BCV401)
LECTURE NOTES
(MODULE-1)
IV-SEMESTER
Mrs. Babitha B
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering
AJIET
A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Education Trust. (R))
NH - 66, Kottara Chowki, Kodical Cross - 575 006
Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1
Module -1
Introduction and Analysis of Plane Trusses
Introduction and Analysis of Plane Trusses: Structural forms, Conditions of equilibrium,
Compatibility conditions, Degree of freedom, Linear and nonlinear analysis, Static and
kinematic indeterminacies of structural systems, Types of trusses, Assumptions in analysis,
Analysis of determinate trusses by method of joints and method of sections.
Structures are built to facilitate the performance of various activities connected with
residence, office, education, healthcare, sports and recreation, transportation, storage, power
generation, irrigation, etc. We see a variety of structures in our midst. Some are monumental, some
residential, some commercial, some recreational, some mobile, etc. All of them have certain common
features; they form systems consisting of a load-resisting component, which is called super structure
and a load-distributing component to the ground which is known as substructure.
All the structures should sustain the loads coming on them during their service life by
possessing adequate strength and also limit the deformation by possessing enough stiffness.
Strength of a structure depends on the characteristics of the material with which it is constructed.
Stiffness depends on the cross section and the geometrical configuration of the structure. A
structure is not a single entity; it consists of many parts that are assembled together as a system.
The parts are called elements or members. The loads coming on a structure degenerate into forces in
these elements because of the deformation they undergo. The members should be designed to resist
these forces induced in them as per the relevant codes of practices prevalent in a country. Besides, the
structure should be stable against overturning moments caused by some kind of horizontal loads
like that caused by earth- quake or wind. Moreover, all the loads applied on the structure should
be safely transmitted to the ground through its foundation. Therefore, safety is of prime
importance in the existence of structures. Because human beings occupy the structure eventually
one should not compromise on the safety aspect of the structure. Otherwise distress in the
structure will endanger lives of occupants. Transmission of loads coming on the global system
through its local members to the subsystem consisting of the foundation for eventual distribution
on the ground is called load path. Any interruption in the load path will lead to collapse of the
structure. So, the safety of a structure can be assured with the right choice of appropriate load
path.
Structural analysis, therefore, deals with the mechanism of degeneration of loads applied on
the system into local element forces, using various theories and theorems enunciated by eminent
engineers and investigators. It also deals with the computation of deformations these members
Dept. of Civil Engineering 2 AJIET Mangaluru

suffer under the action of the induced forces.
FORMS OF STRUCTURES
We have constructed structures of many forms and shapes. All structural forms used for load
transfer from one point to another are three-dimensional (3D) in nature. Generally, they can be
categorized as linear forms (Fig. 1.1) and curvilinear
Fig. 1.1 Chicago downtown buildings (linear form).
forms (Fig. 1.2). The type of functions and aesthetics dictate the forms of structures. For
instance, linear forms are preferred for residential, official, and educational purposes. The
linear form is called skeletal structures. They are articulated structures assembled with parts
consisting of linear elements, such as bars and beams, the connection between them being
bolted or riveted or welded.
Fig. 1.2 Balloon structure (curvilinear form).
Assemblage of members forming a frame to support the forces acting is called the framed
structure. A framework is the skeleton of the complete structure and it supports all intended
loads safely and economically. Some structural examples are frames [Fig. 1.3(a)], high-rise

structures [Fig. 1.3(b)], trusses [Fig. 1.3(c)], industrial shed [Fig. 1.3(d)], bridge deck [Fig.
1.3(e)], plates [Fig. 1.3(f)], etc. Generally, these structures are two-dimensional (2D) lying in one
plane along two coordinate axes. However, the parts by which they are assembled are one-dimen-
sional (1D) lying in a single plane along one coordinate axis.
Curvilinear forms as single entities mostly occupy a space. For structural analysis purposes
these structures are idealized as continuous system. Continuous system structures transfer loads
through the in-plane or membrane action to the boundaries. Assemblages of continuous members
like shells, domes, etc., are called continuous system. They are 3D structures. The examples for
continuous system are domes, shells, arches, cables, cylindrical members, cooling towers, space
crafts, aircrafts, etc. These are shown in Fig. 1.4. Structures in curvilinear form are called surface
structures.
The most suitable structural form is the one which provides satisfactory solutions to
functional, economic, sociological, aesthetic, and other requirements to the highest degree and
that can be economically and reliably built, using the most appropriate structural materials and
construction methods that are available.
On the basis of the dominant stress conditions developed under their most significant design
loads and conditions, structural forms may be classified as uniform stress forms and varying stress
forms. When the stress across a section is uniform over the depth of a member or over the
thickness of a panel, e.g., cables, arches, truss members, membranes, and shells, such a form is
called a uniform stress form. When the stress varies over the depth or thickness, from a maximum
compressive stress on one surface to a maximum tensile stress on the other, e.g., in the case of
beams, rigid frames, slabs, plates, etc., such a form is called a varying stress form.

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
The basic tool in structural analysis is the use of equilibrium equations which states that
the structure or part of it remains in its stationary position. Hence, if the entire structure is
considered, the reactions from the support and the loads on the structure should be in static
equilibrium. The equations of static equilibrium are as follows:
i) The summation of all the forces along any ais is zero.
ii) The summation of all the moments about any axis is also zero.
The equations of static equilibrium are based on Newton’s law. For a three-dimensional
system, the equations of equilibrium are as follows:
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 and ∑Fz = 0
∑Mx = 0 ∑My = 0 and ∑Mz = 0
For a two-dimensional system with x and y as the orthogonal axis, the equations of
equilibrium are:
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 and ∑M = 0
The above equilibrium conditions may be applied to a part of the structure also provided
that, in such case, apart from the external loads, the reactive forced from the removed part are
also considered.

Compatibility Conditions
Compatibility conditions means requirement of continuity, such as in joints where two or more
members meet. The following two compatibility conditions are to be satisfied at any joint:
1. The members meeting at a joint will continue to meet at the same joint even after
deformation takes place.
2. At rigid-joints, the angle between any two members remains the same even after
deformation takes place. The compatibility conditions will help in formulating additional
equations.
Statically Determinate and Indeterminate Structures
The structures are grouped into statically determinate and statically indeterminate structures. A
structural system which can be analysed by using equations of statical equilibrium only is called as
statically determinate structure, e.g., beams or trusses with both ends simply supported, one end
hinged and another on rollers and the cantilever type. A structure which cannot be analysed by
using equations of equilibrium only is called a statically indeterminate structure, e.g., fixed beams,
continuous beams, propped cantilevers. To analyse indeterminate structures, apart from using
equations of equilibrium one has to determine the various deformations and make use of
compatibility conditions. Indeterminate structures are also called redundant structures.
Difference between Determinate Structure and Indeterminate Structure

Determinate Structure Indeterminate Structure
1) The structure can be analysed by using equations 1) The structure can not be analysed by
of equilibrium (∑V=0, ∑H=0, ∑M=0) then it is using conditions of equilibrium, then it is
called statically determinate structure. called statically indeterminate structure.
2) The determination of internal force in structure 2) The determination of internal force in
do not require cross section area and moment of structure requires cross-sectional area
inertia. and moment of inertia.
3) There is no stress caused due to change in 3) Stresses are caused due to change in
temperature. temperature.
4) There is no stress caused due to settlement of 4) There is stress due to settlement of
supports. E.g., Simply supported beam, supports. E.g., Propped cantilever beam,
cantilever beam fixed beam.

Linear and Non-Linear Systems

A system is called a linear system if its material has linear stress-strain relationship and a small
deflection. In such cases, the law of superposition holds good. A system will be treated as a non-
linear system if its material does not have linear stress-strain relationship or its deformation is so
large that a change of geometry cannot be neglected in the analysis. If the non-linearity is due to
stress-strain relationship, it is called material non-linearity and if the non-linearity is due to
considerable changes in the geometry, it is called geometric non-linearity. In some cases, both
material non-linearity and geometric non-linearity need to be considered. Non-linear analysis is
lengthy and repetitive type with minor changes in each cycle. Hence, it is ideally suited for
computer-aided analysis.
Difference between Linear and Non-Linear Structures

Linear Structures Non-Linear Structures
1) A system is said to be Linear system if its 1) A system is called non-linear system if its
material has linear stress-strain relationship. material does not have linear stress-strain
relationship.
2) Linear system undergoes small deflection. 2) Non-Linear system undergoes very large
deflection.
3) Principle of superposition can be applied. 3) Principle of superposition cannot be applied.
4) Linear system allows investigations to make 4) In Non-Linear system these assumptions
certain mathematical assumptions and cannot be made.
approximations allowing for easier
computation of result.
5) Dimension and configuration do not change 5)Dimension and configuration changes on the
after the application of load. application of load.
Sign Convention
As the forces and displacements are direction-dependent we need to adopt a sign
convention to sum up the results of various actions. We adopt here the sign convention as
shown in Fig. 1.16 for a 3D structure. Here X, Y, and Z are the coordinate axes and are shown
in positive directions. When we move from X to Y in the horizontal plane, the Z-axis must
advance in its positive direction. This is called left-hand system. We assume that forces
directed along the positive direction of axes are positive. For a left-hand system the couple
should be a left-hand screw progressing in the direction of the coordinate axes. So, an
anticlockwise moment is taken as positive here.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM, DETERMINATE, AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

In this section, we now explain these terms that are frequently referred in structural analysis.
Degrees of Freedom
The degrees of freedom (DOF) can be defined as a set of independent displacements
that specify completely the deformed position and orientation of the body or system under
loading. Here, displacements include deflections and rotations as well. A rigid body that
moves in 3D space in linear directions has three translational displacement components as
DOFs. The rigid body can also undergo angular motion, which is called rotation. So, the body
has three rotational DOFs. Altogether a rigid body can have at most six DOFS, three
translations, and three rotations. Translation refers to the ability of a body to move without
rotating whereas rotation refers to its angular motion about some axis.
When a structure is loaded, the joints, also called nodes, will undergo unknown
displacements. These displacements are referred to as the DOF for the structures.
Determinate Structures
The conditions of equilibrium discussed in Section 1.5 are necessary and sufficient
conditions to establish the equilibrium of structures. When structures are loaded, they pass on
these loads to the support as reactions. The applied forces and the resulting reactions keep the
structure in equilibrium. However, these reactions are mostly unknowns. We normally evaluate
these reactions by using the equations of equilibrium. If all the reactions in a structure can be
determined strictly only by the application of equilibrium equations, the structure is referred to
as statically determinate. In other words, we can define a determinate structure as the one
which can be fully analysed and all internal forces and stresses determined through the use of
one or more of the six equations of equilibrium without recourse to stiffness, deflection, or
other criteria for analysis.
Given a set of forces and reactions in equilibrium, the structural geometry of
determinate structures takes care of itself. In other words, force–deformation compatibility for
such structures is automatically satisfied for any set of forces and reactions in equilibrium. For
example, the support reactions and hence, the moments and shears in a simple beam (Chapter
3) or a three-hinged arch (Chapter 20) can be found statically without paying any attention to
their deformed shapes. As may be verified easily, a determinate structure has only as many
support reactions as absolutely necessary for its stability. The removal of even a single reaction
makes the structure unstable.
Figure 1.17 shows the determinate structures. In Fig. 1.17(a), the frame has three

support reactions which can be calculated easily by Eq. (1.1). The arch in Fig. 1.17(b) has four
support reactions against the three equations of equilibrium available for solution. So, it seems
that reactions cannot be computed statically. However, the condition that the moment at the
hinge C be zero provides the additional fourth equation for finding the four unknown reactions.
Such additional equations are called condition equations. A statically determinate structure may
also be defined alternatively as the one in which the number of unknown reactions R equals the
sum of the number of applicable equations of equilibrium n and that of the condition equations c,
i.e.,
R=n+c
Equation (1.3) is called the equations of statics.
The qualification ‘applicable’ is important because equilibrium equations which are
applicable to a problem need only be counted in assessing its determinacy. For example, in the
continuous beam as shown in Fig. 1.17(c), as the loading is only vertical, only two conditions,
namely, ∑FV = 0 and ∑M = 0 are applicable. Therefore, ∑FH = 0 is meaningless in the
absence of horizontal loads on the beam.
Indeterminate Structures
Structures in which the reactions cannot be evaluated by the application of static
equilibrium equations alone are defined a statically indeterminate or hyperstatic structures.
They are also known as redundant structures. In these structures, the number of unknown
reactions is greater than the number of available equations of static equilibrium. However,
sometimes it is quite possible that the support reactions are statically determinate, but internal
forces remain indeterminate. For example, we consider a truss shown in Fig. 1.18(a). We will
discuss in Chapter 2 as how to evaluate the forces and reactions in a truss. Accordingly, the truss

in Fig. 1.18(a) is statically determinate both for support reactions and forces in the members. In
contrast, the truss shown in Fig. 1.18(b) is statically determinate only with reference to the
calculations of support reactions.
We now consider, for example, a continuous beam (discussed in Chapter 9) shown in Fig. 1.19.
It has six unknown support reactions as shown in Fig. 1.18 as against three equilibrium
equations, namely, ∑FV = 0, ∑FH = 0, and ©M = 0 available for the determination of these
six reactions. Unless we determine these six reactions, it is not possible to evaluate the
internal forces in the beam. Three extra equations should be set up to circumvent this
difficulty. We can develop these equations from the geometrical conditions. For example, we
can specify that the vertical deflections at B, C, and D are zero. These additional equations are
called equations of compatibility and their number determines the degree of indeterminacy D
of the structure. The reactions, for the solution of which the compatibility equations are
developed, are termed as redundant R.
It may be observed in Fig. 1.19 that the supports B, C, and D may be removed without
affecting the stability of the beam. This action reduces the beam into a determinate one which is
called a primary or released structure. So, we can conclude here that an indeterminate structure
has more support reactions than are absolutely necessary for its stability. This characteristic
may be used to determine the degree of indeterminacy of structures. We can divide
indeterminate structures into three categories as follows:
1. Externally indeterminate structures
2. Internally indeterminate structures
3. Structures with combined indeterminacies.

LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR STRUCTURES

We use wood, concrete, steel, etc., in the construction of structures. The load resistance
and deformation characteristics of structures significantly depend on the properties of these
materials. Each of these materials has different properties that should be taken into
consideration in the analysis and design of the structure. Typical stress–strain curve for these
materials is shown in Fig. 1.9. As is clear from Fig. 1.9, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of
different materials is different. Therefore, their resistance to loading, which depends on UTS, is
also varied. The initial slope of the curve for each material is different. This slope
characterizes the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus E of the material. The modulus of
elasticity of each material must be known for the calculation of displacement of structures.
As can be observed in Fig. 1.9 that each material in the initial stage behaves linearly,
i.e., the stress and strain are proportional up to a certain limit which is called an elastic limit.
This is also called a linear range. Subsequently, at higher stress the behaviour becomes non-
linear, i.e., there is disproportionate increase in strain for a corresponding increase in stress.
This zone is called a non-linear range. We call a system a linear structure when the stresses
developed in it are within the elastic limit, i.e., the stresses in the system lie within the linear
range. A system is called a non-linear structure if the stresses developed in it fall in the plastic
or a non-linear range. Such a classification is based on the behaviour of material. The
behaviour of a material in the plastic regime is characterized as material non-linearities for
representation in structural analysis.
In addition to material non-linearity, some structures may exhibit non-linear

characteristics in its overall behaviour due to changes in its shape under loading. This
necessitates that the structure should displace by a significant amount to maintain its overall
equilibrium. This kind of behaviour of the structure is called geometrical non-linearity. A
classic example of this type of non-linearity can be observed in cable structures discussed in
Chapter 21. Also, a cantilever structure shown in Fig. 1.10 is another example of geometric

non-linearity.
An important property of a linear structure is that when it is loaded, the stress in the
material increases along a linear path till the elastic limit in the material is reached. Suppose we
unload the structure or remove the load on the structure within this stage, the stress diminishes
and it retraces the same linear path and the structure returns to its original position without
leaving any residual deformation in the structure as shown in Fig. 1.11(a).
In contrast, the stress level in a non-linear structure goes beyond elastic limit and mostly
it remains in plastic regime. If the load is removed from the structure once the stresses have
crossed elastic limit, then the structure returns to the original position by a different path as
shown in Fig. 1.11(b) leaving some residual deformation in the structure. This is called a
permanent set.
STATIC AND KINEMATIC INDETERMINACIES OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Before analyzing a structure, the analyst must ascertain whether the reactions can be computed
using equations of equilibrium alone. If all unknown reactions can be uniquely determined
from the simultaneous solution of the equations of static equilibrium, the reactions of the
structure are referred to as statically determinate. If they cannot be determined using
equations of equilibrium alone then such structures are called statically indeterminate
structures. If the number of unknown reactions are less than the number of equations of
equilibrium then the structure is statically unstable.

The degree of indeterminacy is always defined as the difference between the number of
unknown forces and the number of equilibrium equations available to solve for the unknowns.
These extra forces are called redundants. Indeterminacy with respect external forces and
reactions are called externally indeterminate and that with respect to internal forces are called
internally indeterminate.
A general procedure for determining the degree of indeterminacy of two-dimensional structures

are given below:
NUK= Number of unknown forces
NEQ= Number of equations available
IND= Degree of indeterminacy
NJ = Number of joints
IND= NUK – NEQ
Indeterminacy of Planar Trusses
Members carry only axial forces NEQ = 2NJ

NUK= NM+NR
IND= NUK – NEQ
IND= NM+NR-2NJ
Indeterminacy of 3D FRAMES
A member or a joint has to satisfy 6 equations of equilibrium NEQ = 6NM + 6NJ-NC (Number
of additional condition)
NUK= 12NM+NR
IND= NUK – NEQ
IND= 6NM+NR-6NJ-NC
Indeterminacy of 3D Trusses
A joint has to satisfy 3 equations of equilibrium
NEQ = 3NJ
NUK= NM+NR
IND= NUK – NEQ
IND= NM+NR - 3NJ
Stable Structure:
Another condition that leads to a singular set of equations arises when the body or structure is
improperly restrained against motion. In some instances, there may be an adequate number of
support constraints, but their arrangement may be such that they cannot resist motion due to

applied load. Such situation leads to instability of structure. A structure may be considered as
externally stable and internally stable.
Externally Stable:
Supports prevents large displacements
No. of reactions ≥ No. of equations
Internally Stable:
Geometry of the structure does not change appreciably
For a 2D truss NM ≥ 2Nj -3 (NR ≥ 3)
For a 3D truss NM ≥ 3Nj -6 (NR ≥ 3)
Degree of freedom or Kinematic Indeterminacy
Members of structure deform due to external loads. The minimum number of parameters
required to uniquely describe the deformed shape of structure is called “Degree of Freedom”.
Displacements and rotations at various points in structure are the parameters considered in
describing the deformed shape of a structure. In framed structure the deformation at joints is
first computed and then shape of deformed structure. Deformation at intermediate points on the
structure is expressed in terms of end deformations. At supports the deformations
corresponding to a reaction is zero. For example hinged support of a two dimensional system
permits only rotation and translation along x and y directions are zero. Degree of freedom of a
structure is expressed as a number equal to number of free displacements at all joints. For a
two-dimensional structure each rigid joint has three displacements as shown in Fig. 1.5
In case of three-dimensional structure each rigid joint has six

displacements.
• Expression for degrees of freedom
1. 2D Frames: NDOF = 3NJ – NR NR ³3
2. 3D Frames: NDOF = 6NJ – NR NR ³6
3. 2D Trusses: NDOF= 2NJ – NR NR ³3
4. 3D Trusses: NDOF = 3NJ – NR NR ³6
Where, NDOF is the number of degrees of freedom
In 2D analysis of frames somet imes axial deformation is ignored. Then NAC=No. of axial
condition is deducted from NDOF

Plane Trusses
Trusses are articulated frames used extensively in the construction of a variety of structures.
The spectrum consists of industrial sheds to airport hangers at one end and lean-to-roof to high-
rise buildings at the other. Different types of trusses and frames existing across the globe and
mostly they are constructed in wood and steel.
It is quite obvious that a truss or a frame is an assemblage of bars or rods. Sometimes tubes,
angles, and channels are also used. We know that a bar is always subjected to a load along its
longitudinal axis. It can be a tensile force or a compressive force. We can join two bars with a
pin. They may be subjected to either a tensile force or a compressive force. In this
configuration as the bars are connected only at one end, the other ends are free and hence they
can rotate freely. Therefore, it forms an unstable system. Moreover, this arrangement cannot
resist any load. In order to position, fix the free ends and make the system to resist load, we
connect the free ends of both the bars by another bar with pins.
We know that a triangular configuration is a stable and rigid system. Therefore, the
triangular arrangement of bars provides a stable structure which can resist load without any
relative displacement between the bars. Loads are invariably applied only at joints. A truss can
either be in one plane or in space which constitutes multiple planes. A truss lying in one plane
is called a plane truss. In contrast, a truss lying in multiple planes or space is called space truss.
Plane trusses are used to support roofs and bridges. Roof trusses are often used as part
of an industrial building frame. In bridges, the truss is the main structural element.
The distance between the supports is called the span of the truss. The top member of a
truss is called top or upper chord. It can either be horizontal or inclined. Similarly, the bottom
member is called lower or bottom chord. Both the top and bottom chords are connected by
vertical and diagonal members. The space enclosed between the top and the bottom chord
members, and diagonals is called a panel. The pattern of bars arranged in a triangular
configuration is chosen to yield a light-weight, efficient, and load-bearing structure. The ends
of the bars are connected to gusset plates with the help of bolts or welds. Such connections are
called joints of the truss. Loads are applied only at these joints. Truss members act in direct
stress, i.e., tension or compression; they carry load efficiently and hence their cross sections are
relatively small and also slender.

Types of trusses
Triangular configuration, which is the basic unit of a truss, can be extended to enclose more
space. Such an exercise will produce a variety of trusses that can be used in roofs as well as in
bridges. The common types of roof trusses are shown in figure.
1. Warren truss
2. Pratt truss
3. Bowstring truss
4. King post truss
5. Lenticular truss
1. Warren truss - Truss members form a series of equilateral triangles, alternating up and
down.
2. Pratt truss - Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to
100 m in span. In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for
gravity loads. This type of truss is used where gravity loads and uplift loads are
predominant
3. Bowstring truss - Named for their shape, bowstring trusses were first used for
arched truss bridges, often confused with tied-arch bridges. Thousands of bowstring
trusses were used during World War II for holding up the curved roofs of aircraft
hangars and other military buildings.
4. King post truss - One of the simplest truss styles to implement, the king post consists of
two angled supports leaning into a common vertical support.

5. Lenticular truss - have the top and bottom chords of the truss arched, forming a lens
shape. A lenticular pony truss bridge is a bridge design that involves a lenticular truss
extending above and below the road bed.
Assumptions in analysis
1. The members cannot develop moments at the ends.

2. The members are subjected to purely axial forces.
3. The connections to other members are perfectly pinned/hinged through frictionless pins.
4. Each member is of uniform cross-sectional area.
5. The entire structure is in one plane if it is a plane truss
6. Loads act at the joints only. Any loads that act between joints are split into equivalent
support end reactions and added to the joint loads.
7. Self-weight of the truss can be ignored or at least assumed to be equally distributed as loads
at the joints.
8. Even if the members are connected at the ends with gusset plates and welded, no fixity is
assumed. A nominal moment that actually develops due to imperfect hinge connection is
simply ignored.
Analysis of determinate trusses by method of joints and method of sections.

1. Method of Joints - The free-body diagram of any joint is a concurrent force system in which
the summation of moment will be of no help. two equilibrium equations can be written as
ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0.
This means that to solve completely for the forces acting on a joint, we must select a joint
with no more than two unknown forces involved. This can be started by selecting a joint
acted on by only two members. We can assume any unknown member to be either tension or

compression. If negative value is obtained, this means that the force is opposite in action to
that of the assumed direction. Once the forces in one joint are determined, their effects on
adjacent joints are known. We then continue solving on successive joints until all members
have been found.
2. Method of Sections - In this method, we will cut the truss into two sections by passing a
cutting plane through the members whose internal forces we wish to determine. This method
permits us to solve directly any member by analyzing the left or the right section of the
cutting plane.
To remain each section in equilibrium, the cut members will be replaced by forces equivalent
to the internal load transmitted to the members. Each section may constitute of non-
concurrent force system from which three equilibrium equations can be written as ΣFx=0,
ΣFv=0 and ΣM=0. Because we can only solve up to three unknowns, it is important not to
cut more than three members of the truss. Depending on the type of truss and which
members to solve, one may have to repeat Method of Sections more than once to determine
all the desired forces.
Numerical Problems
1. Determine Degrees of Statical indeterminacy and classify the structures.


Problems on method of joints
1. Find the force acting in all members of the truss shown in Figure T-01. using methods
of joints.
ΣMD=0
3AV+50(1) =80(0.75)
AV=3.33 kN
ΣFH=0
AH=80 kN
ΣMA= 0
3RD=50(2) +80(0.75)
RD=53.33 kN
At joint A
ΣFV=0
3/5FAB=3.33
FAB=5.56 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FAE+45FAB=80
FAE+45(5.56) =80
FAE=75.56 kN tension

At joint B
ΣFH=0
FBC=4/5 FAB
FBC=4/5 (5.56)
FBC=4.45 kN
ΣFV=0
FBE=3/5 FAB
FBE=3/5 (5.56)
FBE=3.34 kN compression
Joint E
ΣFV=0
35FCE=FAE
35FCE=3.3435
FCE=5.57 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FFE+4/5 FCE=FAE
FFE+4/5 (5.57) =75.56
FFE=71.11 kN tension
At joint F
ΣFV=0
FCF=50 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FDF=FFE
FDF=71.11 kN tension
At joint C
ΣFH=0
4/5 FCD+4/5 FCE+FBC=80
4/5 FCD+4/5 (5.57) +4.45=80
FCD=88.87 kN compression
ΣFV=0
3/5 FCD=3/5 FCE+FCF
3/5 (88.87) =3/5 (5.57) +50
53.3 = 53.3

At joint D
ΣFH=0
4/5 FCD=FDF
4/5 (88.87) =71.11
71.1=71.1 check
ΣFV=0
RD=3/5 FCD
53.33=3/5 (88.87)
53.3=53.3 check
Summary
FAB=5.56 kN tension
FAE=75.56 kN tension
FBC=4.45 kN tension
FBE=3.34 kN compression
FCD=88.87 kN compression
FCE=5.57 kN tension
FCF=50 kN tension
FDF=71.11 kN tension
FFE=71.11 kN tension
2. The structure in Fig. T-02 is a truss which is pinned to the floor at point A, and
supported by a roller at point D. Determine the force to all members of the truss.
using method of joints.

Solution
ΣMD=0
6RA=5(12) +3(20)
RA=20 kN
ΣMA=0
6RD=1(12) +3(20)
RD=12 kN
At joint A
ΣFV=0
21/ √5 FAG=RA
21/ √5 FAG=20
FAG=21.82 kN compression
ΣFH=0
FAB=2 / 5 FAG
FAB=2 / 5 (21.82)
FAB=8.73 kN tension
At joint G
ΣFV=0
21/ √5 FBG+12=21/ √5 FAG
21/ √5 FBG+12=21/ √5 (21.82)
FBG=8.73 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FFG=2 / 5 FAG+2 / 5 FBG
FFG=2 / 5 (21.82) +2 / 5 (8.73)
FFG=12.22 kN compression

At joint B
ΣFV=0
21/√5 FBF=21/√5 FBG
FBF=FBG
FBF=8.73 kN compression
ΣFH=0
FBC=FAB+2 / 5 FBG+2 / 5 FBF
FBC=8.73+2 / 5 (8.73) +2/ 5 (8.73)
FBC=15.71 kN tension
At joint F
ΣFV=0
21 / √5 FCF+ 21/ √5 FBF= 20
21 / √5 FCF+21 / √5 (8.73) =20
FCF=13.09 kN compression
ΣFH=0
FEF+2 / 5 FCF= 2 / 5 FBF+ FFG
FEF+2 / 5 (13.09) =2 / 5 (8.73) +12.22
FEF=10.48 kN compression
At joint C
ΣFV=0
21/ √5 FCE=21/ √5 FCF
FCE= FCF
FCE=13.09 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FCD+25FCE+25FCF=FBC
FCD+25(13.09) +25(13.09) =15.71
FCD=5.24 kN tension
At joint E
ΣFV=0
21 / √5FDE=21 / √5FCE
FDE=FCE
FDE=13.09 kN compression
ΣFH=0
FEF=25FCE+25FDE
10.48=25(13.09) +25(13.09)
10.5=10.5 check

At joint D
ΣFV=0
RD=21 / √5 FDE
12=21/ √5 (13.09)
12=12 check
ΣFH=0
FCD=2 / 5 FDE
5.24=2 / 5 (13.09)
5.24=5.24 check
Summary
FAB = 8.73 kN tension

FAG = 21.82 kN compression
FBC = 15.71 kN tension
FBF = 8.73 kN compression
FBG = 8.73 kN tension
FCD = 5.24 kN tension
FCE = 13.09 kN tension
FCF =13.09kN compression
FDE = 13.09 kN compression
FEF = 10.48 kN compression
FFG = 12.22 kN compression

Problems on method of sections
1. From the truss in Fig. T-01, determine the force in members BC, CE, and EF.
Solution
ΣMA=0
3RD=50(2) +80(0.75)
RD=53.33 kN
From the FBD of the section through a-a

ΣME=0
0.75FBC+2RD=0.75(80) + 1(50)
0.75FBC+2(53.33) = 60+50
FBC=4.45 kN tension answer

ΣMC=0
0.75FEF=1(RD)
0.75FEF=53.33
FEF=71.11 kN tension answer
ΣFV=0
3 / 5 FCE+50=RD
3 / 5 FCE+50= 53.33
FCE=5.55 kN tension answer
2. The roof truss shown in Fig. T-03 is pinned at point A, and supported by a roller
at point H. Determine the force in member DG.
Solution
ΣMA=0
8RH=2(55) +4(90)+6(45)
RH=92.5 kN
From section to the right of a-a

x+2 / (1.5) = (x+4) / 2.5
2.5x+5=1.5 x+6
x=1 m
ΣMO=0
(x+2)(5 /√41 * FDG)+x RH= (x+2)(45)
(1+2) (5 / √41 * FDG)+ 1(92.5) = (1+2)(45)
(15 / √41) FDG+92.5=135
(15 / √41) FDG=42.5
FDG=18.14 kN tension answer

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Determine Degrees of indeterminacy and classify the structures.
2. Determine Degrees of Kinematic indeterminacy
3. The truss in Fig. T-03 is pinned to the wall at point F, and supported by a roller at point C.
Calculate the force (tension or compression) in members BC, BE, and DE using method of
sections.

4. The structure shown in Figure is pinned to the floor at A and H. Determine the magnitude of
all the support forces acting on the structure and find the force in member BF.
5. The truss pinned to the floor at D, and supported by a roller at point A is loaded as shown in
Fig. Determine the force in member CG. use method of joints

6. Compute the force in all members of the truss shown in Fig. using method of joints.

BELGAUM
LECTURE NOTES
(MODULE-2)
IV-SEMESTER
Mrs. Babitha B
AJIET
Module -2
Deflection of Beams
Deflection of beams: Moment area method: Derivation, Mohr’s theorems, sign convention,
Application of moment area method to determinate prismatic beams, beams of varying cross
section, Use of moment diagram by parts.
Strain Energy: Principle of virtual displacements, principle of virtual forces, Strain energy
and complimentary energy, Strain energy due to axial force, bending, shear and torsion (No
numerical). Castigliano’s theorems, application of Castigliano’s theorems to calculate
deflection of beams, trusses and frames (No numerical on unit load method).
Structures undergo deformation when subjected to loads. As a result of this deformation,

deflection and rotation occur in structures. This deformation will disappear when the loads
are removed provided the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded. Deformation in a
structure can also occur due to change in temperature & settlement of supports.
Deflection in any structure should be less than specified limits for satisfactory
performance. Hence computing deflections is an important aspect of analysis of structures.
The following methods are available for finding the deflections of determinate beams.
1) Double Integration/Macaulay’s Method
2) Moment Area Method
3) Conjugate Beam Method
4) Strain Energy Method
5) Castigliano’s Method
6) Unit Load Method
In these methods, the geometrical concept is used. These methods are ideal for
statically determinate beams. The methods give a very quick solution when the beam is
symmetrical.
1. Moment Area Method
The moment area method is based on the following two theorems:

Theorem 1: The change in the slope between two points on a straight member under flexure
𝑀
is equal to the area of diagram between those two points.
𝐸𝐼
Where M is the Bending Moment

E is the Young’s Modulus
and I is the Moment of Inertia

Consider the beam AB (Figure 2.1(a)). Let C and D be any two points on this beam. The
𝑀
(𝐸𝐼)diagram is also shown in the figure. Figure 2.1(b) shows the elastic curve of the beam
after loading. According to this theorem, θCD which is the angle between the tangents at C and
𝑀
D is equal to the area of (𝐸𝐼) diagram between C and D (shaded portion). Thus,
𝐷 𝑀
θCD = ∫𝐶 (𝐸𝐼) 𝑑𝑥 ----------(1)
Theorem 2: Deflection at a point in a beam in the direction perpendicular to its original

straight-line position measured from the tangent to the elastic curve at another point is given
𝑀
by the moment of (𝐸𝐼) diagram about the point where the deflection is required.
In Figure 2.1(b), Δ, the vertical (perpendicular to the horizontal position of AB)

deflection at point D' from the tangent to the elastic curve at C' is given by the moment
𝑀
of (𝐸𝐼 ) diagram between C and D about the point D. Thus,
𝐷 𝑀𝑥
Δ = ∫𝐶 ( 𝐸𝐼 ) 𝑑𝑥 --------(2)
Derivation of Moment Area Theorems

Figure 2.2 shows the elemental length ‘dx’ of Figure 2.1 to an enlarged scale. Let R be the
radius of curvature. Then, from flexure formula
𝑀 𝐸
= ------(3)
𝐼 𝑅
From Figure 2.2,

Rdθ = ds= dx, since, axial deformations are considered negligible.
𝑑𝑥
∴𝑅= ------(4)
𝑑𝜃

Substituting the value of R in equation 3, we get
𝑀 𝐸
=
𝐼 (𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝜃)
𝑀
dθ = (𝐸𝐼 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐷
∴ θCD = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝜃
𝐷 𝑀
= ∫𝐶 (𝐸𝐼) 𝑑𝑥
Hence, theorem 1 is proved.
Now consider Figure 2.3 in which portion CD is blown up to an enlarged scale. Let the
change of slope in elemental length dx be ‘dθ’. Distance of elemental length from D is x (Fig
2.1(a)).
Hence, deflection,
𝑀
dΔ = 𝑥dθ = x(𝐸𝐼) 𝑑𝑥
𝐷
𝑀
∴ ∆ = ∫ ( ) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
𝐶
Hence, theorem 2 is proved.

Sign Convention in the Moment Area Method Applied to Beams
The following sign convention is used in applying moment area theorems to find the deflection
of beams:
1. Sagging moment area is positive, which means that, the tangent at D makes an anticlockwise
angle with tangent at C.
2. The moment of positive moment gives rise to positive deflection, which implies that the
deflected position of a point (D) is above the tangent drawn at the other point (C).
This method is advantageous, if the tangent at a particular point in the beam is along the axis
itself, e.g., beam with one end fixed or with a symmetric point.
Problems
1. Determine the rotation and deflection at the free end of the cantilever beam subjected to
uniformly distributed load over an entire span as shown in figure.
Solution- The bending moment diagram is shown in figure. At any distance x from free end,
𝑤𝑥 2
bending moment is - .
2
Now,
θBA = θB - θA = θB (∴ θA = 0)
Therefore, from the moment area theorem,
𝐿 𝑀
θB = ∫0 (𝐸𝐼) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝑤𝑥 2
= ∫0 − ( 2𝐸𝐼 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
𝑤 𝑥3
= - 2𝐸𝐼 [ 3 ]
0

−𝑤𝐿3
= 6𝐸𝐼
𝑤𝐿3
= , clockwise with tangent at A
6𝐸𝐼
ΔB = deflection of B with respect to tangent at A

= vertical deflecting, since, tangent at A is horizontal
From the second moment area theorem,
𝐿 𝑀 𝐿 𝑤𝑥 3
ΔB = ∫0 (𝐸𝐼) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 − ( 2𝐸𝐼 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
𝑤 𝑥4 −𝑤𝐿4
= - 2𝐸𝐼 [ 4 ] =
0 8𝐸𝐼
𝑤𝐿4
= , downward
8𝐸𝐼
2. Find the rotation and deflection at the free end in the cantilever beam shown in figure.
Solution – The bending moment diagram is a parabola as shown in figure with maximum
𝑤𝐿 𝐿 𝑤𝐿2 3 𝐿 3
ordinate as ×4 = . Its centre of gravity from the point C is at a distance 4 × 2 = 8 𝐿.
4 8
Area of the bending moment diagram is

1 𝐿 𝑤𝐿2 𝑤𝐿3
=3×2× =
8 48
and it is negative area, since the bending moment is a hogging moment.

θBA = θB - θA = θB (∵ θA = 0)
From the moment area theorem,

𝑀
θB = Area of (𝐸𝐼 ) diagram between A and B
𝑤𝐿3 1
= [− ] × 𝐸𝐼
48
𝑤𝐿3
= − 48𝐸𝐼

𝑤𝐿3
= 48𝐸𝐼, clockwise
Since, tangent at A is horizontal, vertical deflection at B

𝑀
= Moment of (𝐸𝐼) diagram about B
𝑤𝐿3 3 𝐿
= [− 48𝐸𝐼] × (8 𝐿 + 2)
7𝑤𝐿4 7𝑤𝐿4
= − 384𝐸𝐼 = 384𝐸𝐼 , downward
3. Determine the slope and deflection at the free end of a cantilever beam as shown in figure
by moment area method. (Take EI = 4000 kNm2)
Solution – The bending moment diagram for this beam is as shown in figure.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

θB = 𝐸𝐼
1 1 1
= − 𝐸𝐼 [2 × 1 × 5 + 5 × 1.5 + 2 × 22.5 × 1.5]
26.875 26.875
=− =−
𝐸𝐼 4000
= − 6.71875 × 10-3 radians

= 6.71875 × 10-3 radians, clockwise
𝑀
ΔB = Moment of (𝐸𝐼 ) diagram about B
1 1 2 1
= − 𝐸𝐼 [2 × 1 × 5 × 3 + 5 × 1.5 × (1 + 0.75) + 2 × 22.5 × 1.5 × (1 + 1)]
48.542 48.542
=− =−
𝐸𝐼 4000
= − 0.01213 m
= − 12.13mm = 12.13mm, downward

STRAIN ENERGY
When an external load acts on a structure, the structure undergoes deformation and hence, the
work is done. To resist these external forces, the internal forces develop gradually from zero
to their final value and the work is done. This internal work done is stored as energy in the
structure and it helps the structure to spring back to the original shape and size, whenever the
external loads are removed, provided the material of the structure is still within the elastic
limit. This internal work, which is stored as energy is due to the straining of the material and
hence, is called strain energy.
When equilibrium is reached, as per the well-known law of conservation of energy, the work
done by the external forces must equal the strain energy stored. This concept of energy
balance is utilized in structural analysis to develop a number of methods to find the
deflections of structures. The following are the methods for finding the deflections of beams
and frames:
1. Strain energy/Real work method

2. Virtual work/unit load method
3. Castigliano’s method
Principle of Virtual Work

The principle of virtual work states that the stress, body forces (gravity, weight) and traction
(area force, wind force, wind pressure, fluid pressure) are in equilibrium if and only if the
internal work done (Wi) equal to the external work done (We) for every virtual displacement
field.
δW = δWe + δWi = 0 i.e. δWe = δWi
Virtual work is defined as work done by real forces acting through virtual displacements.
These virtual displacements need not be real and can be virtual (imaginary).
Principle of Virtual Displacements

The principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies can be stated as follows:
If a rigid body is in equilibrium under a system of forces and if it is subjected to any small
virtual displacement, the virtual work done by the external forces is zero.
We = 0
The principle of virtual displacements for deformable bodies can be stated as follows:

A deformable body is in equilibrium, if the total external virtual work done by the system of
true forces moving through the corresponding virtual displacements of the systems is equal to
the total internal virtual work for kinematically admissible virtual displacements.
∑Fi δVi = ʃ 𝜎ij δ εij δv
Principle of Virtual Forces

For a deformable body, the total external complementary work is equal to the total internal
complementary work for every system of virtual forces and stresses that satisfy the equations
of equilibrium
∑ δ Fi Vi = ʃ δ𝜎ij εij δv
δ𝜎ij = virtual stresses due to virtual forces δ Fi
εij = True strain due to the true displacement Vi
Strain Energy and Complimentary Energy

Consider the general structural system shown in Figure 3.1
Let the cross-sectional area of the element shown in Figure 3.1 be δa and its length δx. The
stress in the element gradually increases from zero to its final value p as strain increases from
zero to its final value e. Let this stress-strain relation be as shown in Figure 3.2.
Let stress be pi, hence, work done on the element, when strain δei takes place
= Force x Displacement
= pi δa δei δx
= pi δei δv

δa δx = δv, where v is the volume of the element
Therefore, strain energy stored in the element,
𝑒
= ∫0 𝑝𝑖 𝛿𝑒𝑖 𝛿𝑣
= Area under stress-strain curve x dv ---------(3.1)
If the stress-strain curve is linear, strain energy of the element,
1
= 2 p e dv,
∴ Strain energy stored in the structure
1
U = ∫ 2 p e 𝑑𝑣
1
= ∫ 2 × stress × strain dv ---------(3.2)
Figure 3.3 shows load versus deformation relation. Let, during deformation the load acting be
pi and deformation be δΔi. Then, work done by the load under consideration,
= ∫ 𝑃𝑖 𝛿∆𝑖
= Area under the load deformation curve ---------(3.3)
1
= 2 × 𝑃∆, in case of linear elasticity problems
If there are n number of loads, total work done by the external loads is the summation of the
expression 3.3 for all the loads.

Hence, in case of a linear elasticity (linear stress-strain curve and material still within elastic
limit) work done by external loads,
1
= ∑ 2 𝑃∆
Complementary energy at any instant during deformation of the element is given by ei δpi dv.
Hence, the complementary energy of the element when final deformation takes place,
𝑃
= ∫0 𝑖 𝑒𝑖 𝛿𝑝𝑖 𝑑𝑣
= Area above the stress-strain curve x dv
1
= ∫ 2 𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑣, in case of linear elasticity problems
Thus, complementary energy of the entire structure
1
Uc = ∫ 2 𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑣, in case of linear elasticity problems ------(3.5)
From equations (3.2) and (3.5) we conclude, in case of linear elasticity problems, strain
energy and complementary energy are equal to each other.
Similarly, complementary work done is given by
𝑃
= ∫0 𝑖 𝛥𝑖 𝛿𝑃𝑖
In case of linear elasticity problems, work done
1
= 2 ∆𝑃
If there are n number of loads, work done by external loads
1
= ∑ 2 ∆𝑃
Strain energy due to axial force

Consider a member of constant cross-sectional area ‘A’ subjected to axial force ‘P’ through
the centroid of the cross sectional as shown in above figure.
𝑃
WKT, Stress, 𝜎 = 𝐴 ------(1)
Under the action of axial load ‘P’ applied at one end gradually, the beam get elongated by
‘Δ’.

The incremental elongation ‘dΔ’ of small element of length of beam ‘dx’ is given by
𝑑∆
ε = 𝑑𝑥
⇒ dΔ = εdx
𝜎 𝜎
WKT, E = 𝜖 ⇒ ε = 𝐸
𝜎
⇒ dΔ = 𝐸 dx -----(2)
Substituting eqn (1) in eqn (2)

𝑃
⇒ dΔ = 𝐴𝐸 dx
Total elongation of the member of length ‘L’ may be obtained by integration

𝐿 𝑃
Δ = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ------(3)
𝐴𝐸
Work done by external loads

1
W= 𝑃𝛥
2
Strain energy = external work done

1
U = W = 2 𝑃𝛥 -----(4)
Sub eqn (3) in eqn (4)

1 𝐿 𝑃
U = 2 𝑃 [∫0 𝑑𝑥]
𝐴𝐸
𝐿 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑃2𝐿
= ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 2𝐴𝐸 [𝑥]𝐿0 ⇒ 2𝐴𝐸
2𝐴𝐸
𝑃2𝐿
U = 2𝐴𝐸
Strain Energy due to Bending

Consider a small segment of prismatic beam of length ‘dx’ subjected to Bending moment ‘M’
as shown in figure.
Now one cross section rotates about another cross section by a small amount dθ.
From fig, dx = R.dθ --------(1)
From bending equation
𝑀 𝐸
=𝑅
𝐼
𝐸𝐼
R = 𝑀 -----(2)
Sub (2) in (1)

𝐸𝐼
dx = 𝑀 .dθ
𝑀
dθ = 𝐸𝐼 . 𝑑𝑥 ------(3)
where ‘R’ is the radius of curvature of the bent beam and ‘EI’ is the flexural rigidity of the
beam.
Work done by the moment ‘M’ while rotating through angle ‘dθ’ will be stored in the
segment of beam as strain energy. Hence
1
du = 2 M. dθ -----(4)
Sub eqn (3) in eqn (4)
1 𝑀 1 𝑀2
du = 2 M (𝐸𝐼 . 𝑑𝑥 ) ⇒ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
Energy stored in complete beam of span ‘LL
𝐿 𝑀2
U = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼
Strain Energy due to Shear

Consider a cantilever beam of length L as shown in figure.
Let us consider an element of length ‘dx’. Let ‘V’ be the shear force.
Strain energy stored in small elemental length dx
1
du = 2 x Vx ϕs -------(1)
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
WKT, Modulus of rigidity = 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜏
𝜖1 = 𝜙
𝜏
𝜙 = 𝜖1
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉
But τ = shear stress = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴
𝑉
𝜙 = 𝐴𝜖1
For small elemental length ‘dx’

𝑉
ϕs = 𝐴𝜖1 𝑑𝑥
Eqn (1) becomes

1 𝑉
du = 2 x Vx 𝐴𝜖1 𝑑𝑥

𝑉2
du = 2𝐴𝜖1 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝑉2
Total Strain energy = U = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2𝐴𝜖1
Strain Energy due to Torsion

Consider a circular shaft of length ‘L’ subjected to a torque T at the end.
Strain energy is stored in an elemental length ‘dx’
1
du = 2 × 𝑇 × 𝑑𝜃 ------(1)
WKT, from torsion equation

𝑇 𝜖1 𝜃
=
𝐽 𝐿
𝑇
θ=𝜖 𝐽L
1
For small length ‘x’

𝑇 𝜖1 𝜃
=
𝐽 𝑥
𝑇
θ=𝜖 𝐽x
1
Diff w.r.t. x
𝑑𝜃 𝑇
=
𝑑𝑥 𝜖1 𝐽
𝑇
dθ = 𝜖 𝐽 𝑑𝑥
1
Substitute this in eqn (1)

1 𝑇
du = 2 × 𝑇 × 𝜖 𝐽 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑇2
du = 2𝜖 𝑑𝑥
1𝐽
𝐿 𝑇2
Total strain energy U = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2𝜖1 𝐽
Castigliano’s Theorems
Castigliano published two important theorems in structural analysis (1879). The first theorem
helps in a determining deflection and the second one in determining redundant reaction
component.
First Theorem: In a linearly elastic structure, partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to a load is equal to the deflection of the point where the load is acting, the deflection
being measured in the direction of the load.

The load may be a force or a moment. Mathematically, this theorem may be

represented by,
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑈
= Δi, = θj
𝑑𝑃𝑖 𝑑𝑀𝑗
where U = total strain energy

Pi = loads, Mj = moment
Δi = deflections, θj = slope
Consider a simply supported beam shown in figure 3.21(a) on which loads P1, P2 and P3 are
applied gradually. Let the deflection under the loads P1, P2, and P3 be Δ1, Δ2, Δ3 respectively.
1 1 1
∴ U = 2P1Δ1 + 2P2Δ2 + 2P3Δ3 ---------(a)
Let the additional load dp1 be added after the loads P1, P2 and P3 and applied and let the
additional deflections be dΔ1, dΔ2, dΔ3. Then, the additional strain energy stored dU is given
by
1
dU = 2dP1dΔ1 + P1dΔ1 + P2dΔ2 + P3dΔ3 ---------(b)
Therefore, total strain energy of the system is

1 1 1 1
U + dU = 2P1Δ1 + 2P2Δ2 + 2P3Δ3 + 2dP1dΔ1 + P1dΔ1 + P2dΔ2 + P3dΔ3 ---------(c)
If (P1 + dP1), P2 and P3 were to be applied simultaneously, strain energy stored is given by,
1 1 1
= 2 (P1 + dP1) (Δ1 + dΔ1) + 2 P2 (Δ2 + dΔ2) + 2 P3 (Δ3 + dΔ3) ---------(d)
Since, the final strain energy in both the cases should be same,
Equation (c) = Equation (d)
1 1 1 1
i.e. P1dΔ1 + 2P2dΔ2 + 2P3dΔ3 = 2dP1Δ1 ----------(e)
2
1 1 1
But from equation (b), 2 (P1dΔ1 + P2dΔ2 + P3dΔ3) = 2 (dU - 2dP1dΔ1) -----(f)
From (e) and (f) we get

1 1 1
(dU - 2dP1dΔ1) = 2dP1Δ1 -----(g)
2
Neglecting small quantity of higher order from equation (g), we get

1 1
dU = 2dP1Δ1
2
𝑑𝑈
or 𝑑𝑃 = Δ1
𝑖
Similarly, if the moments are considered, it may be shown that

𝑑𝑈
𝜃
𝑑𝑀
Second Theorem: The partial derivative of the complimentary strain energy of the structure
w.r.t. any particular force gives the displacement of the point of application of that force in
the direction of its line of action.
Problems
1. A simply supported beam of span L, carries a concentrated load P at a distance a from left
hand side support as shown in figure. Using Castigliano’s theorem determine the
deflection under the load. Assume uniform flexural rigidity.
𝑃𝑏
Solution- Reaction at A, RA = 𝐿
𝑃𝑎
And Reaction at B, RB = 𝐿
Portion AC CB
Origin A B
Limit 0-a 0-b
M 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎
𝑥 𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
Flexural Rigidity EI EI
Therefore, Shear Energy of the beam

𝑎 𝑃𝑏 2 1 𝑏 𝑃𝑎 2 1
U = ∫0 ( 𝐿 𝑥) × 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 ( 𝐿 𝑥) × 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
𝑃2𝑏2 1 𝑃 2 𝑎2 1
=[ × 6𝐸𝐼 𝑥 3 ] + [ × 6𝐸𝐼 𝑥 3 ]
𝐿2 0 𝐿2 0
𝑃 2 𝑏 2 𝑎3 𝑃 2 𝑎2 𝑏 3
= +
6𝐸𝐼𝐿2 6𝐸𝐼𝐿2
𝑃 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
= (a+b)
6𝐸𝐼𝐿2

𝑃 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
= , since, a+b = L
6𝐸𝐼𝐿
𝛿𝑈 𝑃 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
ΔC = 𝛿𝑃 = 3𝐸𝐼𝐿
2. Determine the vertical deflection at the free end and rotation at A in the overhanging beam
shown in figure. Assume constant EI. Use Castigliano’s method.
Solution-
Deflection at C: Taking 3kN force as p,
RB × 6 = P × 8
4
RB = 3 𝑃 ↑
𝑃
RA = 3 ↓
Bending moment expressions are noted, in the tabular form.

Portion AB BC
Origin A C
Limit 0-6 0-2
M −𝑃 −𝑃𝑥
𝑥
3
Flexural Rigidity EI EI
𝑀2
U = ∫ 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
6 𝑃2𝑥 2 1 2 𝑃2𝑥 2
= ∫0 × 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥
9 2𝐸𝐼
6 2
𝑃2 𝑥3 𝑃2𝑥 3
= 18𝐸𝐼 [ 3 ] + [ 6𝐸𝐼 ]
0 0
4𝑃2 4 𝑃2
= + × 𝐸𝐼
𝐸𝐼 3
5.333𝑃 2
= 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑈 10.667𝑃
ΔC = 𝑑𝑃 = 𝐸𝐼
Substituting P = 3 kN, we get

32
ΔC = 𝐸𝐼
Reaction at A: Apply a dummy moment M at A as shown in figure.
∑MB = 0, gives
𝑀−6 𝑀
RA = = −1
6 6
Portion AB BC
Origin A C
Limit 0-6 0-2
𝑀
M ( 6 − 1)𝑥 − 𝑀 −3𝑥
6 𝑀 2 1 2 (−3𝑥)2
U = ∫0 [( 6 − 1) 𝑥 − 𝑀] 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑈 6 𝑀 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫0 2 [( 6 − 1) 𝑥 − 𝑀] (6 − 1) 2𝐸𝐼 + 0
𝑑𝑀
Since, M is a dummy moment, its value is substituted as zero and then integrated.
𝑑𝑈 1 6 𝑥
= θA = 𝐸𝐼 ∫0 (−𝑥) (6 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑀
1 6 𝑥2
= 𝐸𝐼 ∫0 (− + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
6
6
1 𝑥3 𝑥2
= 𝐸𝐼 (− 18 + ) 𝑑𝑥
2 0
6
= 𝐸𝐼
3. Determine the vertical and horizontal displacement at the free end D in the frame shown in
figure. Take EI = 12 × 1013 Nmm2. Use Castigliano’s theorem.

Solution-
Vertical deflection
Since, there is no load at D in vertical direction, a dummy load P is applied at D in vertical
direction, in addition to given loads as shown in figure and the moment expressions are
noted down.
Portion AB BC CD
Origin B C D
Limit 0-4 0-4 0-2
M - (4P+240+50x) -(Px + 15x2) 0
Flexural Rigidity EI EI EI
𝑀2
Strain energy U = ∫ 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
2
4 (4𝑃+240+50𝑥)2 4 (𝑃𝑥+15𝑥 2 )
= ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + 0
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
𝛿𝑈 4 (4𝑃+240+50𝑥) 4 (𝑃𝑥+15𝑥 2 )𝑥
∴ ∆ = 𝛿𝑃 = ∫0 2 (4) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 2 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
Since, P is dummy load, substitute P = 0

4 4(240+50𝑥) 4 (15𝑥 3 )
ΔD = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
4
4 15 𝑥 4
= 𝐸𝐼 [240𝑥 + 25𝑥 2 ]40 + 𝐸𝐼 [ 4 ]
0
6400
= 𝐸𝐼
Now, EI = 12 × 1013 Nmm2

= 12 × 104 kNm2
6400
∴ ΔDV = 12×104 = 0.533m
= 53.33mm

Horizontal deflection
Since, there is no load in the horizontal direction at D, a dummy load is applied shown in
figure and the moment expressions are noted down.
Portion AB BC CD
Origin B C D
Limit 0-4 0-4 0-2
M - [Q(2-x) +240+50x)] -(2Q + 15x2) Qx
Flexural Rigidity EI EI EI
2
4 (𝑄(2−𝑥)+240+50𝑥)2 4 (2𝑄+15𝑥 2 ) 2 𝑄2𝑥2
U = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
𝛿𝑈 4 2[𝑄(2−𝑥)+240+50𝑥](2−𝑥) 4 2[2𝑄+15𝑥 2 ]2 2 2𝑄𝑥 2
ΔDH = 𝛿𝑄 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
Substituting Q = 0
4 (240+50𝑥)(2−𝑥) 4 [30𝑥 2 ]
ΔDH = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + 0
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
4 (480−140𝑥−50𝑥 2 ) 4 [30𝑥 2 ]
= ∫0 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
4
1 50𝑥 3 1
= 𝐸𝐼 [480𝑥 − 70𝑥 2 − ] + 𝐸𝐼 [10𝑥 3 ]40
3 0
373.33 373.33
= = = 0.0031m
𝐸𝐼 12 × 104
= 3.1mm

Review Questions
1. Determine the rotation and deflections at B and C in the cantilever beam shown in figure
given below by moment area method.
2. Determine the rotation at A and deflections under concentrated load and at mid-span in the
beam shown in figure given below by moment area method.
3. Determine the rotation at supports and deflection at mid-span and under the loads in the
simply supported beam as shown in figure.
4. Determine the slope at A, deflection at C and mid-span E in the beam shown in figure.
5. Determine the slope and deflection at the end of the beam shown in figure. EI is constant
throughout.
6. A cantilever beam is in the form oa quarter of a circle in the vertical plane and is subjected to
a vertical load P at its free end as shown in figure. Find the vertical and horizontal
displacements at the free end. Assume constant flexural rigidity.

BELGAUM
LECTURE NOTES
(MODULE-3)
IV-SEMESTER
Mrs. Babitha B
AJIET
Module -3
Arches and Cable Structures
Arches and Cable Structures: Three hinged parabolic arches with supports at the same and
different levels. Determination of normal thrust, radial shear and bending moment. Analysis
of cables under point loads and UDL. Length of cables for supports at same and at different
levels. Stiffening trusses for suspension cables.
Beams transfer the applied load to end supports by bending and shear action. In
this process, either one or two points at a particular section is subjected to maximum
stress. The material in most of the portion is under stress and hence, under-utilized. The
horizontal distance from one support to another is called the span. For larger spans,
beams are very uneconomical and many a time the self-weight of beams contributes to
the stress in such large proportions that it is difficult to design beams for larger spans. For
large spans like bridges, arches are provided instead of beams (Fig). Arches are nothing
but curved beams (usually in the vertical plane) that transfer loads to their plane.
Arches transfer loads to abutments at springing points. Hinges may be provided at these
points. The topmost point is called the crown which sometimes has a hinge. The height of the
crown above the support level is called rise.
Because of the curved nature of arches, they give rise to horizontal forces. Abutments are
designed for horizontal forces also. Any section in the arch will be subjected to normal thrust,
radial shear and bending moment (Fig). However, the bending moment is considerably less
compared to a beam of the same span. Thus, loads get transferred partly by axial compression
and partly by flexure. In axial compression, each and every particle of the cross-section of the
structure is subjected to stress equally. Hence, the material is utilized fully. Reduction in the
bending moment results in smaller sections for the arch compared to the section required for
the beams to transfer the same load.

Types of Arches
Three hinged arch – It is the simplest type of arch. It consists of two sections hinged at the
crown and a hinge at the springings(support). The hinges at the support makes the ends of the
arch to be fixed in position but not in direction. It is statically determinate which can be
analyzed using three equilibrium equations ie ∑V = 0, ∑H = 0, ∑M = 0. The bending
moment at the hinge at the crown is zero. This provides an additional equation. The
discontinuity at the crown hinge makes at times undesirable in specific cases.
A, B: Springing, C: Centre crown

In three hinged arches, there are four unknown reactions VA, HA, VB and HB. Three static
equilibrium equations and one more equation is formulated by using the condition that at the
crown hinge, the moment is zero. Thus the four equations are sufficient to determine the
reactions at each support.
The main advantage is that it is insensitive to foundation settlements and change of
temperature. They are preferable for wide span roofs. This is less preferred in railway bridges
because of the discontinuity at the crown hinge.
Two hinged arch – If the central hinge is not there and the member is made continuous
between the supports it becomes a two hinged arch. Figure shows a two hinged arch along
with the unknown reactions.
The total number of unknown reactions are VA, HA, VB and HB. The available equilibrium
equations are three. Hence it becomes statically indeterminate structure. The degree of

redundancy i.e. (4-3) = 1. The redundant reaction ‘H’ can be found by using strain energy
principles.
Fixed arch – The supports are held in position and restrained in direction. It implies that the
deflection is zero and rotation at the supports is zero.
The total number of unknown reactions are six. i.e. three reactions at each springing/support.
They are a vertical reaction, horizontal reaction and fixed end moment at each end. As the
available equilibrium equations are three only it is statically indeterminate to third degree.
Spandrel arch – This type of arches is classified as open type and solid type. The load is
transferred to the arch rib through the vertical members such as columns or walls.
In the second case of a solid type arch, the space between the arch rib and the top surface
through which the load being applied is filled.
Compare between three hinged, two hinged and fixed arches.

Shape of the arch
In each type of arch, if they are proportioned with respect to its funicular shape then no
bending stresses develop. Thus, the funicular shape makes primarily the internal forces as
compressive/radial thrust.
Support settlements
The three hinged arch is flexible. Each arch segment connecting the support hinge to be
crown hinge rotates freely with respect to each other. In other words, the provision of hinges
makes it more flexible.

In two hinged arches, the vertical displacement makes the entire arch to deform on the whole.
The bending moments are induced at the crown by the horizontal displacement.
The fixed arch is not flexible as three hinged or two hinged. Thus, the bending moments are
induced due to the settlement.
Temperature effect
Any rise or fall in temperature causes stresses in the rib of the arch. The horizontal thrust is
very much affected by the change in temperature. The estimation of temperature stresses is
important in the design of reinforced concrete and steel arches. In three hinged arches,
relative rotations between the members are possible. This effects in the reduction of
temperature stresses. Two hinged arches are not as flexible as three hinged arches.
It permits some flexibility. A slight amount of bending moment does develop in two hinged
arches. The temperature effects are predominant in fixed arches.
Stiffness
In three hinged arches, presence of three hinges reduce the overall stiffness of the arch. Thus,
three hinged arch deforms more than the two hinged/fixed arches. Hence it may not be a good
choice from the deflection point of view. The degree of resistance of two hinged arches is
more than three hinged arches and less than that of fixed arches. The fixed arch is stiffer
when compared to other types of arches. Thus, it deflects less.
There are three types of arches depending upon the number of hinges provided:
1. Three-hinged arch
2. Two-hinged arch
3. Hingeless arch of fixed arch
Three-Hinged Arches
Three-hinged arch is a determinate structure whereas two-hinged and fixed arches are
indeterminate structures.
Types of Three-Hinged Arches
Three-hinged arch may have different shapes. Commonly used shapes are:’
1. Circular
2. Parabolic

From the property of a circle, the radius R of the circular arch of span L and rise h may be
found as
𝐿 𝐿
× 2 = h(2R-h)
2
𝐿2 ℎ
R = 8ℎ + 2
Taking origin at support A, the coordinates of any point D on the arch may be defined as
𝐿
x = [2 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]
y = R cos𝜃 - (R-h)
= h – R(1-cos𝜃)
In the case of a parabolic arch, taking the springing point as the origin its equation is given by
4ℎ𝑥
y= (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐿2
If the crown is taken as the origin, the equation of parabolic curve is

𝑥2
= 𝑎, where a is a constant.
𝑦
If the springing points are at the same level, then

𝐿
at x = 2 , y=h
𝐿2
=𝑎
4ℎ

𝑥2 𝐿2
Hence, the equation is = 4ℎ
𝑦
If the springing points are not at the same level. Let h1 and h2 be the depth of the abutments
from the crown and let L be the span. Then,
𝑥2
= constant
𝑦
𝑥
= constant
√𝑦
Applying this equation to points A and B, we get

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
Constant = = =
√ℎ1 √ℎ2 √ℎ1 +√ℎ2
𝐿
=
√ℎ1 +√ℎ2
𝐿 √ℎ 1
∴ L1 =
√ℎ1 + √ℎ2
𝐿 √ℎ 2
and L2 =
√ℎ1 + √ℎ2
Analysis for Static Loads

Consider three-hinged arches subjected to loads as shown in figure. Since, the ends are
hinged there will be two reaction components at each end namely vertical and horizontal.
Hence, totally there are four reaction components namely, VA, HA, VB and HB.

For any plane structure there are three independent equations of equilibrium which can be
used conveniently.
∑FH = 0
∑FV = 0
MA or MB = 0
In this case, the fourth equation is also available, i.e.,

Mc = 0, since, C is a hinge
If no horizontal load is acting, which is the usual case, equation gives HA = HB, say H. In
such case, the following three equations are used.
∑FV = 0
MA or MB = 0
MC = 0
Since, the loads tend to spread the arch, the horizontal thrust is in the inward direction as
shown in the figure.
Now, consider a section at D,
Let V, be the vertical shear
Q, the radial shear
and N, the normal thrust.
All these forces are shown in their positive senses in figure. Let the normal to the section
make an angle θ with the horizontal.
Then, N = V sin θ + H cos θ

and Q = V sin θ - H cos θ
The moment at D can be obtained by considering all the forces including the reaction on any
one part of the arch. Sagging moment M is taken as positive moment.

Numerical Problems
1. A three-hinged circular arch hinged at the springing and crown points has a span of 40m
and a central rise of 8m. It carries a uniformly distributed load 20kN/m over the left-half
of the span together with a concentrated load of 100kN at the right quarter span point. Find
the reactions at the supports, normal thrust and shear at a section 10m from left support.
Solution-
∑MB = 0, gives
VA × 40 – 20 × 20 × 30 – 100 × 10 =0
VA = 325kN
∑FV = 0, gives
VA + VB = 20 × 20 + 100
VB = 500 - VA = 500 – 325
= 175kN
Since, C is hinged
MC = 0, gives
VB × 20 – 100 × 10 – H × 8 = 0
175 × 20 – 100 × 10 – H × 8 = 0
H = 312.5kN
Let D be the point 10m from the left support where the normal thrust and shear are to be
found. Now, from the property of circles.
𝐿 𝐿
h (2R - h) = ×2
2
40 40
8 (2R – 8) = × = 400
2 2
R = 29m
10 10
Slope at D = θ = sin−1 = sin−1 29
𝑅
θ = 20.171°
Vertical shear at D, V = VA – 20 × 10
= 325 – 200 = 125kN
N = V sin θ + H cos θ

= 125 sin 29.171 + 312.5 cos 20.171

= 336.43kN
Q = V cos θ – H sin θ
= 125 cos 20.171 – 312.5 sin 20.17
= 9.575kN
2. A circular arch to span 25m with a central rise 5m is hinged at the crown and springing. It
carries a point load of 100kN at 6m from the left support. Calculate
1. The reactions at the supports
2. The reactions at crown
3. Moment at 5m from the left support
Solution –
The arch with loading on it is shown in figure. Taking the moment about B, we get
VA × 25 = 100 × (25 - 6)
VA = 76kN
VB = 100 – 76 = 24kN
Considering moment about C, we get
0 = 24 × 12.5 – H × 5
H = 60kN
Considering the equilibrium of the left-half of the arch, the reactions at crown are
Moment at 5m from the left support:

From the property of circles, we get
𝐿 𝐿
h (2R - h) = ×2
2
25 25
5 (2R – 5) = ×
2 2

R = 18.125m
Referring to figure, we find
R sin θ = 12.5 – 5 = 7.5
7.5
sin θ = 18.125 = 0.4138
θ = 24.443°
yD = h – R (1 – cos θ)
= 5 – 18.125 (1 – cos 24.443)
= 3.375
MD = VA × 5 - HyD
= 76 × 5 – 60 × 3.375
= 177.5kNm
3. A three hinged semi-circular arch of radius R carries a uniformly distributed load of

intensity w/unit length over its entire horizontal span. Determine the reactions of supports
and maximum bending moment in the arch.
Solution –
The arch is shown in figure. Since, it is semi-circular, the span = 2R. Due to symmetry,
𝑤 × 2𝑅
VA = VB = = wR
2
Taking moment about the crown point C, we get

𝑅
H × R – VA × R + wR × 2 = 0
𝑤𝑅 2 𝑤𝑅
HR – wRR + = 0 or H =
2 2
But, x = R – R sin θ and y = R cos θ

𝑤𝑥 2
Now, Mx = VA x – Hy - 2
𝑤𝑅 𝑤
Mx = wR (R – R sin θ) - × R cos θ - (𝑅 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)2
2 2
𝑤𝑅 2
= [2(1 – sin θ) – cos θ – (1 – sin θ)2]
2
𝑤𝑅 2
= (2 – 2 sin θ – cos θ – 1 + 2 sin θ – sin2 θ)
2

𝑤𝑅 2
= (1 – cos θ - sin2 θ)
2
For Mx to be maximum
𝑑𝑀𝑥 𝑤𝑅 2
=0= (sin θ – 2 sin θ cos θ)
𝑑𝜃 2
∴ sin θ (1 – 2 cos θ) = 0
θ = 0 gives the crown point where moment is zero (minimum)
1 – 2 cos θ = 0 should give maximum point
i.e., cos θ = 0.5 or θ = 60°
Therefore, x for maximum moment point = R (1 – cos 60°)
𝑤𝑅 2
Mmax = (1 – cos 60° – sin2 60°)
2
𝑤𝑅 2
=- 8
4. A three-hinged parabolic arch hinged at the supports and at the crown has a span of 24m
and a central rise of 4m. It carries a concentrated load of 50kN at 18m from left support
and a uniformly distributed load of 30kN/m over the left-hand portion. Determine the
moment, thrust and radial shear at a section 6m from the left support.
Solution: The arch is shown in figure. Taking moment about B, we get

VA × 24 – 30 × 12 × 18 – 50 × 6 = 0
VA = 282.50kN
VB = 30 × 12 + 50 – 282.50 = 127.5kN
Taking moment about crown C,
VB × 12 – H × 4 -50 × 6 = 0
127.5 × 12 – H × 4 + 50 × 6 = 0
H = 307.5kN
At 6m from the left support,
62
M = VA × 6 – HyD – 30 × 2
In the parabolic arch,

4ℎ𝑥 (𝐿−𝑥)
y= 𝐿2
Therefore, at x = 6m
4×4×6(24−6)
yD = = 3m
242
62
M = 282.5 × 6 – 307.5 × 3 – 30 × 2
= 232.5kNm
Vertical shear at D,
V = VA – 30 × 6
= 282.5 – 30 × 6 = 102.5kN
Curve is given by
4ℎ𝑥 (𝐿−𝑥)
y= 𝐿2
𝑑𝑦 4ℎ(𝐿−2𝑥)
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = tan𝜃 = 𝐿2
Therefore, at x = 6m,
4×4(24−2×6)
tan𝜃 = 24×24
𝜃 = 18.435°
N = V sin𝜃 + H cos𝜃
= 102.5 sin 18.435° + 307.5 cos 18.435°
= 324.133kN
and radial shear
Q = V cos𝜃 - H sin𝜃
= 102.5 cos 18.435° - 307.5 sin 18.435°
=0
Bending Moment Diagrams

In the arch, at any section D (x, y), the bending moment may be looked as a sum of the
moment in an equivalent beam minus the ordinate time the horizontal thrust. Thus,
M = Beam moment – Hy

Hence, first bending moment diagram for the equivalent beam may be drawn. Then, to
subtract Hy moment, we note that the moment at the central hinge is zero. Hence, the curve of
the arch is drawn with the ordinate at the crown point equal to the ordinate of the bending
moment diagram as shown in figure.
Problems
1. A symmetric three-hinged arch of span 36m rise 6m is subjected to a concentrated load of
120kN at a point 12m from left support. Draw the bending moment diagram for the arch.
Solution- The arch is shown in figure

∑MB = 0, gives
VA × 36 – 120 (36-12) = 0
VA = 80kN
VB = 120 – 80 = 40kN
Beam moment diagram is a triangle with maximum ordinate at the load point, its ordinate
being
120×12(36−12)
= = 960kNm
36

This is drawn first. Now, at mid-span the net bending moment is zero. The ordinate of the
beam moment diagram at mid-span is
960×18
= = 720kNm
24
Since, Mc = 0 in the arch, Hh = 720

720 720
or H = = kN = 120kN
ℎ 6
A parabola is drawn with its central ordinate equal to 720kNm as shown in figure.
The equation of this parabola is
4ℎ𝑥(𝐿−𝑥)
yBM = Hy = H × 𝐿2
2. A three-hinged symmetric parabolic arch of span 60m and rise 12m is subjected to a
concentrated load of 40kN acting at 10m from its left support and uniformly distributed
load of intensity 10kN/m acting over its entire right-half-portion. Draw the bending
moment diagram.
Solution- The arch with its loading is shown in figure (1). The equivalent beam for beam
calculations is shown in figure (2).
To calculate the beam moment,
40(60−10)+10×30×15
VA = 60
= 108.33kN
VB = 40 + 10×30 – 108.33
= 231.67kN
MD = 108.33 × 10 = 1083.3

MC = 108.33 × 30 – 40 × 20
= 2450kNm
In the portion AC, variation of BMD is linear and in BC, it is parabolic as shown in figure.
At the centre of the span, the bending moment in the arch should be zero.
H × 12 = 2450
H = 204.167kN
Hence, a parabola with yMB = Hy is drawn over this diagram. The difference diagram is the
bending moment diagrams for the arch. At the central hinge, the two diagrams cross since,
the bending moment at the hinge is zero.
Normal thrust and radial shear in an arch.

In the analysis of three hinged arches, the horizontal reaction is to be determined to draw the
bending moment diagram. The normal thrust (NT) and radial shear (RS) are determined by
the resolution of forces.
Normal thrust NT = V sinθ + H cosθ

Radial shear RS = V cosθ - H sinθ

Cables
Cables are used as temporarily guys during the erection and as permanent guys for supporting
masts and towers. The use of towers to support large tents like that of circus tents is well
known to all. Cables are also used in the suspension bridges.
A suspension bridge consists of two cables with the number of suspenders (hangers) which
support the roadway. Figure shows a typical suspension bridge in which the cable is
supported over towers. To reduce the bending moment in the towers anchor cables are
provided.
1 1
The central sag or dip of the cable varies from (10)th to (15)th of span. The cables will be
having either guided pulley support or roller support as shown in figure.

In case of pedestrian suspension bridges, suspenders support the roadway directly. For heavy
traffic and large spans stiffening girders are provided to support the roadway. Laksman Jhula
at Rishikesh and Howra bridge are popular examples of suspension bridges.
Since, the number of suspenders are very large, the load on the cable may be taken as
uniformly distributed. Cables being very flexible, do not resist any bending moment and they
adjust their shape to loads and resist the load only by tension. Since, steel is an efficient
material in resisting tension, steel finds its application in suspension bridges and hence, they
are very economical for larger spans. Suspension bridges of span 200 m to 300 m are
commonly built.
Equilibrium of Cable
A cable is a flexible structure which cannot resist bending moment. It deflects so that the
bending moment is zero at any point which is achieved by developing horizontal thrust at the
support and thus, developing appropriate deflection.
Consider the cable shown in figure which is subjected to various loads. Let the horizontal
force developed be H and let VA and VB be the vertical reactions at supports A and B. At
section X-X, let the deflection be y. Then,
Mx = VA x – W1(x – a1) – W2 (x- a2) – Hy
Since, the cable is flexible, Mx = 0
∴ Hy = VA x – W1(x – a1) – W2 (x- a2)
= Beam Moment
Considering any segment of cable and using the above equation along with usual equations, a
loaded cable can be analysed.

Cable Subjected to Concentrated Loads

Consider the cable of length L spanning over a horizontal gap l subjected to the concentrated
loads as shown in figure. Let VA and VB be the vertical reactions and H be the horizontal
reactions at supports. The equilibrium condition is
𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
Hy = Mbeam or y = 𝐻
Hence, the deflected shape is similar to the beam moment diagram. If M1, M2 and M3 are the
beam moments at load points 1, 2 and 3, the deflections y1, y2 and y3 are given by
𝑀1 𝑀2 𝑀3
y1 = , y2 = , y3 =
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
Hence, if the horizontal thrust is known or position of cable at any one point is
known, the deflections at all points can be calculated and the shape is found. The actual
length of the cable is the sum of lengths of each segment.
After finding deflections, slope of the various segments can be found using the
equations of equilibrium of load points 1, 2 and 3, forces in the various segments of cable can
be found.
Cable Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load

Let a cable of length L be supported at points A and B which are at a horizontal distance l and
are at the same level. The cable is subjected to a uniformly distributed load w/unit horizontal
length.
𝑤𝑙
VA = VB = 2
Taking moment about central point and noting bending moment is zero at all points in the
cable, we get,
𝑤𝑙 𝑙 𝑤𝑙 𝑙
Hh - x2- x4=0
2 2
𝑤𝑙2
H= 8ℎ

If V is the shear at any section X-X distance x from A, then,

T = √𝑉 2 + 𝐻 2
𝑤𝑙
Vmax = at support
2
𝑤𝑙 𝑤𝑙2
Tmax = √( 2 )2 + ( 8ℎ )2
𝑤𝑙 𝑙2
Vmax = √1 +
2 16ℎ2
Vmin = 0, at centre
Hence, Tmin = √0 + 𝐻 2 = H
At any point, since, cable cannot resist shear,
V = T sin θ
Now, to find the shape of the cable, consider the portion on left-side of section X-X. Let θ be
the slope Then,
∑H = 0 → T cos θ = H
∑V = 0 → T sin θ = VA – wx
𝑤𝑙
= – wx
2
𝑤𝑙 1
∴ tan θ = [ 2 – w𝑥] x 𝐻

𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑙 1
= [ 2 – w𝑥] x 𝐻
𝑑𝑥
𝑤𝑙 𝑤𝑥 2 1
∴y=[2 𝑥– ]x𝐻
2
𝑤𝑥(𝑙−𝑥)
= 2𝐻
𝑤𝑙2
Substituting the value of H = , we get
8ℎ
𝑤𝑥(𝑙−𝑥) 8ℎ
y= ×
2 𝑤𝑙2
4ℎ𝑥(𝑙−𝑥)
y= 𝑙2
which is a parabola. Thus, the shape of the cable is a parabola.
To find the length of the cable in any curve
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦
= √1 + (𝑑𝑥 )2
𝑑𝑥
1 4ℎ(𝑙−2𝑥) 2
= 1 + 2[ ]
𝑙2
Therefore, length of the cable is given by
𝑙 𝑙 1 16ℎ2
L = ∫0 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 [1 + 2 ( ) (𝑙 2 − 4𝑙𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 )] 𝑑𝑥
𝑙4
𝑙
8ℎ2 4𝑙𝑥 2 4𝑥 3
= [𝑥 + (𝑙 2 𝑥 − + )]
𝑙4 2 3 0
8ℎ2 4
= l +( 𝑙4 )l3 [1 − 2 + 3]
8ℎ2
L=l+ 3𝑙
Cable with ends at Different Levels

Consider the cable shown in figure which is supported at A and B. A is h1 metres above the
lowest point C and B is h2 metres above C. This is subjected to a uniformly distributed load w
per unit horizontal length over entire span l. Let the horizontal distance between AC be l1 and
that between CB be l2. Let the horizontal reactions at supports be H.
A cable can take only axial force, i.e., it cannot take bending moment and shear force.
Hence, at lowest point C, the axial force = H and there is no force in vertical direction.
Let D be a point where slope is θ. Taking the lowest point C as origin and considering
the equilibrium of portion CD, we get

T cos θ = H
and T sin θ = wx
𝑤𝑥
∴ tan θ = 𝐻
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑥
i.e., =
𝑑𝑥 𝐻
𝑥2
∴ y = w (2𝐻) + C1, where C1 is a constant of integration
At C, x=y=0
∴ 0 = 0 + C1 or C1 = 0
𝑥2
∴ y = w (2𝐻)
This is the equation of a parabola. Hence, the cable is having a parabolic shape.
Applying equation to points A and B, we get
𝑤𝑙12 𝑤𝑙22
h1 = and h2 =
2𝐻 2𝐻
ℎ 𝑙2
∴ ℎ1 = 𝑙12
2 2
√ℎ1 𝑙
or = 𝑙1
√ℎ2 2

√ℎ1 𝑙1 𝑙1
∴ =𝑙 =
√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 1 +𝑙2 𝑙
√ℎ1
∴ l1 = l ( )
√ℎ1 + √ℎ2
√ℎ2
and l2 = l ( )
√ℎ1 + √ℎ2
To find H, calculate moment at C. If it is calculated from left-hand side
𝑤𝑙12
VA l1 – Hh1 - =0
2
𝑤𝑙1 ℎ
or VA = + ( 𝑙 1 ) 𝐻 ------(1)
2 1
If calculated from right-hand side
𝑤𝑙22
VB l2 – Hh2 - =0
2
𝑤𝑙2 ℎ
or VB = + ( 𝑙 2) 𝐻 -------(2)
2 2
Adding equations (1) and (2), we get
𝑤 ℎ ℎ2
VA + VB = (l1 + l2) + [ 𝑙 1 + ]𝐻
2 1 𝑙2
𝑤 ℎ ℎ2
= (2) 𝑙 + [𝑙1 + ]𝐻
1 𝑙2
But VA + VB = w l, the total downward load.
𝑤 ℎ ℎ2
∴ w l = (2) 𝑙 + [𝑙1 + ]𝐻
1 𝑙2
𝑤𝑙 ℎ ℎ2
or = [𝑙1 + ]𝐻
2 1 𝑙2
Substituting the values of l1 and l2 from equation, we get
𝑤𝑙
H= ℎ1 (√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 ) ℎ (√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )
2[ + 2 ]
𝑙√ℎ1 𝑙√ℎ2
𝑤𝑙2
H=
2[√ℎ1 (√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )+√ℎ2 (√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )]
𝑤𝑙2
H=
2(√ℎ1 +√ℎ2 )2

From equation (1) and (2), VA and VB can be found
To find the length of the cable
1
Length of cable ACB = 2 × sum of length of ACB' and A'CB
1 8 ℎ2 8 ℎ2
= 2 × [2𝑙1 + × 2𝑙1 + 2𝑙2 + × 2𝑙2 ]
3 1 3 2
2 ℎ12 2 ℎ22
= l1 + l2 + 3 × + ×
𝑙1 3 𝑙2
2 ℎ12 2 ℎ22
i.e., L=l+3× + ×
𝑙1 3 𝑙2

BELGAUM
LECTURE NOTES
(MODULE-4)
IV-SEMESTER
Mrs. Babitha B
AJIET
Module -4
Slope Deflection Method
Slope Deflection Method: Introduction, sign convention, development of slope deflection

equation, Analysis of continuous beams including settlement of supports, Analysis of
orthogonal rigid plane frames including sway frames with kinematic indeterminacy up to 3.
This method is ideally suited for the analysis of continuous beams and rigid jointed frames.
Using this method basic unknowns like slopes and deflections of joints can be calculated.
Moments at the ends of a member is first written in terms of unknown slopes and deflections of
the end joints. Considering the joint equilibrium conditions, a set of equations are formed and
solution of these simultaneous equations gives unknown slopes and deflections. Then end
moments of individual members are determined.
In this method the end moments or support moments expressed in terms of slopes, deflections,
stiffness and length of the members. The unknown slope values (slopes) are determined from
the condition of equilibrium of joints for moments that is
MBA +MBC = 0
Assumptions
The following assumptions are made while developing this method:
1. All joints are rigid, i.e., the angle between any two members in a joint does not change
even after deformation due to loading. Thus, at joint A in the figure, the angle between
members AB and BC remains ‘θ’ only, even after deformation.
2. Distortions due to axial deformations are neglected. Thus, in the frame shown in figure.
BB’ = CC’ = Δ

3. Shear deformations are neglected.

Assumptions 2 and 3 are reasonable because, distortion of rigid jointed structures due to
axial forces and shears are really small compared to distortion due to flexure.
Sign Conventions
Moments – Clockwise end moments are positive and anticlockwise end moments are
negative. In figure, MBA = 20kNm and MBC = -20kNm.
Rotations – Clockwise rotation of a tangent to elastic curve is positive rotation and

anticlockwise rotation is a negative rotation. In figure, θ1 and θ4 are positive rotations and θ2
and θ3 are negative rotation.
Settlement – Settlement ‘Δ’ is positive if right side support is below left side support. ‘Δ’ is
negative if left side support is below the right-side support. Thus, in figure, for beam AB, Δ is
positive, for beam BC, Δ is negative.
Derivation of Slope Deflection Equations

Let AB, shown in figure be a member of a rigid structure. After loading it undergoes
deformations. Figure 2 shows deformed shape with all displacements (θA, θB and Δ) taken in
their positive senses. Final moments at end A and end B are MAB and MBA. Now the aim is to

derive the relationship between these final end moments and their displacements θA, θB and
Δ.
The development of final moments and deformations are visualised as undergoing in the
following stages:
1. Due to given loadings end moments MFAB and MFBA develop without any rotations at
ends. These moments are similar to the end moments in a fixed beam and hence are called
as fixed end moments. In figure these are shown in their positive senses. Actually, most of
the time MFAB will be having a negative value.
2. Settlement Δ takes place without any rotations at ends. This is similar to the settlement of
supports in fixed beams. From analysis of fixed beams, we know, the end moments
6𝐸𝐼∆
developed are as shown in figure.
𝐿2
3. Moment M'AB comes into play in simply supported beam as shown in figure to cause end
rotations θA1 and θB1 at A and B respectively.
4. Moments M'BA comes into play in simply supported beam AB, as shown in figure. The
end rotations developed are θA2 and θB2.

Moment M'AB and M'BA give final rotations θA and θB to the beam AB. To find the rotations
due to applied moment M in a beam without end rotation, conjugate beam method may be
used.
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝐿
It may be seen that rotation at loaded end is 3𝐸𝐼 and at unloaded end is 6𝐸𝐼.
Hence, referring to figures

𝑀′𝐴𝐵 L 𝑀′𝐴𝐵 L
θA1 = and θB1 =
3𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
𝑀′𝐵𝐴 L 𝑀′𝐵𝐴 L
and θA2 = and θB2 =
6𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
From the figures, it can be seen that

𝑀′𝐴𝐵 L 𝑀′𝐵𝐴 L
θA = θA1 - θA2 = ( )-( ),
3𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
𝑀′𝐵𝐴 L 𝑀′𝐴𝐵 L
and θB = θB2 - θB1 = ( )-( )
3𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
2𝑀′𝐴𝐵 L 𝑀′𝐴𝐵 L 𝑀′𝐴𝐵 L 𝑀′𝐴𝐵 L

2θA + θB = ( )-( )= (4-1) =
3𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
2𝐸𝐼
M'AB = (2θA + θB)
𝐿
2𝐸𝐼
Similarly, M'BA = (θA + 2θB)
𝐿
Final moments shown in figure are the sum of the moments shown in the four stages shown
in figures. Referring to figure, we write
6𝐸𝐼∆
MAB = MFAB - + M'AB
𝐿2

6𝐸𝐼∆ 2𝐸𝐼
= MFAB - + (2θA + θB)
𝐿2 𝐿
2𝐸𝐼 3∆
= MFAB + (2θA + θB - )
𝐿 𝐿
Similarly,
6𝐸𝐼∆
MBA = MFBA - + M'BA
𝐿2
6𝐸𝐼∆ 2𝐸𝐼
= MFBA - + (θA + 2θB)
𝐿2 𝐿
2𝐸𝐼 3∆
= MFBA + (θA + 2θB - )
𝐿 𝐿
Applications of Slope Deflection Equations

Using slope deflection equations, rigid jointed structures can be analysed. The method is
illustrated by applying it to the following types of structures:
1. Continuous beams
2. Frames without side sway
3. Frames with side sway
Continuous Beams
The following steps are involved in the analysis of continuous beams by slope deflection
method.
1. Each span of the continuous beam is taken as fixed beam and fixed end moments are
𝑊𝑎𝑏 2 𝑊𝑏𝑎2 𝑊𝐿2
noted. The standard expressions like , and for finding end moments in fixed
𝐿2 𝐿2 12
beams may be used. Clockwise end moments are to be noted as positive moments and
anticlockwise as negative moments.
2. Using slope deflection equations write all the end moments. In these equations, some of
the rotations and deflections will be unknowns.
3. Write the joint equilibrium equations.
4. Solve the joint equilibrium equations to get the unknown rotations and deflections.
5. Substituting the values of unknowns in slope deflection equations and determine the end
moments.
6. Treating each member of the continuous beam as simply supported beam subjected to a
given loading and end moments determine the end reactions and draw shear force and
bending moment diagrams.

Numerical Problems
1) Analyse the two span continuous beam shown in figure by slope deflection method and
draw bending moment, shear force diagrams and elastic curve. (Young’s modulus is the
same throughout).
Solution-
Fixed End Moments
MFAB = - 40x4/8 = -20kNm
MFBA = 40x4/8 = 20kNm
MFBC = - 20x62/12 = - 60kNm
MFCB = 20x62/12 = 60kNm
Slope Deflection Equations
MAB = 2EI/4 (2θA + θB – 0) - 20
= 0.5EI θB – 20 (Since, θA = 0 as it is fixed end)
MBA = 2EI/4 (θA + 2θB – 0) + 20
= EI θB + 20 (Since, θA = 0)
MBC = 2E(2I)/6 (2θB + θC – 0) - 60

= 4/3 EI θB – 60 (Since, θC = 0)
MCB = 2E(2I)/6 (θB + 2θC – 0) + 60
= 2/3EI θB + 60 (Since, θC = 0)
Joint Equilibrium Equations
Considering joint B
MBA + MBC = 0
Substituting the values for MBA and MBC, we get,
EI θB + 20 + 4/3 EI θB – 60 = 0
EI θB = 40/2.333 = 17.143
Substituting this in slope deflection equations, we get
MAB = 0.5EI θB – 20 = 0.5 x 17.143 - 20 = - 11.428kNm
MBA = EI θB + 20 = 37.143kNm
MBC = 4/3 EI θB – 60 = -37.143kNm
MCB = 2/3EI θB + 60 = 71.429kNm
Treating each beam separately with load on it and end moments
11.428+40×2−37.143
RA = = 13.571kN
4
RB1 = 40 – 13.571 = 26.429kN

20×6×3+37.143−71.429
RB2 = = 54.286kN
6
RC = 20x6 – 54.286 = 65.714kN

Hence, shear force diagram is shown in figure. Bending moment diagram is drawn keeping
in view that tension at bottom is positive and tension at top is negative

2) Analyse the continuous beam shown in figure by slope deflection method and draw
bending moment diagram.
Solution –
FEM
MFAB = - 60x4x22/62 = - 26.67 kNm
MFBA = 60x2x42/62 = 53.33 kNm
MFBC = - 30x62/12 = - 90 kNm
MFCB = 90 kNm
SDE
MAB = -26.67 + 2EI/6 (2θA + θB – 0)
= - 26.67 + 1/3EI θB (since, θA = 0)
MBA = 53.33 + 2EI/6 (θA + 2θB – 0)
= 53.33 + 2/3EI θB (since, θA = 0)
MBC = - 90 + 2EI/6 (2θB + θC – 0)
= -90 + 2/3EI θB + 1/3EI θC
MCB = 90 + 2EI/6 (θB + 2θC – 0)
= 90 + 1/3EI θB + 2/3EI θC
Equilibrium Equations
∑MB = 0
MBA + MBC = 0
53.33 + 2/3EI θB -90 + 2/3EI θB + 1/3EI θC = 0
4EI θB + EI θC = 110
∑MC = 0, gives MCB = 0
90 + 1/3EI θB + 2/3EI θC = 0
EI θB + 2EI θC = -270
Solving, we get
7 EI θB = 490
EI θB = 70
EI θC = 110 – 4x70 = -170
Final Moments
Substituting the values of EI θB and EI θc, in the equation we get
MAB = -26.67 + 1/3(70) = - 3.33 kNm

MBA = 53.33 + 2/3(70) = 100 kNm

MBC = - 90 + 2/3(70) + 1/3(-170) = - 100 kNm
MCB = 90 + 1/3(70) + 2/3 (-170) = 0
Free moment diagram in AB is a triangle with maximum ordinate under load, its magnitude
60×4×2
being = 80kNm
6
30×62
Free moment diagram in BC is a symmetric parabola with maximum ordinate, = =
8
135kNm.
Hence, BMD is as shown in figure.
3) Analyse the continuous beam shown in figure by slope deflection method and draw
bending moment diagram.
Solution-
FEM
MFAB = - 20x62/12 = - 60kNm
MFBA = 60kNm
MFBC = - 80x4/8 = - 40kNm
MFCB = 40kNm
SDE
MAB = - 60 + 2E(2I)/6 (2θA + θB – 0)
= - 60 + 2/3EI θB (since, θA = 0)
MBA = 60 + 2E(2I)/6 (θA + 2θB – 0)
= 60 + 4/3EI θB
MBC = -40 +2EI/4 (2θB + θC – 0)
= -40 + EI θB + 0.5EI θC
MCB = 40 + 2EI/4 (θB + 2θC – 0)

= 40 + 0.5EI θB + EI θC
∑MB = 0
MBA + MBC = 0
60 + 4/3EI θB - 40 + EI θB + 0.5EI θC = 0
2.333EI θB + 0.5EI θC = - 20
∑MC = 0
MCB + MCD = 0
MCD = - 40 x 2 = - 80
MCB = 80kNm
40 + 0.5EI θB + EI θc = 80
0.5EI θB + EI θc = 40
Solving, we get
(4.667 – 0.5) EI θB = - 80
EI θB = -19.2
0.5(-19.2) + EI θc = 40
EI θc = 49.6
Final Moments
Substituting the values of EI θB and EI θc, in the equation we get
MAB = - 60 + 2/3(-19.2) = - 72.8 kNm
MBA = 60 + 4/3(-19.2) = 34.4 kNm
MBC = - 40 + (-19.2) + 0.5 x 49.6 = - 34.4 kNm
MCB = 80kNm
Analysis of Frames Without Sway

The side movement of the end of a column in a frame is called sway. Figure 1.14(a) shows
frame with sway when loaded. Both columns are having same sway (Δ), since, axial
deformation of beam BC is assumed negligible. In the frames shown in figures 1.14(b) and
(c), sway is prevented by unyielding supports provided at the beam level. Frames shown in
figures 1.14(d), (e) and (f) also do not have sway, because of geometric as well as load
symmetry about the vertical axis. As a first step in the analysis, frames without sway are
considered. The procedure followed in the analysis of such frame is same as that followed for
continuous beams.

Numerical Problems
1) Analyse the frame shown in figure by slope deflection method and draw bending moment
diagram.
Solution –
FEM
MFAB = MFBA = 0
MFBD = 20 x 1 = 20kNm
MFBC = - 12 x 44/12 = - 16kNm
MFCB = 16kNm
SDE
MAB = 0 + 2EI/3 (2θA + θB – 0) =2/3EI θB (since, θA = 0)
MBA = 0 + 2EI/3(θA + 2θB – 0) =4/3EI θB
MBC = -16 + 2E(2I)/4 (2θB + θC) = -16 + 2EI θB (since, θC = 0)
MCB = 16 + 2E(2I)/4 (θB + 2θC) = 16 + 2EI θB (since, θC = 0)

∑MB = 0
MBA + MBC + MBD = 0
4/3EI θB – 16 + 2EI θB + 20 = 0
10/3EI θB = -4
EI θB = -1.2
Final Moments
MAB = 2/3EI θB = 2/3(1-2) = - 0.8kNm
MBA = 4/3(-1.2) = -1.6kNm
MBC = -16 + 2(-1.2) = -18.4kNm
MCB = 16 + (-1.2) = 14.8kNm
BMD
12×42
Free moment diagram in span BC is a symmetric parabola with maximum value = =
8
24kNm
2) Analyse the frame shown in figure by slope deflection method and draw bending moment
diagram. Flexural rigidity (EI) is same for all members.
Solution-
FEM
MFAB = - 120x4/8 = - 60kNm
MFBA = 60kNm
MFBC = - 30x42/12 = - 40kNm
MFCB = 40kNm
MFBD = MFD = 0
SDE
MAB = - 60 + 2EI/4 (2θA + θB – 0) = - 60 – 0.5 EI θB (since, θA = 0)
MBA = 60 + 2EI/4(θA + 2θB – 0) = 60 + EI θB
MBC = -40 + 2EI/4 (2θB + θC) = - 40 + EI θB + 0.5 EI θC
MCB = 40 + 2EI/4 (θB + 2θC) = 40 + 0.5EI θB + EI θC
MBD = 0 + 2EI/4 (2θB + θD) = EI θB (since, θD = 0)

MDB = 0 + 2EI/4 (θB + 2θD) = 0.5 EI θB (since, θD = 0)
∑MB = 0
MBA + MBC + MBD = 0
60 + EI θB – 40 + EI θB + 0.5 EI θC + EI θB = 0
3 EI θB + 0.5 EI θC = - 20
∑MC = 0
MCB = 0
40 + 0.5EI θB + EI θC = 0
0.5EI θB + EI θC = - 40
Solving the equation
EI θB = 0
EI θC = - 40
Final Moments
Substituting the values of EI θB and EI θC in SDE
MAB = -60 kNm
MBA = 60 kNm
MBC = - 40 + 0.5(-40) = -60 kNm
MCB = 40 + 0 – 40 = 0
MBD = 0
MDB = 0
Bending Moment Diagram

Free moment diagram in span AB is a symmetric parabola with maximum ordinate = 60x4/4
= 60 kNm
Free moment diagram for BC is a symmetric parabola with maximum ordinate = 30x42/8 =
60 kNm

Analysis of Frames with Sway

As discussed above, there will be a sway in frames, if there is unsymmetry with respect to
geometry or loading or due to both. Figure 1.19 shows various one bay one storey frames in
which there will be sway. Frame shown in figure 1.19(a) is having a sway because there is no
symmetry of loading as well as symmetry in geometry. Frames shown in figure 1.19(b) and
figure 1.19(c) are having sway because there is no symmetry with respect to the loading.
Frames shown in figures 1.19(d) and figure 1.19(e) are having sway because there is no
geometric symmetry.
Consider the analysis of frame shown in figure 1.20(a). Let Δ be the sway, while writing the
slope deflection equations, it may be noted that due to sway the ends are at different levels.
Hence, contribution of ‘Δ’ terms also should be taken into account. We find in this problem,
there are three unknowns, namely θB, θC and Δ. Moment equilibrium conditions at joints B
and C give two equations. One more equation of equilibrium is required. For that, consider
the free body diagrams of columns (refer figure 1.20(b)), in which the end moments are
marked in their positive senses so as to get general expression. Taking moment about top
joints, expressions for horizontal shear at supports A and B will be:

After knowing HA and HD, we can write horizontal equilibrium equation for the frame as
HA + HD + P = 0
This gives additional equation required. It is called shear equation/shear condition. Hence, θA,
θB and Δ can be found.
Numerical Problems
1) Analyse the frame shown in figure and draw bending moment diagram.
Solution – Let Δ be the sway as shown in figure. Since, axial deformation is assumed
negligible (in member BC) both columns sway by same amount.
FEM
MFAB = MFBA = MFCD = MFDC = 0
MFBC = - 40x62/12 = - 120 kNm
MFCB = 120 kNm
SDE
MAB = 0 + 2EI/4 (2θA + θB - 3Δ/4) = 0.5EI θB – 0.375EIΔ (since, θA = 0)
MBA = 0 + 2EI/4 (θA + 2θB - 3Δ/4) = EI θB – 0.375EI Δ
MBC = - 120 + 2E(2I)/6 (2θB + θC - 0) = - 120 + 1.333 EI θB + 0.667 EI θC
MCB = 120 + 2E(2I)/6 (θB + 2θC - 0) = 120 + 0.667 EI θB + 1.333 EI θC
MCD = 0 + 2E(2I)/4 (2θC + θD - 3Δ/6) = 1.333 EI θC – 0.333 EIΔ (since, θA = 0)
MDC = 0 + 2E(2I)/6 (θC +2 θD - 3Δ/6) = 0.667 EI θC – 0.333 EIΔ
∑MB = 0
MBA + MBC = 0
EI θB – 0.375EI Δ - 120 + 1.333 EI θB + 0.667 EI θC = 0

2.333 EI θB + 0.667 EI θC – 0.375EIΔ = 120
∑MC = 0
MCB + MCD = 0

120 + 0.667 EI θB + 1.333 EI θC + 1.333 EI θC – 0.333 EIΔ = 0

0.667 EI θB + 2.667 EI θC – 0.333EIΔ = -120
Considering free body diagrams of columns and taking moments about top joints,
HA = MAB + MBA/4 and HD = MCD + MDC/6
Now considering horizontal equilibrium of the frame,
HA + HD = 0
𝑀𝐴𝐵 +𝑀𝐵𝐴 𝑀𝐶𝐷 +𝑀𝐷𝐶
+ =0
4 6
3(MAB + MBA) + 2(MCD + MDC) = 0
3(0.5 EI θB – 0.375EIΔ + EI θB – 0.375 EIΔ) + 2 (1.333 EI θC – 0.333 EIΔ + 0.667 EI θC –

0.333 EIΔ) = 0
4.5 EI θB + 4 EI θC – 3.583 EIΔ = 0
Solving the equations,
EI θB = 72.43
EI θC = - 60.127
EIΔ = 23.842
Final Moments
Substituting the values of EI θB, EI θC, EIΔ
MAB = 27.274kNm
MBA = 63.489 kNm
MBC = - 63.556kNm
MCB = 88.162 kNm
MCD = - 88.162kNm
MDC = - 48.044kNm

2) Analyse the frame shown in figure by slope deflection method.
Solution – Let the columns sway by Δ as shown in figure.
FEM
MFAB = - 40x3x12/42 = - 7.5 kNm
MFBA = 40x32x1/42 = 22.5kNm
MFBC = - 80x6/8 = - 60kNm
MFCB = 60 kNm
MFCD = MFDC = 0
SDE
MAB = - 7.5 + 2EI/4(2θA + θB - 3Δ/4) = -7.5 + 0.5 EI θB – 0.375EI Δ
MBA = 22.5 + 2EI/4(θA + 2θB - 3Δ/4) = 22.5 + EI θB – 0.375EI Δ
MBC = - 60 + 2E(2I)/6 (2θB + θC – 0) = - 60 + 1.333EI θB + 0.667 EI θC
MCB = 60 + 2E(2I)/6 (θB + 2θC – 0) = 60 + 0.667EI θB + 1.133 EI θC
MCD = 2EI/4 (2θC + θD - 3Δ/4) = EI θC – 0.375 EI Δ
MDC = 2EI/4 (θC + 2θD - 3Δ/4) = 0.5EI θC – 0.375 EI Δ
∑MB = 0
MBA + MBC = 0
22.5 + EI θB – 0.375EI Δ - 60 + 1.333EI θB + 0.667 EI θC = 0

2.333 EI θB + 0.667 EI θC – 0.375 EI Δ = 37.5
∑MC = 0
MCB + MCD = 0
60 + 0.667EI θB + 1.133 EI θC + EI θC – 0.375 EI Δ = 0
0.667EI θB + 2.333 EI θC – 0.375 EI Δ = -60
Shear Equations
Consider the free body diagram of columns shown in figure. Taking moments about top joints
HA x 4 + 40 x 1 = MAB + MBA
4HA = MAB + MBA – 40x1
= -7.5 + 0.5 EI θB – 0.375EI Δ + 22.5 + EI θB – 0.375EI Δ - 40
4HA = 1.5 EI θB – 0.75EI Δ – 25
HD x 4 = MCD + MDC
= EI θC – 0.375 EI Δ + 0.5 EI θC + 0.375 EI Δ
= 1.5 EI θC – 0.75 EI Δ
∑H = 0
HA + HD + 40 = 0
4HA + 4HD + 160 = 0
1.5EI θB - 0.75EI Δ – 25 + 1.5 EI θC – 0.75 EI Δ + 160 = 0
1.5 EI θB + 1.5 EI θC – 1.5 EI Δ + 135 = 0
EI θB + EI θC – EI Δ = -90
Solving the equations,
EI θB = 39.25
EI θC = -19.25
EI Δ = 110

Final Moments
MAB = -29.12kNm
MBA = 20.5kNm
MBC = -20.5kNm
MCB = 60.51kNm
MCD = -60.51kNm
MDC = -50.875kNm

BELGAUM
LECTURE NOTES
(MODULE-5)
IV-SEMESTER
Mrs. Babitha B
AJIET
Module -5
Moment Distribution Method
Moment Distribution Method: Introduction, Definition of terms, Development of method,

Analysis of continuous beams with support yielding, Analysis of orthogonal rigid plane
frames including sway frames with kinematic indeterminacy up to 3.
This method of analysing beams and frames was developed by Hardy Cross in 1930. Moment
distribution method is basically a displacement method of analysis. But this method side
steps the calculation of the displacement and instead makes it possible to apply a series of
converging corrections that allow direct calculation of the end moments.
This method of consists of solving slope deflection equations by successive approximation
that may be carried out to any desired degree of accuracy. Essentially, the method begins by
assuming each joint of a structure is fixed. Then by unlocking and locking each joint in
succession, the internal moments at the joints are distributed and balanced until the joints
have rotated to their final or nearly final positions. This method of analysis is both repetitive
and easy to apply. Before explaining the moment distribution method certain definitions and
concepts must be understood.
Terminology
Carryover moment: When a moment is applied at one end of a member allowing rotation of
that end and fixing the far end, some moment develops at the far end also, this moment is
called carryover moment. Thus, in the beam AB shown in figure, if M is the moment applied
at end A, allowing rotation of A and M' is the moment developed at B, then M' is the carry
over moment.
Carryover factor: The ratio of carryover moment to applied moment is called carryover
factor. Thus, in the beam shown in figure,
𝑀′
Carryover factor = 𝑀
Stiffness: Moment required to rotate an end by unit angle (1 radian), when rotation is
permitted at that end, is called stiffness of the beam. Thus, in the beam shown in figure, if θA
is the rotation at end A,

𝑀
Stiffness of the beam AB = k = 𝜃
𝐴
Distribution factor: When a moment is applied to a rigid joint where a number of members
are meeting, the applied moment is shared by the members meeting at that joint. The ratio of
the moment shared by a member to the applied moment at the joint is called the distribution
factor of that member. Thus, if MOA is the moment shared by member OA when moment M
is applied at joint O, then the distribution factor for member OA is
𝑀𝑂𝐴
dOA = 𝑀
Sign Conventions:
The following sign conventions are used in this book:
1. All clockwise moments are positive.
2. All anticlockwise moments are negative.
Expressions for Carryover Factor and Stiffness

Consider beam AB of span L shown in figure. In this, moment M is applied at end A, where
rotation is permitted while the end B is fixed. Let M' be the moment developed at B and θA be
the rotation at A. As defined earlier,
𝑀′
Carryover factor = 𝑀
𝑀
and Stiffness of beam AB = 𝜃
𝐴
To find M' and θA, consistent deformation method may be used. Basic determinate structure
selected is a simply supported beam as shown in figure. Let θA1 and θB1 be rotation, at ends A
and B respectively. To determine these rotations, conjugate beam method may be used.
𝑀
Figure shows such a beam with (𝐸𝐼) diagram on it.

2 1 𝑀 𝑀𝐿
θA1 = RA' = 3 (2 × 𝐿 × 𝐸𝐼) = 3𝐸𝐼 ---------(a)
1 1 𝑀 𝑀𝐿
θB1 = ( × 𝐿 × 𝐸𝐼) = 6𝐸𝐼 ----------(b)
3 2
Now, consider basic determinate structure subject to the moment M' at B as shown in figure.
Let θA2 and θB2 be the rotations at the end A an end B respectively. Conjugate beam with load
𝑀
diagram ( diagram) for this case is shown in figure.
𝐸𝐼
1 1 𝑀′ 𝑀′𝐿
θA2 = RA'' = 3 (2 × 𝐿 × 𝐸𝐼 ) = --------(c)
6𝐸𝐼
2 1 𝑀′ 𝑀′𝐿
θB2 = RB'' = ( × 𝐿 × 𝐸𝐼 ) = ---------(d)
3 2 3𝐸𝐼
For case (b) and (d) to jointly represent the case (a), consistency conditions are:
(1) θB1 = θB2
𝑀𝐿 𝑀′𝐿
i.e., =
6𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
𝑀
M' = 2
𝑀′ 1
∴ Carryover factor = =2
𝑀
(2) θA = θA1 - θA2

𝑀𝐿 𝑀′𝐿
θA = (3𝐸𝐼) - ( 6𝐸𝐼 )
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝐿 𝑀
= (3𝐸𝐼) - (12𝐸𝐼 ) (Since, M' = )
2
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝐿
=12𝐸𝐼(4-1) = 4𝐸𝐼

𝑀 4𝐸𝐼
∴ Stiffness, k = 𝜃 =
𝐴 𝐿
Expression for Distribution Factor
Consider the rigid jointed plane frame as shown in figure in which there are four members
OA, OB, OC and OD meeting at the joint ‘O’. Let M be the moment applied at joint O. Since,
joint O is rigid, all the members rotate by the same angle, say ‘θ’. Let M1, M2, M3 and M4 be
the moments shared by members OA, OB, OC and OD respectively. Then obviously,
M1 + M2 + M3 + M4 = M
Let k1, k2, k3 and k4 be stiffnesses and L1, L2, L3 and L4 be the lengths of members OA, OB,
OC and OD respectively.
𝑀1 𝑀2 𝑀3 𝑀4
∴θ= = = =
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘4
𝑀1 +𝑀2 +𝑀3 +𝑀4 𝑀
= = ∑4
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 +𝑘4 𝑖=1 𝑘𝑖
But, Mi = kiθ
𝑀
∴ Mi = ki(∑4 )
𝑖=1 𝑘𝑖
Thus, a moment which is applied at a joint is shared by members meeting at the joint in
proportion to their stiffnesses.
𝑀𝑖 𝑘𝑖
∴ Distribution factor = = ∑4
𝑀 𝑖=1 𝑘𝑖
𝑘𝑖
Thus, distribution factor for a member is where summation is over various members
∑𝑘
meeting at the joint. ∑k is called joint stiffness.
Application of Moment Distribution Method to Continuous Beams with Fixed Ends

In the analysis of continuous beams by moment distribution method, the following steps may
be taken:
1. Assuming all ends are fixed, find the fixed end moments developed.
2. Calculate distribution factors for all members meeting at a joint.

3. Balance a joint by distributing balancing moment (negative of unbalanced moment at the
joint) to various members meeting at the joint proportional to their distribution factors. Do
similar exercise for all joints.
4. Carryover half the distributed moment to the far ends of the members. This upsets the
balance of the joint.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 till distributed moments are negligible.
6. Sum up all the moments at a particular end of the member to get final moment.
Numerical Problems
1. Analyse the continuous beam shown in figure by moment distribution method and draw
bending moment and shear force diagrams. Draw the elastic curve also.
Solution- Fixed End Moments

MFAB = - 30x62/12 = -90kNm
MFBA = 90kNm
MFBC = - 72x4x22/62 = -32kNm
MFCB = 72x42x2/62 = 64kNm
Distribution Factors
Joints Members k ∑k Distribution Factors
BA 4E(3I)/6 = 2EI 0.6
B 3.33EI
BC 4E(2I)/6 = 1.33EI 0.4
Distribution Table
A B C
0.6 0.4
-90 90 -32 64
-34.80 -23.20
-17.40 -11.60
-107.40 55.20 -55.20 52.40

Shear Force Diagram

Free body diagrams of beam AB and BC are shown in figure.
Beam AB:
∑MB = 0, gives
RAx6 + 55.2 – 107.4 – 30x6x3 = 0
RA = 98.7kN
∑V=0, gives
RA + RB1 + 30x6 = 0
RB1 = 180 – 98.7 = 81.3kN
Beam BC:
∑MC = 0, gives
RB2x6 + 52.4 – 55.20 – 72x2 = 0
RB2 = 24.47kN
∑V = 0, gives
RB2 + RC – 72 = 0
RC = 72 – 24.47 = 47.53kN
Hence, shear force diagram and elastic curve is as shown in figure.

2. Analyse the continuous beam shown in figure and draw bending moment diagram.
Solutions – Fixed End Moments

MFAB = -60x4x22/62 = -26.67kNm
MFBA = 60x42x2/62 = 53.33kNm
MFBC = -20x32/12 = -15kNm
MFCB = 15kNm
MFCD = -30x8/8 = -30kNm
MFDC = 30kNm
Distribution Factors
BA 4E (1.5I)/6 = EI 0.429
B 2.33EI
BC 4EI/3 = 1.33EI 0.571
CB 4EI/3 = 1.33EI 0.571
C 2.33EI
CD 4E (2I)/8 = EI 0.429
Moment Distribution Table

Joints A B C D
Dist. Factors 0.429 0.571 0.571 0.429
FEM -26.67 53.33 -15 15 -30 30
Balancing -16.44 -21.89 8.57 6.43
COM -8.22 4.29 -10.95 3.22
Balancing -1.84 -2.45 6.25 4.70
COM -0.92 3.13 -1.23 2.35
Balancing -1.34 -1.79 0.70 0.53
COM -0.67 0.35 -0.90 0.27
Balancing -0.15 -0.20 0.51 0.39
COM -0.8 0.26 -0.1 0.20
Balancing -0.11 -0.15 0.06 0.04
Final Moments 36.56 33.45 -33.45 17.91 -17.91 36.04

Free moment diagram for AB is a triangle with maximum ordinate under the load
= 60x4x2/6 = 80kNm
Free moment diagram for BC is a symmetric parabola with maximum ordinate
= 20x32/8 = 22.5kNm
Free moment diagram for CD is a triangle with maximum ordinate under the load
= 30x8/4 = 60kNm
Continuous Beams with Simply Supported Ends

Two methods are available for the analysis of such beams by moment distribution procedure:
Method I: To start with, simply supported end is also treated as fixed end and fixed end
moments are calculated. In successive iterations also, carry over moments are coming to this
end. If moment exists at this end, it means end is not balanced. Hence, joint balancing is
required here. Since, at this joint, only one member exists, distribution factor is 1. Rest of the
procedure is same as discussed for the fixed end continuous beams.
Method II: In this method also, fixed end moments are calculated at simply supported end.
Then, joint balancing is made for this joint by taking distribution factor is 1. Carryover
moment is calculated at the other end. For further calculations, modified stiffness is used for
the span which is having simply supported end and carry over factor is taken as zero. For
example, let CD be the last span with end D simply supported as shown in figure. Let
moment act at joint C and rotate the beam as shown in figure (b) and figure (c) shows
conjugate beam for CD and the load on it.

2 1 𝑀 𝑀𝐿
θC = RC' = 3 × 2 × (𝐸𝐼) 𝐿 = 3𝐸𝐼
𝑀 3𝐸𝐼
Therefore, stiffness of CD, kCD = 𝜃 =
𝐶 𝐿
3𝐸𝐼
Thus, stiffness of CD may be taken as . Now, moment at D is zero.
𝐿
Therefore, carry over factor from C to D is:

𝑀′
=0
𝑀
3𝐸𝐼
Thus, stiffness for such beam is and carryover moment is zero. This saves the
𝐿
computation effort when moment distribution is made.
Numerical Problems
1. Analyse the continuous beam shown in figure by moment distribution method.
Solution: Fixed End Moment

MFAB = - 20x82/12 = -106.67kNm
MFBA = 106.67kNm
MFBC = - 60x4/8 = - 30kNm
MFCB = 30kNm
Method I – Distribution Factors
BA 4E (2I)/8 = EI 0.5
B 2EI
BC 4EI/4 = EI 0.5
C CB 4EI/4 = EI EI 1.0
Distribution Table
A B C
0.5 0.5 1.0
-106.67 106.67 -30 30
-38.34 -38.34 -30
-19.17 -15 -19.17
7.5 7.5 19.17
3.75 9.58 3.75
-4.79 -4.79 -3.75
-2.40 -1.86 -2.40

0.93 -0.93 2.40
0.47 1.20 0.47
-0.60 -0.60 -0.47
-124.02 71.37 -71.38 0
Method II: Distribution Factors

BA 4E (2I)/8 = EI 0.571
B 1.75EI
BC 3EI/4 = 0.75EI 0.429
CB 4EI/4 = EI EI 1.0
Distribution Table
A B C
0.571 0.429 1.0
-106.67 106.67 -30 30
-30
-15
-35.21 -26.46
-17.61
-124.23 71.46 -71.46

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VISION AND MISSION STATEMENT OF AJIET

Vision of the Institute

Mission of the Institute

o To offer affordable high-quality graduate program in engineering with value education

Department of Civil Engineering

Mission of the Department

Execute civil engineering projects effectively by addressing the ever-changing needs

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Suggested Learning Resources:

2. Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):

(Subject Code: BCV401)

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suffer under the action of the induced forces.

Fig. 1.1 Chicago downtown buildings (linear form).

Fig. 1.2 Balloon structure (curvilinear form).

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Difference between Determinate Structure and Indeterminate Structure

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Linear and Non-Linear Systems

Difference between Linear and Non-Linear Structures

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DEGREES OF FREEDOM, DETERMINATE, AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

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absence of horizontal loads on the beam.

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LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR STRUCTURES

In addition to material non-linearity, some structures may exhibit non-linear

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STATIC AND KINEMATIC INDETERMINACIES OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

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A general procedure for determining the degree of indeterminacy of two-dimensional structures

Members carry only axial forces NEQ = 2NJ

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In case of three-dimensional structure each rigid joint has six

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1. The members cannot develop moments at the ends.

Analysis of determinate trusses by method of joints and method of sections.

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Problems on method of joints

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FAB = 8.73 kN tension

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Problems on method of sections

From the FBD of the section through a-a

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From section to the right of a-a

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1. Determine Degrees of indeterminacy and classify the structures.

2. Determine Degrees of Kinematic indeterminacy