Aerodynamics: Navigation Search
Aerodynamics: Navigation Search
Aerodynamics: Navigation Search
Jump to: navigation, search "Aerodynamic" redirects here. For other uses, see Aerodynamic (disambiguation).
A vortex is created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by smoke. Vortices are one of the many phenomena associated to the study of aerodynamics. The equations of aerodynamics show that the vortex is created by the difference in pressure between the upper and lower surface of the wing. At the end of the wing, the lower surface effectively tries to 'reach over' to the low pressure side, creating rotation and the vortex. Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air, particularly when it interacts with a moving object. Aerodynamics is a subfield of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, with much theory shared between them. Aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, with the difference being that gas dynamics applies to all gases. Understanding the motion of air (often called a flow field) around an object enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. Typical properties calculated for a flow field include velocity, pressure, density and temperature as a function of position and time. By defining a control volume around the flow field, equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy can be defined and used to solve for the properties. The use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind tunnel experimentation, and computer simulations form the scientific basis for heavier-than-air flight. Aerodynamic problems can be classified according to the flow environment. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the study of flow
through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe. Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to whether the flow speed is below, near or above the speed of sound. A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; minimum Mach numbers for hypersonic flow range from 3 to 12. The influence of viscosity in the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems may encounter only very small viscous effects on the solution, in which case viscosity can be considered to be negligible. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows.
Contents
[hide]
1 History o 1.1 Early ideas - ancient times to the 17th century o 1.2 Modern beginnings - 18th to 19th century o 1.3 Practical flight - early 20th century o 1.4 Faster than sound - later 20th century 2 Introductory terminology 3 Continuity assumption 4 Laws of conservation 5 Incompressible aerodynamics o 5.1 Subsonic flow 6 Compressible aerodynamics o 6.1 Transonic flow o 6.2 Supersonic flow o 6.3 Hypersonic flow 7 Associated terminology o 7.1 Boundary layers o 7.2 Turbulence 8 Aerodynamics in other fields 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links
[edit] History
[edit] Early ideas - ancient times to the 17th century
A drawing of a design for a flying machine by Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1488). This machine was an ornithopter, with flapping wings similar to a bird, first presented in his Codex on the Flight of Birds in 1505. Humans have been harnessing aerodynamic forces for thousands of years with sailboats and windmills.[1] Images and stories of flight have appeared throughout recorded history, [2] such as the legendary story of Icarus and Daedalus.[3] Although observations of some aerodynamic effects like wind resistance (e.g. drag) were recorded by the likes of Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei, very little effort was made to develop a rigorous quantitative theory of air flow prior to the 17th century. In 1505, Leonardo da Vinci wrote the Codex on the Flight of Birds, one of the earliest treatises on aerodynamics. He notes for the first time that the center of gravity of a flying bird does not coincide with its center of pressure, and he describes the construction of an ornithopter, with flapping wings similar to a bird's. Sir Isaac Newton was the first person to develop a theory of air resistance,[4] making him one of the first aerodynamicists. As part of that theory, Newton considered that drag was due to the dimensions of a body, the density of the fluid, and the velocity raised to the second power. These all turned out to be correct for low flow speeds. Newton also developed a law for the drag force on a flat plate inclined towards the direction of the fluid flow. Using F for the drag force, for the density, S for the area of the flat plate, V for the flow velocity, and for the inclination angle, his law was expressed as F =
SV2sin2()
Unfortunately, this equation is incorrect for the calculation of drag in most cases. Drag on a flat plate is closer to being linear with the angle of inclination as opposed to acting quadratically at low angles. The Newton formula can lead one to believe that flight is more difficult than it actually is, and it may have contributed to a delay in human flight. However, it is correct for a very slender plate when the angle becomes large and flow separation occurs, or if the flow speed is supersonic.[5]
A drawing of a glider by Sir George Cayley, one of the early attempts at creating an aerodynamic shape. In 1738 The Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli published Hydrodynamica, where he described the fundamental relationship among pressure, density, and velocity; in particular Bernoulli's principle, which is sometimes used to calculate aerodynamic lift. [6] More general equations of fluid flow - the Euler equations - were published by Leonard Euler in 1757. The Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes equations. Sir George Cayley is credited as the first person to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flightweight, lift, drag, and thrustand the relationship between them.[7][8] Cayley believed that the drag on a flying machine must be counteracted by a means of propulsion in order for level flight to occur. Cayley also looked to nature for aerodynamic shapes with low drag. Among the shapes he investigated were the cross-sections of trout. This may appear counterintuitive, however, the bodies of fish are shaped to produce very low resistance as they travel through water. Their cross-sections are sometimes very close to that of modern low drag airfoils.
Air resistance experiments were carried out by investigators throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond d'Alembert,[9] Gustav Kirchhoff, [10] and Lord Rayleigh.[11] Equations for fluid flow with friction were developed by Claude-Louis Navier[12] and George Gabriel Stokes.[13] To simulate fluid flow, many experiments involved immersing objects in streams of water or simply dropping them off the top of a tall building. Towards the end of this time period Gustave Eiffel used his Eiffel Tower to assist in the drop testing of flat plates. Of course, a more precise way to measure resistance is to place an object within an artificial, uniform stream of air where the velocity is known. The first person to experiment in this fashion was Francis Herbert Wenham, who in doing so constructed the first wind tunnel in 1871. Wenham was also a member of the first professional organization dedicated to aeronautics, the Royal Aeronautical Society of the United Kingdom. Objects placed in wind tunnel models are almost always smaller than in practice, so a method was needed to relate small scale models to their real-life counterparts. This was achieved with the invention of the dimensionless Reynolds number by Osborne Reynolds.[14] Reynolds also experimented with laminar to turbulent flow transition in 1883. By the late 19th century, two problems were identified before heavier-than-air flight could be realized. The first was the creation of low-drag, high-lift aerodynamic wings. The second problem was how to determine the power needed for sustained flight. During this time, the groundwork was laid down for modern day fluid dynamics and aerodynamics, with other less scientifically inclined enthusiasts testing various flying machines with little success.
A replica of the Wright Brothers' wind tunnel is on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center. Wind tunnels were key in the development and validation of the laws of aerodynamics. In 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight.[15] Renard and German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz explored the wing loading of birds, eventually concluding that humans could not fly under their own power by attaching wings onto their arms. Otto
Lilienthal, following the work of Sir George Cayley, was the first person to become highly successful with glider flights. Lilienthal believed that thin, curved airfoils would produce high lift and low drag. Octave Chanute provided a great service to those interested in aerodynamics and flying machines by publishing a book outlining all of the research conducted around the world up to 1893.[16]
A computer generated model of NASA's X-43A hypersonic research vehicle flying at Mach 7 using a computational fluid dynamics code. On September 30, 1935 an exclusive conference was held in Rome with the topic of high velocity flight and the possibility of breaking the sound barrier.[20] Participants included Theodore von Krmn, Ludwig Prandtl, Jakob Ackeret, Eastman Jacobs, Adolf Busemann, Geoffrey Ingram Taylor, Gaetano Arturo Crocco, and Enrico Pistolesi. Ackeret presented a design for a supersonic wind tunnel. Busemann gave a presentation on the need for aircraft with swept wings for high speed flight. Eastman Jacobs, working for NACA, presented his optimized airfoils for high subsonic speeds which led to some of the high performance American aircraft during World War II. Supersonic propulsion was also discussed. The sound barrier was broken using the Bell X-1 aircraft twelve years later, thanks in part to those individuals. By the time the sound barrier was broken, much of the subsonic and low supersonic aerodynamics knowledge had matured. The Cold War fueled an ever evolving line of high performance aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics was started as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where entire aircraft can be designed using a computer. With some exceptions, the knowledge of hypersonic aerodynamics has matured between the 1960s and the present decade. Therefore, the goals of an aerodynamicist have shifted from understanding the behavior of fluid flow to understanding how to engineer a vehicle to interact appropriately with the fluid flow. For example, while the behavior of hypersonic flow is understood, building a scramjet aircraft to fly at hypersonic speeds has seen very limited success. Along with building a successful scramjet aircraft, the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion systems will continue to fuel new research in aerodynamics.
Control volume schematic of internal flow with one inlet and exit including an axial force, work, and heat transfer. State 1 is the inlet and state 2 is the exit. Aerodynamics problems are often solved using conservation laws as applied to a fluid continuum. The conservation laws can be written in integral or differential form. In many basic problems, three conservation principles are used: Continuity: If a certain mass of fluid enters a volume, it must either exit the volume or change the mass inside the volume. In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation is analogous to Kirchhoff's Current Law in electric circuits. The differential form of the continuity equation is:
Above, is the fluid density, u is a velocity vector, and t is time. Physically, the equation also shows that mass is neither created nor destroyed in the control volume. [21] For a steady state process, the rate at which mass enters the volume is equal to the rate at which it leaves the volume.[22] Consequently, the first term on the left is then equal to zero. For flow through a tube with one inlet (state 1) and exit (state 2) as shown in the figure in this section, the continuity equation may be written and solved as:
Above, A is the variable cross-section area of the tube at the inlet and exit. For incompressible flows, density remains constant. Conservation of Momentum: This equation applies Newton's second law of motion to a continuum, whereby force is equal to the time derivative of momentum. Both surface and body forces are accounted for in this equation. For instance, F could be expanded into an expression for the frictional force acting on an internal flow.
Above, the force F is placed on the left side of the equation, assuming it acts with the flow moving in a left-to-right direction. Depending on the other properties of the flow, the resulting force could be negative which means it acts in the opposite direction as depicted in the figure. Conservation of Energy: Although energy can be converted from one form to another, the total energy in a given system remains constant.
Above, h is enthalpy, k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, T is temperature, and is the viscous dissipation function. The viscous dissipation function governs the rate at which mechanical energy of the flow is converted to heat. The expression on the left side is a material derivative. The term is always positive since, according to the second law of thermodynamics, viscosity cannot add energy to the control volume.[23] Again using the figure, the energy equation in terms of the control volume may be written as:
Above, the shaft work and heat transfer are assumed to be acting on the flow. They may be positive (to the flow from the
surroundings) or negative (to the surroundings from the flow) depending on the problem. The ideal gas law or another equation of state is often used in conjunction with these equations to form a system to solve for the unknown variables.
According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible if its change in density with respect to pressure is non-zero along a streamline. This means that - unlike incompressible flow - changes in density must be considered. In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow exceeds 0.3. The Mach .3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas flows with a Mach number below that value demonstrate changes in density with respect to the change in pressure of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density change occurs at the stagnation point of an object immersed in the gas flow and the density changes around the rest of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible.
ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there and is avoiding it. However, in a supersonic flow, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally does strike the object, it is forced to change its properties -- temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number -- in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics problems.
Areas around an airfoil where Potential flow theory (A), boundary layer flow theory (B), or turbulent wake analysis (C) apply. The incompressible and compressible flow regimes produce many associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence.
Main article: Boundary layer The concept of a boundary layer is important in many aerodynamic problems. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is approximated as being significant only in this thin layer. This principle makes aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically.
[edit] Turbulence
Main article: Turbulence In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes in the flow. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar flow.
List of aerospace engineering topics List of engineering topics Automotive aerodynamics Aeronautics
Aviation Fluid dynamics Aerostatics Nose cone design Bernoulli's principle Navier-Stokes equations Center of pressure Computational Fluid Dynamics Transonic flows. Supersonic flows. Hypersonic flows. Sound barrier
[edit] References
1.
^ "...it shouldn't be imagined that aerodynamic lift (the force that makes airplanes fly) is a modern concept that was unknown to the ancients. The earliest known use of wind power, of course, is the sail boat, and this technology had an important impact on the later development of sail-type windmills. Ancient sailors understood lift and used it every day, even though they didn't have the physics to explain how or why it worked." Wind Power's Beginnings (1000 B.C. - 1300 A.D.) Illustrated History of Wind Power Development http://telosnet.com/wind/early.html 2. ^ Don Berliner (1997). "Aviation: Reaching for the Sky". The Oliver Press, Inc. p.128. ISBN 1-881508-33-1 3. ^ Ovid; Gregory, H. (2001). The Metamorphoses. Signet Classics. ISBN 0451527933. OCLC 45393471. 4. ^ Newton, I. (1726). Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Book II. 5. ^ von Karman, Theodore (2004). Aerodynamics: Selected Topics in the Light of Their Historical Development. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486434850. OCLC 53900531. 6. ^ "Hydrodynamica". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/658890/Hydrodyn amica#tab=active~checked %2Citems~checked&title=Hydrodynamica%20-%20Britannica%20Online%20Encyclopedia. Retrieved 200810-30. 7. ^ "U.S Centennial of Flight Commission - Sir George Cayley.". http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Prehistory/Cayley/PH 2.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-10. "Sir George Cayley, born in 1773, is sometimes called the Father of Aviation. A pioneer in his field, he was the first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight - weight, lift, drag, and thrust and their relationship. He was also the first to build a successful human-
carrying glider. Cayley described many of the concepts and elements of the modern airplane and was the first to understand and explain in engineering terms the concepts of lift and thrust." 8. ^ Cayley, George. "On Aerial Navigation" Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy, 1809-1810. (Via NASA). Raw text. Retrieved: 30 May 2010. 9. ^ d'Alembert, J. (1752). Essai d'une nouvelle theorie de la resistance des fluides. 10. ^ Kirchhoff, G. (1869). Zur Theorie freier Flussigkeitsstrahlen. Journal fur die reine und angewandte Mathematik (70), 289-298. 11. ^ Rayleigh, Lord (1876). On the Resistance of Fluids. Philosophical Magazine (5)2, 430-441. 12. ^ Navier, C. L. M. H. (1823). Memoire sur les lois du mouvement des fluides. Memoires de l'Academie des Sciences (6), 389-416. 13. ^ Stokes, G. (1845). On the Theories of the Internal Friction of Fluids in Motion. Transaction of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (8), 287-305. 14. ^ Reynolds, O. (1883). An Experimental Investigation of the Circumstances which Determine whether the Motion of Water Shall Be Direct or Sinuous and of the Law of Resistance in Parallel Channels. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A-174, 935-982. 15. ^ Renard, C. (1889). Nouvelles experiences sur la resistance de l'air. L'Aeronaute (22) 73-81. 16. ^ Chanute, Octave (1997). Progress in Flying Machines. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486299813. OCLC 37782926. 17. ^ Lanchester, F. W. (1907). Aerodynamics. 18. ^ Prandtl, L. (1919). Tragflgeltheorie. Gttinger Nachrichten, mathematischphysikalische Klasse, 451-477. 19. ^ Ackeret, J. (1925). Luftkrafte auf Flugel, die mit der grosserer als Schallgeschwindigkeit bewegt werden. Zeitschrift fur Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffahrt (16), 72-74. 20. ^ Anderson, John D. (2007). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071254080. OCLC 60589123. 21. ^ Anderson, J.D., Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2007. 22. ^ Clancy, L.J.(1975), Aerodynamics, Section 3.3, Pitman Publishing Limited, London 23. ^ White, F.M., Viscous Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill, 1974. 24. ^ Katz, Joseph (1991). Low-speed aerodynamics: From wing theory to panel methods. McGraw-Hill series in aeronautical and aerospace engineering. New York: McGrawHill. ISBN 0070504466. OCLC 21593499.
Subsonic Aerodynamics Katz, Joseph; Plotkin, Allen (2001). Low-Speed Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521665523. OCLC 45992085 43970751 45992085.
Transonic Aerodynamics Moulden, Trevor H. (1990). Fundamentals of Transonic Flow. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0894644416. OCLC 20594163. Cole, Julian D; Cook, L. Pamela (1986). Transonic Aerodynamics. North-Holland. ISBN 0444879587. OCLC 13094084.
Supersonic Aerodynamics Ferri, Antonio (2005). Elements of Aerodynamics of Supersonic Flows (Phoenix ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0486442802. OCLC 58043501. Shapiro, Ascher H. (1953). The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Volume 1. Ronald Press. ISBN 978-0-471-06691-0. OCLC 174280323 174455871 45374029 11404735 174280323 174455871 45374029. Anderson, John D. (2004). Modern Compressible Flow. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071241361. OCLC 71626491. Liepmann, H. W.; Roshko, A. (2002). Elements of Gasdynamics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486419630. OCLC 47838319.
von Mises, Richard (2004). Mathematical Theory of Compressible Fluid Flow. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486439410. OCLC 56033096. Hodge, B. K.; Koenig K. (1995). Compressible Fluid Dynamics with Personal Computer Applications. Prentice Hall. ISBN 013308552X. OCLC 31662199. ISBN 0-13308552-X.
Hypersonic Aerodynamics Anderson, John D. (2006). Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics (2nd ed.). AIAA. ISBN 1563477807. OCLC 68262944. Hayes, Wallace D.; Probstein, Ronald F. (2004). Hypersonic Inviscid Flow. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486432815. OCLC 53021584.
History of Aerodynamics Chanute, Octave (1997). Progress in Flying Machines. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486299813. OCLC 37782926. von Karman, Theodore (2004). Aerodynamics: Selected Topics in the Light of Their Historical Development. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486434850. OCLC 53900531. Anderson, John D. (1997). A History of Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying Machines. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521454352. OCLC 231729782 35646587 228667184 231729782 35646587.
Aerodynamics Related to Engineering Ground Vehicles Katz, Joseph (1995). Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed. Bentley Publishers. ISBN 0837601428. OCLC 32856137 181644146 32856137. Barnard, R. H. (2001). Road Vehicle Aerodynamic Design (2nd ed.). Mechaero Publishing. ISBN 0954073401. OCLC 47868546.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft Ashley, Holt; Landahl, Marten (1985). Aerodynamics of Wings and Bodies (2nd ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0486648990. OCLC 12021729.
Abbott, Ira H.; von Doenhoff, A. E. (1959). Theory of Wing Sections: Including a Summary of Airfoil Data. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486605868. OCLC 171142119. Clancy, L.J. (1975). Aerodynamics. Pitman Publishing Limited. ISBN 0 273 01120 0. OCLC 16420565.
Helicopters Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521858607. OCLC 61463625 224565656 61463625. Prouty, Raymond W. (2001). Helicopter Performance, Stability, and Control. Krieger Publishing Company Press. ISBN 1575242095. OCLC 77078136 212379050 77078136. Seddon, J.; Newman, Simon (2001). Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics: An Account of First Principles in the Fluid Mechanics and Flight Dynamics of the Single Rotor Helicopter. AIAA. ISBN 1563475103. OCLC 60850095 47623950 60850095.
Missiles Nielson, Jack N. (1988). Missile Aerodynamics. AIAA. ISBN 0962062901. OCLC 17981448.
Model Aircraft Simons, Martin (1999). Model Aircraft Aerodynamics (4th ed.). Trans-Atlantic Publications, Inc.. ISBN 1854861905. OCLC 51047735 43634314 51047735.
Related Branches of Aerodynamics Aerothermodynamics Hirschel, Ernst H. (2004). Basics of Aerothermodynamics. Springer. ISBN 3540221328. OCLC 56755343 59203553 228383296 56755343 59203553. Bertin, John J. (1993). Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics. AIAA. ISBN 1563470365. OCLC 28422796.
Aeroelasticity Bisplinghoff, Raymond L.; Ashley, Holt; Halfman, Robert L. (1996). Aeroelasticity. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486691896. OCLC 34284560.
Fung, Y. C. (2002). An Introduction to the Theory of Aeroelasticity (Phoenix ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0486495051. OCLC 55087733.
Boundary Layers Young, A. D. (1989). Boundary Layers. AIAA. ISBN 0930403576. OCLC 19981526. Rosenhead, L. (1988). Laminar Boundary Layers. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486656462. OCLC 21227855 17619090 21227855.
Turbulence Tennekes, H.; Lumley, J. L. (1972). A First Course in Turbulence. The MIT Press. ISBN 0262200198. OCLC 281992. Pope, Stephen B. (2000). Turbulent Flows. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521598869. OCLC 42296280 43540430 67711662 174790280 42296280 43540430 67711662.
NASA Beginner's Guide to Aerodynamics Aerodynamics for Students Applied Aerodynamics: A Digital Textbook Aerodynamics for Pilots Aerodynamics and Race Car Tuning Aerodynamic Related Projects eFluids Bicycle Aerodynamics Application of Aerodynamics in Formula One (F1) Aerodynamics in Car Racing Aerodynamics of Birds Aerodynamics and dragonfly wings
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