Construction Technology for Substructures and Superstructures 21CV72

Module – 1
Underground Construction
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Underground– Tunnel-Shaft
1.2 Sinking and construction
1.2 Micro Tunnelling
1.3 Tunnel driving in hard and soft strata
1.4 Bedding of conduits
1.5 Soil excavation and Compaction Technology

1.1 Underground– Tunnel-Shaft

Tunnel shafts are vertical passages that connect the ground surface to the tunnel roof. Shafts
have many advantages and are used in constructing tunnels. When the position and course of
the tunnel are correctly aligned and accordingly set out on the surface, shafts are sunk at
defined points on the tunnel line to aid tunneling operations.

Tunnel-Shaft Sinking and Construction

 Shaft Sinking: This is the process of excavating vertical or near-vertical tunnels

(shafts) to reach underground resources or to provide access for tunnel construction.
Techniques include:
o Drill and Blast: Used for hard rock where explosives are employed to break
up the rock.
o Mechanized Methods: Using machines like tunnel boring machines (TBMs)
for softer ground or large-diameter shafts.
o Caisson Method: A water-tight structure (caisson) is sunk into place, and
excavation is done inside the caisson.

2. Micro Tunneling

 Microtunneling: A trenchless construction method used for installing pipelines

beneath the ground without disturbing the surface. It involves a remotely controlled,
small-diameter tunnel boring machine (TBM) that is steered from the surface.
 Applications: Often used for utility installations like water, sewer, gas pipelines, and
communication cables.
 Advantages: Minimal surface disruption, precision in alignment, and the ability to
tunnel through various soil types.

3. Tunnel Driving in Hard and Soft Strata

 Hard Strata: Involves tunneling through rock. Methods include:

o Drill and Blast: Traditional method where holes are drilled into the rock and
filled with explosives.

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o TBMs: Machines that bore through rock, providing a faster and safer
alternative to drill and blast.
 Soft Strata: Involves tunneling through soil, clay, sand, etc. Techniques include:
o Shield Tunneling: A protective shield is used to support the tunnel while
excavation progresses.
o Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPBMs): A type of TBM designed for
soft ground, maintaining balance between earth pressure and atmospheric
pressure to prevent collapses.

4. Bedding of Conduits

 Conduit Bedding: Involves placing and securing pipes or other conduits in trenches
or tunnels to ensure stability and longevity. Bedding materials typically include:
o Gravel: Provides support and drainage.
o Sand: Used for its ability to provide a firm base while allowing minor
adjustments in the conduit alignment.
 Compaction: The process of compressing the bedding material to remove air pockets
and increase its load-bearing capacity.

5. Soil Excavation and Compaction Technology

 Soil Excavation: The removal of soil to create a space for underground construction.
Techniques include:
o Hand Tools: For precise excavation in small or sensitive areas.
o Excavators: Heavy machinery for large-scale excavation.
o Hydro Excavation: Uses pressurized water to break up soil, which is then
vacuumed away.
 Soil Compaction: The process of increasing the density of soil by reducing the air
gaps, making it more stable. Methods include:
o Vibratory Compaction: Using a vibrating roller or plate to compact soil.
o Static Compaction: Using the weight of the machinery to compress the soil.
o Dynamic Compaction: Dropping heavy weights onto the soil surface to
increase density.

An underground tunnel shaft is a vertical or nearly vertical excavation used to provide

access to tunnels, transportation systems, utilities, and other underground structures. Shafts
serve as the entry point for workers, machinery, materials, and ventilation systems during
tunnel construction. They are critical in both the construction and operation phases of
underground projects.

Here are the main aspects of underground tunnel shaft construction:

1. Purpose of a Tunnel Shaft

 Access: Shafts provide access for workers, equipment, and materials to tunnel
construction sites located deep underground.
 Ventilation: Shafts are used for air circulation, ensuring fresh air enters the worksite
while removing dust, fumes, and other contaminants.

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 Waste Removal: Excavated materials, such as soil and rock, are removed through the
shaft.
 Emergency Exits: In tunnels, shafts serve as crucial escape routes in case of
emergencies.

2. Types of Tunnel Shafts

 Vertical Shaft: A straight vertical excavation, often used to access deep tunnels.
 Inclined Shaft: A sloped shaft, used when the tunnel is not too deep, providing easier
access for machinery and materials.
 Blind Shaft: A shaft that does not connect to the surface, typically constructed from
within the tunnel itself.

3. Shaft Construction Techniques

 Drill and Blast: A traditional method for hard rock where explosives are used to
break up the rock in the shaft.
o Process: Holes are drilled into the rock, filled with explosives, and blasted to
excavate the shaft. Debris is removed, and the walls are supported with
temporary linings.
 Mechanized Shaft Sinking: Involves using machines like Tunnel Boring Machines
(TBMs) or shaft boring machines (SBMs), which are equipped to bore through soil or
rock.
 Caisson Method: A watertight structure (caisson) is sunk into the ground, and
excavation is performed inside it. The caisson provides support during shaft sinking.
 Raise Boring: A pilot hole is drilled from the bottom of the shaft upwards, followed
by a larger reaming head that enlarges the hole as it moves upward.

4. Challenges in Shaft Construction

 Groundwater Control: Managing water inflow is critical, especially when shafts are
constructed below the water table. Dewatering techniques or waterproof linings may
be necessary.
 Ground Stability: In unstable soils, special methods like ground freezing or grouting
are employed to stabilize the shaft walls.
 Ventilation and Safety: Ensuring proper ventilation to remove hazardous gases,
maintain air quality, and ensure safety during construction.

5. Support and Lining of Shafts

 Temporary Lining: Used during construction to support the shaft walls, prevent
collapse, and manage water ingress.
 Permanent Lining: Concrete, steel, or precast concrete segments are used to provide
long-term stability and waterproofing.

Example of Shaft Construction

In major metro rail systems or deep underground tunnels for utilities (such as sewage
tunnels), shafts are constructed at intervals along the tunnel route. These shafts are critical for

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launching TBMs, as well as for ventilation, maintenance, and access throughout the life of
the tunnel.

The construction of a tunnel shaft requires precise engineering, coordination, and adherence
to safety standards to manage the complexities of working underground.

Sinking and Construction of Tunnel Shafts

Shaft sinking is the process of excavating vertical or near-vertical tunnels, called shafts,
from the surface to underground workspaces, which are used for access, ventilation, drainage,
or material removal during underground tunnel construction. This is a critical part of
underground infrastructure development, such as for mining, civil works, or transportation
systems (e.g., subways, road tunnels).

Here’s a detailed look at the sinking and construction process of underground tunnel shafts:

1. Preparation for Shaft Sinking

Before sinking begins, several factors are carefully considered:

 Geological Survey: Analyzing ground conditions (soil, rock, water table) to plan the
excavation method and the support systems required.
 Design and Planning: Designing the size, shape, and lining of the shaft, accounting for its
purpose, depth, and anticipated loads.
 Safety Precautions: Identifying potential hazards like water inflow, gas pockets, or unstable
ground and planning mitigation strategies.

2. Shaft Sinking Methods

Different methods are used based on the depth of the shaft, soil type, and environmental
conditions. The most common methods include:

A. Drill and Blast Method

 Description: This traditional method is used in hard rock formations. Holes are drilled into
the rock face of the shaft, explosives are inserted, and the rock is blasted. The broken rock is
removed (called mucking), and then the walls of the shaft are supported temporarily.
 Process:
1. Drill blast holes into the shaft’s excavation face.
2. Load explosives and detonate in a controlled manner.
3. Remove the debris (mucking) using winches, buckets, or mechanical devices.
4. Install temporary support structures (steel rings or shotcrete) to stabilize the shaft
walls.
 Challenges: Vibration, noise, and potential damage to surrounding structures, especially in
urban environments.

B. Mechanical Sinking (Shaft Boring Machine - SBM)

 Description: In this modern approach, a Shaft Boring Machine (SBM) is used to excavate
through softer soils or rocks. It works similarly to a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) but is
designed for vertical shafts.

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 Process:
1. The SBM is lowered into the shaft and starts drilling vertically, removing soil or rock
as it advances.
2. The machine simultaneously installs concrete or steel segments to line the shaft.
3. Continuous removal of muck through conveyor belts or elevators.
 Advantages: Quicker and safer than drill and blast, especially in soft or mixed ground
conditions.

C. Caisson Sinking (for Waterlogged or Soft Soils)

 Description: A caisson is a watertight, pre-cast structure that is sunk into the ground as
excavation is performed. This method is often used in wet or soft soil conditions where
ground stability is a concern.
 Process:
1. A large, open-bottomed caisson is placed on the ground surface.
2. Soil is excavated from inside the caisson, causing it to sink under its own weight.
3. The caisson sinks deeper as more soil is removed, and additional sections are added if
necessary.
4. Once the final depth is reached, the base is sealed with concrete.
 Applications: Ideal for shafts in sandy, clayey, or waterlogged soils.

D. Freezing Method (for Unstable Ground or High Water Inflow)

 Description: In this method, the soil around the shaft is artificially frozen to provide
temporary support and prevent water from flowing into the excavation.
 Process:
1. A series of pipes (freeze pipes) are drilled around the perimeter of the shaft.
2. A freezing agent (liquid nitrogen or brine) is circulated through the pipes, freezing the
surrounding soil.
3. Excavation proceeds within the frozen ring of soil, which remains stable during the
sinking.
4. After reaching the desired depth, the shaft is lined and the soil is thawed.
 Applications: Used in shafts with unstable soils or high groundwater levels.

3. Muck Removal

Muck removal (or mucking) is the process of removing excavated material (rock, soil, etc.)
from the shaft. This is typically done using:

 Buckets or Skips: Attached to winches or cranes, these buckets carry muck to the surface.
 Conveyor Belts: In mechanized shaft sinking, muck can be continuously removed via
conveyor systems.
 Elevators: Used to transport muck to the surface in larger projects.

4. Groundwater Control and Dewatering

Groundwater can be a major issue in shaft sinking, especially if the shaft is below the water
table. Dewatering techniques are used to control water inflow:

 Well Points: Multiple small wells are drilled around the shaft, and water is pumped out to
lower the water table.
 Sump Pumps: Water collecting at the base of the shaft is pumped out using sump pumps.

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 Grouting: In cases of water inflow, cement or chemical grout can be injected into
surrounding soils to form a barrier against water ingress.

5. Shaft Lining

Once the shaft is excavated, permanent lining is installed to ensure the long-term stability of
the structure. This lining is also important to prevent groundwater from entering the shaft.
Common materials used for lining include:

 Concrete Segments: Precast concrete rings are lowered into the shaft and assembled to line
the walls.
 Shotcrete: Sprayed concrete is applied to the walls for quick, strong support.
 Steel Liners: In some cases, steel panels or rings are used, particularly in high-pressure or
deep shafts.

6. Finishing and Maintenance

Once the shaft has been fully sunk and lined, it is equipped with ladders, elevators,
ventilation systems, and other utilities necessary for its intended use. Proper maintenance is
required to prevent corrosion, water ingress, or structural failure over time.

Applications of Shaft Sinking

 Mining: Vertical shafts provide access to underground ore deposits.

 Metro/Subway Construction: Shafts are used to access tunnels during excavation, as well as
for ventilation and emergency exits.
 Utility Tunnels: Used for infrastructure like water, sewage, and energy lines.

Challenges in Shaft Sinking

 Water Ingress: One of the biggest issues, especially when shafts extend below the water
table.
 Ground Stability: Unstable soils or rock layers may require additional support systems.
 Environmental Concerns: Blasting and drilling can cause vibration, noise, and potential
damage to nearby structures.

Micro Tunneling, Tunnel Driving in Hard and Soft Strata, Bedding of Conduits, Soil
Excavation, and Compaction Technology

These processes are essential for underground construction, especially for infrastructure such
as utility pipelines, tunnels for transportation, and large-scale civil projects. Here’s a detailed
look at each of these topics:

1. Micro Tunneling

Micro tunneling is a trenchless, remotely controlled method of tunnel construction, used

primarily for laying underground pipelines and conduits without the need for large surface
excavations.

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 Applications: Used for utility pipelines (water, sewage, gas) and communication lines
in urban areas or beneath rivers, roads, and other obstructions.
 Process:
o A micro tunnel boring machine (MTBM), operated remotely, is used to excavate
the tunnel.
o Pipe jacking is employed: the MTBM bores through the soil, and pipes are pushed
(jacked) from the surface into the borehole.
o Guided Systems: The MTBM is guided by a laser system to ensure precise alignment
and grade.
o Spoil Removal: Excavated material (spoil) is removed through a slurry pipeline
system, reducing surface disturbance.

 Advantages:
o Minimal surface disruption, making it ideal for urban environments.
o Accurate alignment, even over long distances.
o Suitable for various ground conditions, including waterlogged soils.

 Challenges:
o High initial setup costs for equipment.
o Potential for machine jamming or damage in highly variable or mixed soil conditions.

2. Tunnel Driving in Hard and Soft Strata

Tunnel driving methods vary based on the type of ground (strata) encountered:

Tunnel Driving in Hard Strata (Rock Tunneling)

 Methods:
o Drill and Blast: A traditional technique where holes are drilled into the rock face,
filled with explosives, and blasted to create the tunnel.
o Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM): A mechanized system that cuts through rock using
a rotating cutterhead equipped with cutting tools (discs or rollers). TBMs are
designed for long tunnels in hard rock with minimal need for support during
excavation.
 Challenges in Hard Strata:
o High stress and vibrations during blasting can affect nearby structures.
o Water inflow from fractures or faults in the rock.
o Difficulties in transporting large pieces of rock from the excavation.

Tunnel Driving in Soft Strata (Soil Tunneling)

 Methods:
o Shield Tunneling: A protective shield is used to support the tunnel face during
excavation, preventing collapse in soft soils.
o Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) TBM: Commonly used for soft ground tunneling.
The machine maintains stability by balancing the pressure at the tunnel face with
excavated soil to prevent collapse.
o Slurry Shield TBM: Uses a slurry (bentonite) to support the tunnel face, commonly
used in waterlogged soils or weak strata.

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 Challenges in Soft Strata:

o Soil instability and collapse.
o Managing groundwater inflows.
o Settlement or ground displacement at the surface, which can affect structures above.

 Ground Support: In soft ground, immediate support such as shotcrete (sprayed

concrete), rock bolts, or steel ribs may be required to prevent collapse during
excavation.

3. Bedding of Conduits

Bedding of conduits refers to preparing the ground on which pipes or conduits are laid. The
bedding must provide adequate support for the conduits and prevent settling or misalignment
after installation.

 Materials for Bedding:

o Granular Material: Sand, gravel, or crushed stone is commonly used for bedding.
These materials distribute loads evenly, prevent damage to the conduit, and provide
good drainage.
o Concrete: For heavy load-bearing or unstable ground, a concrete bedding may be
used to ensure rigid support.
 Bedding Techniques:
o The bottom of the trench is leveled, and a layer of granular bedding material is
placed.
o The conduit (pipe or cable) is laid on top of the bedding.
o The space around and above the conduit is backfilled with select material to ensure
proper support.
 Importance:
o Proper bedding prevents pipe damage and misalignment due to settling or soil
movement.
o Ensures longevity and functionality of underground utilities.

4. Soil Excavation

Soil excavation is the process of removing soil to create space for tunnels, shafts,
foundations, or utility conduits. The method of excavation depends on the soil type and the
depth of the excavation.

Methods of Soil Excavation:

 Open Cut Excavation: The most straightforward method, involving removing soil
from a large, open area (trench) using heavy machinery such as excavators,
bulldozers, or backhoes.
o Advantages: Simple and cost-effective for shallow excavations.
o Disadvantages: Disruptive to surface activities, unsuitable for urban areas.

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 Trenchless Excavation: Used when open-cut methods are not feasible, like in urban
or environmentally sensitive areas. This includes methods like horizontal directional
drilling (HDD) or micro tunneling.
 Deep Excavation: For tunnels or shafts, deep excavation requires careful planning,
especially in areas with high water tables or unstable soils. Techniques such as
bracing or cofferdams are often used to support the walls of the excavation.

Factors Affecting Excavation:

 Soil Type: Sandy soils are easy to excavate but may require stabilization. Clay soils can be
sticky and hard to remove, while rocky soils require blasting or specialized equipment.
 Groundwater: Water infiltration can destabilize the excavation and requires dewatering
methods to keep the site dry.

5. Compaction Technology

Soil compaction is the process of increasing the density of soil by removing air voids, which
improves its load-bearing capacity and stability. Proper compaction is essential after
excavation and during backfilling to ensure the long-term stability of the construction site,
including tunnels and conduits.

Types of Compaction Equipment:

 Rollers:
o Smooth Rollers: Used for compacting shallow layers of sand, gravel, or asphalt.
o Sheepsfoot Rollers: Have large protrusions that penetrate into the soil, compacting
clay and cohesive soils.
 Plate Compactors: Hand-operated machines used for compacting soil in confined areas, such
as trenches for conduits.
 Vibratory Compactors: Use vibration to compact granular soils, helping particles to
interlock more tightly.

Methods of Soil Compaction:

 Dynamic Compaction: Dropping a heavy weight repeatedly on the soil surface to densify
deep layers of soil.
 Vibratory Compaction: Using vibrations to settle loose granular soils.
 Impact Compaction: Applying force to compact the soil in layers.

Importance of Compaction:

 Prevents Settlement: Reduces the risk of the ground settling over time, which can damage
structures or misalign conduits.
 Increases Strength: Well-compacted soil has higher load-bearing capacity, essential for
supporting underground tunnels, pipes, or structures.
 Prevents Water Infiltration: Compaction reduces soil permeability, helping to control
groundwater movement and preventing erosion.

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Each of these technologies plays a critical role in ensuring the stability, safety, and longevity
of underground construction projects. Whether it’s precise micro tunnelling in urban areas or
large-scale soil excavation and compaction, careful planning and execution are essential to
avoid ground movement, water ingress, or other complications that can impact the project.

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1.6 Recommended questions

1. Enumerate the various environmental management principles and explain any two.
2. Enumerate the various drivers and barriers for sustainable development
3. Enumerate the business charter tools for sustainable production and consumption

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1.7 Outcomes
Appreciate the elements of Corporate Environmental Management systems complying to
international environmental management system standards.

1.8 Further Reading

1. https://web.ccsu.edu/faculty/kyem/GEOG433/International_Problems/
INTERNATIONAL_ENVIRONMENTAL_PROBLEMS.htm
2. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/environment/environmental-impact-assessment-
definition-roles-and-classification/27468

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