MODULE 1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK:

Approach, Design and Procedure

(Week 2-3)

1. Learning targets
By the end of this module, students are able to:
- Define the concepts in the conceptual framework proposed by Richards and Rodgers
(2014), including Approach (theory of language: theory of language learning), Design
(objectives; syllabus, common types of teaching and learning activities; teacher roles:
learner roles; roles of instructional materials), and Procedure (specific teaching and
learning activities and their sequencing; classroom interaction patterns; assessment
practices as well as teaching aids and other teaching resources);

- Describe the relationship between and among three main concepts, including Approach,
Method and Procedure.
2. Keywords
-Approach; Design; Procedure
-Theory of language; Theory of language learning; Objectives; Syllabus; Common types of
teaching and learning activities; Teacher roles; Learner roles: Roles of instructional materials;
Specific teaching and learning activities and their sequencing; Classroom interaction patterns,
Assessment practices; Teaching aids and other teaching resources
3. Required reading material
Richards & Rodgers (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching (pp.20-43).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

I. Introduction
When linguists and language specialists sought to improve the quality of language teaching in
the late nineteenth century, they often did so by referring to general principles and theories
concerning how languages are learned, how knowledge of language is represented and organized
in memory, or how language itself is structured. The early applied linguists, such as Henry Sweet
(1845 1912), Otto Jespersen (1860-1943), and Harold Palmer (1877-1949), elaborated principles
and theoretically accountable approaches to the design of language teaching programs, courses,
and materials, though many of the specific practical details were left to be worked out by others.
They sought a rational answer to the question like those regarding principles for the selection and
sequencing of vocabulary and grammar, though none of these applied linguists saw in any
existing method the ideal embodiment of their ideas.
In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at the level of
theory and principles and a set of derived procedures for teaching a language is central. In an
attempt to clarify this difference, a scheme was proposed by the American applied linguist
Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which
he termed Approach, Method, and Technique:

The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method
which is consistent with an approach...

… An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of

Approach language teaching and learning.
An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be
taught

Method ... Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language
material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the
selected approach. An approach is axiomatic; a method is procedural...
Within one approach, there can be many methods...

Technique A technique is implementational, which actually takes place in a classroom.

It is a particular trick, stratagem, or co or contrivance used to accomplish an
immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and
therefore in harmony with an approach as well.

(Anthony, 1963: 63-7)

According to Anthony's model, Approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about
language and language learning are specified; Method is the level at which theory is put into
practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be
taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; Technique is the level at which
classroom procedures are described. Anthony's model serves as a useful way of distinguishing
between different degrees of abstraction and specificity found in different language teaching
proposals.
Other ways of conceptualizing approaches and methods in language teaching have also been
proposed. Mackey, in his book "Language Teaching Analysis" (1965), elaborated perhaps the
most well known model of the 1960s, one that focuses primarily on the levels of Method and
Technique. Mackey's model of language teaching analysis concentrates on the dimensions of
selection, gradation, presentation, and repetition underlying a method. In fact, despite the title of
Mackey's book, his concern is primarily with the analysis of textbooks and their underlying
principles of organization. His model does not address the level of approach, nor does it deal
with the actual classroom behaviors of teachers and learners, except as these are represented in
textbooks. Hence, it cannot really serve as a basis for comprehensive analysis of either
approaches or methods.

Although Anthony's original proposal has the advantage of simplicity and comprehensiveness
and serves as a useful way of distinguishing the relationship between underlying theoretical
principles Method & Technique and the practices derived from them, it does not give sufficient
attention to the nature of a method itself. Nothing is said about the roles of teachers and learners
assumed in a method, for example, nor about the role of instructional materials or the form these
materials are expected to take. Nor does it account for how an approach may be realized in a
method, or for how method and technique are related. In order to provide a more comprehensive
model for the discussion and analysis of approaches and methods, we (Richards and Rodgers,
2014) have revised and extended the original Anthony model. The primary areas needing further
clarification are, using Anthony's terms. Method and Technique. We see Approach and Method
treated at the level of design, that level in which objectives, syllabus, and content are determined,
and in which the roles of teachers, learners, and instructional materials are specified. The
implementation phase (the level of Technique in Anthony's model) we refer to by the slightly
more comprehensive term Procedure. Thus, a method is theoretically related to an approach, is
organizationally determined by a Design, and is practically realized in Procedure.

Activity 1: Decide whether Richards and Rodgers (2014) agree or disagree with the following
definition of Approach, Design and Procedure by putting a tick at the appropriate column
below.

Definition Agree Disagree

01 The concept of Approach refers to underlying theories

that explain the nature of language and the nature of
language learning or, put differently, that answer the
question "what is language?" and "how should language
be learnt?".

02 Design is mainly concerned with how the teaching

 content is defined, sequenced and presented to learners.

03 The concept of Procedure is basically what Anthony

(1963) refers to as "Technique"; however, its insight
should be enlarged to encompass more than specific
classroom activities and their sequences which are
deemed to foster the realization of the learning
objectives. h

Activity 2: Work in groups. Discuss and identify the similarities and differences between and
among the three models proposed by Anthony (1963), Mackey (1965), and Richards and
Rodgers (2014), as described above. Use the discussion outcome to complete the table below.

Anthony (1963) Mackey (1965) Richards and Rodgers (2014)

Approach

Design

Procedure

In the remainder of this module, we will elaborate on the concept of as well as the relationship
between Approach, Design, and Procedure, proposed by Richards and Rodgers (2014).

2. Approach
Following Anthony (1963), approach refers to theories about the nature of language and
language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching. In
other words, it refers to the "philosophy," or belief system, that a method reflects. We will
examine the linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects of approach in turn.

2.1 Theory of language

Language is a very complex phenomenon and is studied from the perspective of many different
disciplines, including linguistics, literature, psychology, anthropology, and sociology. Not
surprisingly, a number of different theoretical views of language and the nature of language
proficiency explicitly or implicitly inform current as well as less recent approaches and methods
in language teaching. Here we will briefly review some key models of language that have
influenced language teaching methods and approaches. These include the Structural model, the
Functional model, the Interactional model, and the Sociocultural model.

Structural model
Another way of conceptualizing language and one that has had a wide application in language
teaching is the structural view, the view that language is a system of structurally related elements
for the coding of meaning. The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements
of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units (e.g., phonemes),
grammatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations (e.g., adding,
shifting, joining, or transforming elements), and lexical items (e.g., function words and structure
words). Approach following this model: TPR, Audio lingual method.

Functional model
A different model of language and one which takes a number of different forms is the functional
view, the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meanings and for
performing real-world activities. Functional models of language are linked to the concept of
communicative competence knowing how language is used to achieve different kinds of
communicative purposes or, as defined by Brown (1994, p.227):

That aspect of our competence which enables us to convey and interpret messages and to
negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts... [The] knowledge that enables a
person to communicate functionally and interactional.

The communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to this view of language as does
Competency-Based Language Teaching (see Module 3). Functional approaches emphasize the
semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of
language, and lead to a specification and organization of language teaching content by categories
of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar.

Interactional model
Yet another perspective on language can be called the interactional view. It sees language as a
vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social
transactions between individuals. Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of
social relations. Areas of inquiry being drawn on in the development of interactional approaches
to language teaching include second language acquisition, interaction analysis, conversation
analysis, and ethnomethodology. Interactional theories focus on the patterns of moves, acts,
negotiation, and interaction found in conversational and other kinds of exchanges and which are
central to an understanding of discourse. "Interaction" has been central to theories of second
language learning and pedagogy since the 1980s. Rivers (1987, p.4) defined the interactive
perspective in language education: "Students achieve facility in using a language when their
attention is focused on conveying and receiving authentic messages (that is, messages that
contain information of interest to both speaker and listener in a situation of importance to both)."
Negotiation of meaning is believed to play a central role in interactive views of language and is
central to current teaching proposals, including Task-Based Language Teaching and CLIL (see
Module 4).

Sociocultural model
A related view of language is referred to as a sociocultural model. Sociocultural theory views
language as a communicative activity in which the social context is central. Knowledge is
constructed through social interaction with others and reflects the learners culture, customs, and
beliefs as well as the collaborative activities people are engaged in. A sociocultural view of
language is sometimes said to undergird accounts of Task-Based Language Teaching and
Content- Based Instruction (see Module 4).

2.2 Theory of language learning

Although specific theories of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular
teaching method, all methods reflect, either explicitly or implicitly, a theory of language
learning. Language learning theories account for the cognitive, personal, interpersonal, and
social processes learners make use of in second language learning. We will describe the theories
of learning assumed in different methods throughout this book. Research on second language
acquisition has led to the development of a rich and diverse set of theories to explain how
languages are learned, and different methods draw on different learning theories, and often more
than one. These have included behaviorism, cognitive-code learning, the creative-construction
hypothesis, skill learning, interactional theory, constructivism, and sociocultural learning theory
(or social constructivism).

Behaviorism
This theory was based on the view that learning is a process in which specific behaviors are
acquired in response to specific stimuli. Correct responses are reinforced and increase the chance
of the behavior becoming learned (Skinner, 1957). Learning was said to involve habit formation
through repetition and reinforcement. This theory provided the basis for the Audiolingual
Method. Language was taught through extensive drilling and repetition exercises and through
making use of activities that minimized the chances of producing mistakes.

Cognitive-code learning
This view was developed in the 1960s as an alternative to behavior language learning was a
cognitive process depending on both deductive and inductive learning as well as meaningful
practice. Students are taught grammatical rules which they then apply in practice. Learning is
seen to depend on cognitive processing and mental effort. The PPP approach (Presentation-
Practice-Production) used in Situational Language Teaching can be linked to cognitive-code
learning, as well as to methods such as the Silent Way.

Creative-construction hypothesis
This theory, first proposed in the 1970s but still implicit in current theories of second language
acquisition, suggests that learning is not simply a question of reproducing input but a creative
process that has common features regardless of the learners' language background, and that this
accounts for the similarities seen in the language produced by linguistically diverse second
language learners. Errors are seen as evidence of learning rather than signs of faulty learning.
Communicative Language Teaching reflects this view of learning and introduced the concept of
fluency work in teaching, where the communication of meaning rather than a grammatically
precise use of language is the focus. It is also implicit in Task-Based Language Teaching.

Skill learning
Skills are integrated sets of behaviors that are learned through practice. They are made up of
individual components that may be learned separately and that come together as a whole to
constitute skilled performance. Skill learning theory suggests that complex uses of language are
made up of a hierarchy of skills. Initially, skills are often consciously managed and directed by
the learner, such as learning how to make a class presentation in English. This is called
controlled processing (Ortega, 2009), Over time skills can become automatic and do not require
conscious attention. This is called automatic processing. Learning involves development from
controlled to automatic processing, that is, the Cumulative learning of skills. Many language
teaching methods treat language learning, at least in part, as skill-based learning.

Interactional theory
This theory argues that learning is an interactive process and depends on learners working
together to achieve mutual understanding. Central to this view of learning is the concept of
negotiation of meaning - the modification of input that learners receive when they communicate
with more advanced learners or native speakers and the kind of feedback they receive from their
interlocutors. More competent speakers will typically modify their input by using known
vocabulary, speaking more slowly, saying things in different ways, adjusting the topic, avoiding
idioms, using a slower rate of speech, using stress on key words, repeating key elements, using
simpler grammatical structures, paraphrasing and elaborating, and so on. In this way modified
input facilitates both understanding and learning. These processes in a sense "teach" the
language, and the role of instruction is to support these interactive processes in the classroom.
Both Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based Language Teaching reflect aspects of
interactional theory.

Constructivism
Constructivism is another learning theory that has had a powerful influence on education and on
theories of second language learning. It draws on the work of Jean Piaget and John Dewey on
child development as well as on the work of Lev Vygotsky. Rather than viewing learning as a
passive process and the result of the internalization of outside knowledge (i.e., as a process of
transmission), learning is seen as something that results from the learners' internal construction
of meaning (Williams & Burden 1997). Knowledge does not exist independently of the meaning
constructed from experience by the learner or community of learners. Constructivism emphasizes
that learners are actively involved in their own process of learning. It is a dynamic process that
has 04 both cognitive dimensions, as the organizer reorganizes new knowledge on the basis of
existing 02 knowledge, and social dimensions, as the learner interacts with others and solves
problems through dialogue. (This latter social view of constructivism is now referred to as
sociocultural learning theory and is discussed below.) Constructivist approaches to learning
emphasize student-centered and project-based learning where students pose questions, explore
multiple interpretations of meaning, and where the teacher acts as facilitator and guide.
Constructivist theories of learning are seen in concepts such as restructuring, schema theory, and
scaffolding (see below) and can also be seen in Communicative Language Teaching

Sociocultural learning theory (also known as social constructivism)

This theory can be seen as an extension of both constructivism and interactional theory and
views language learning as resulting from dialogue between a learner and a more knowledgeable
other person. The term sociocultural means that learning takes place in a particular social setting
(e.g. a classroom), in which there is interaction between people (teachers and students), objects
(texts, books, images), and culturally organized activities and events (instructional acts and
sequences). Leaming is a process of guided participation, mediated through the direction of a
more knowledgeable other. Through repeated participation in a variety of joint activities, the
novice gradually develops new knowledge and skills (Rogoff, 1990). A process referred to as
scaffolding plays an important part in socio-cultural learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In
the classroom, scaffolding is the process of interaction between two or more people as they carry
out a classroom activity and where one person (e.g., the teacher or another learner) has more
advanced knowledge than the other (the learner) (Swain, Kinnear, & Steinman, 2010). During
the process, interaction proceeds as a kind of joint problem-solving activity between a teacher
and a student. Collaborative dialogue 'scaffolds the learning process by initially providing
support (the "scaffold") and gradually removing support as learning develops. Many current
teaching proposals, such as CLIL and task-based instruction, attribute an important role to the
process of scaffolded learning.

Activity 3: Match each of the following descriptions to the appropriate theory of language.

1 - C ; 2 -D ; 3 - B ; 4 - A

Descriptions Theories of language

1. Language is a tool to establish and maintain A. Structural view

transactional and/or interpersonal relationship. B. Functional view
C. Interactional view
D. Socio-cultural view
2. Knowledge is co-constructed via social interaction with
others in a particular socio-cultural context. In this
interaction, language is both a means to an end and the
end in itself.

3. Language is a tool to accomplish a particular

communicative purpose such as inviting, accepting or
refusing.

4. Language consists of smaller building blocks which are

arranged in a particular structure for encoding and
decoding meaning. For example, the meaning of a word
(unfriendly) is a combined meaning of its stem (friend),
prefix (un-) and suffix (-ly).

Activity 4: Fill each blank in the sentence below with NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS. After
that, choose the theory of language learning that the sentence refers to
1. Language learning is done via __specific behavior___ in which learners need to repeat and
reinforce in their positive responses to language stimuli. → Behaviorism

2. Language learning might be done __inductively____ by having learners figure out the
underlying patterns or rules from a set of L2 samples and then apply these patterns/rules into
their L2 production. → Cognitive-code learning

3. L2 mistakes are positive things as they show that learners are brave enough to walk out of
their comfort zone and learn something new. In other words, they are clear __evidence of
learning______ → The creative-construction hypothesis

4. __Negotiation of meaing_____ offers the opportunity to interact with their more-able

interlocutor, experiment with using newly learnt words or structures, receive immediate feedback
on such use and then modify their output to make it more comprehensible.

5. L2 teachers are encouraged to _scaffold___ their learners by lending them a helping hand
when they need it during their L2 use, but gradually withdraw this support when their learners
show some sign of mastery or independence.

3. Design
In order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a design for an
instructional system. Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider (a) what the
objectives of a method are; (b) how language content is selected and organized within the
method, that is, the syllabus model the method incorporates; (c) the types of learning tasks and
teaching activities the method advocates; (d) the roles of learners; (c) the roles of teachers; and
(f) the role of instructional materials.

3.1 Objectives
Different theories of language and language learning influence the focus of a method; that is,
they determine what learning outcomes a method sets out to achieve. The specification of
particular learning outcomes, however, is a product of design, not of approach. Some methods
focus primarily on oral skills and say that reading and writing skills are secondary and derive
from transfer of oral skills. Some methods set out to teach general communication skills and give
greater priority to the ability to express oneself meaningfully and to make oneself understood
than to grammatical accuracy or perfect pronunciation. Others may place a greater emphasis on
accurate grammar and pronunciation from the very beginning. Some methods set out to teach the
basic grammar and vocabulary of a language. Still others may define their objectives less in
linguistic terms than in terms of learning behaviors, that is, in terms of the processes or abilities
the learner is expected to acquire as a result of instruction, Gattegno (1972) writes, for example,
"Learning is not seen as the means of accumulating knowledge but as the means of becoming a
more p proficient focus learner in whatever one is engaged in" (p.89). This process-oriented
objective may be offered in contrast to the linguistically oriented or product-oriented objectives
of more traditional methods. The degree to which a method has process-oriented or product-
oriented objectives may be revealed in how much emphasis is placed on vocabulary acquisition
and grammatical proficiency and in how grammatical or pronunciation errors are treated in the
method. Many methods that claim to be primarily process-oriented in fact show overriding
concerns with grammatical and lexical attainment and with accurate grammar and pronunciation.

3.2 Syllabus
All methods of language teaching involve the use of the target language. All methods thus
involve overt or covert decisions concerning the selection of language items or features (words,
sentence patterns, tenses, constructions, functions, topics, texts, etc.) that are to be used within a
course or method. Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject matter
and linguistic matter. In straightforward terms, one makes decisions about what to talk about
(subject matter) and how to talk about it (linguistic matter). ESP and content-based courses, for
example, are necessarily subject matter focused. Structurally and language-based methods, such
as Situational Language Teaching, the Audiolingual Method, the Lexical Approach, and Text-
Based Instruction, are necessarily linguistically focused. Methods typically differ in what they
see as the relevant language and subject matter around which language teaching should be
organized and the principles used in sequencing content within a course. Content issues involve
the principles of selection that ultimately shape the syllabus adopted in a course as well as the
instructional materials that are used, together with the principles of gradation the method adopts.
For example, in courses for young learners, concrete topics are likely to be introduced before
abstract ones. With adults, course topics related to immediate needs are likely to precede those
related to other issues. In grammar-based courses, matters of sequencing and gradation are
generally determined according to the difficulty of items, their frequency, and/or their usefulness
in the classroom. In communicative or functionally oriented courses (e.g., in ESP programs or
task-based courses), sequencing may be according to the learners' perceived communicative
needs in terms of functional focus.

Traditionally, the term syllabus has been used to refer to the form in which linguistic material is
specified in a course or method. Inevitably, the term has been more closely associated with
methods that are product-centered rather than with those that are process-centered. Syllabuses
and syllabus principles for Audiolingual, Structural-Situational, and communicative methods, as
well as in ESP and text-based approaches to language program design, can be readily identified.
The syllabus underlying the Situational and Audiolingual methods consists of a list of
grammatical items and constructions, often together with an associated list of vocabulary items
(Fries and Fries 1961; Alexander et al. 1975). Notional-functional syllabuses specify the
communicative content of a course in terms of functions, notions, topics, grammar, and
vocabulary. Text-based approaches organize courses in terms of text-types such as reports,
recounts, and narratives. Such syllabuses are usually determined in advance of teaching.

A number of taxonomies of syllabus types in language teaching have been proposed: for
example, Richards (2001) lists ten basic syllabus types - grammatical, lexical, functional,
situational, topical or content-based, competency-based, skills-based, task-based, text-based, and
integrated. These can usually be linked to specific approaches or methods: Oral/Situational
(situational); Audiolingual (grammatical), Communicative Language Teaching (functional),
Task-Based Language Teaching (task-based), and so on.

The term syllabus, however, is less frequently used in process-based methods, in which
considerations of language content arc often secondary. Community Language Learning, also
known as Counseling-Learning, for example, has no language syllabus as such. Neither linguistic
matter nor subject matter is specified in advance. Learners select content for themselves by
choosing topics they want to talk about. These are then translated into the target language and
used as the basis for interaction and language practice. To find out what linguistic content had in
fact been generated and practiced during a course organized according to Counseling-Learning
principles, it would be necessary to record the lessons and later determine what items of
language had been covered.

3.3 Types of teaching and learning activities

The objectives of a method, whether defined primarily in terms of product or process, are
attained through the instructional process, through the organized and directed interaction of
teachers, karmers, and materials in the classroom. Differences among methods at the level of
approach manifest themselves in the choice of different kinds of learning and teaching activities
in the classroom. Teaching activities that focus on grammatical accuracy may be quite different
from those that focus on communicative skills. Activities designed to activate specific second
language acquisition processes (such as "noticing") will differ from those directed toward
mastery of particular features of grammar. The activity types that a method advocates - the third
component in the level of design in method analysis - often serve to distinguish methods and
approaches most clearly. Audiolingualism, for example, makes extensive use of dialogues and
pattern practice. Communicative Language Teaching makes use of activities that involve an
"information gap" and "information transfer"; that is, learners work on the same activity, but
each learner has different information needed to complete the activity. In Task-Based Language
Teaching, learners work on specially designed tasks or tasks that reflect real-world uses of
language, and in text-based approaches students work with authentic texts. Older methods such
as the Silent Way also make use of specially designed problem-solving activities that involve the
use of special charts and colored rods.

Different philosophies at the level of approach may be reflected both in the use of different kinds
of activities and in different uses for particular activity types. For example, interactive games
were often used in audiolingual courses for motivation and to provide a change of pace from
pattern-practice drills. In Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based Language
Teaching, the same games may be used to introduce or provide practice for particular types of
interactive exchanges. Differences in activity types in methods may also involve different
arrangements and groupings of learners. A method that stresses oral chorus drilling will require
different groupings of learners in the classroom from a method that uses
problem-solving/information-exchange activities involving pair work. Activity types in methods
thus specify what classroom techniques and procedures the method advocates, such as dialogue,
drills, question and answer, responding to commands, group problem-solving, information-
exchange activities, task-work, text analysis, role plays, and simulations.

Because of the different assumptions they make about learning processes, syllabuses, and
learning activities, methods also assume different roles and functions for learners, teachers, and
instructional materials within the instructional process. These constitute the next three
components of design in method analysis

3.4 Learner roles

The design of an instructional system will be considerably influenced by how learners are
regarded. A method reflects explicit or implicit responses to questions concerning the learner's
contribution to the learning process. This is seen in the types of activities learners carry out, the
degree of control that learners have over the content of learning, the patterns of learner groupings
adopted, the degree to which learners influence the learning of others, and the view of the learner
as processor, performer, initiator, problem-solver, or other.

The emergence of learner-centered approaches to teaching in the 1980s redefined the role of the
learner. Rather than being a passive recipient of teaching - a view that was reflected in older
traditions such as Audiolingualism - learners were assigned much more power and autonomy in
learning and the great diversity of learners was acknowledged. The emergence of what were
termed humanistic methods during this period reflected another dimension to a focus on the
learner. Humanistic methods were those which emphasized the development of human values,
growth in self-awareness and the understanding of others, sensitivity to human feelings and
emotions, and active student involvement in learning and the way learning takes place.
Community Language Learning and the Silent Way are often mentioned examples of this
learner-centeredness as is the more recent Multiple Intelligences (see Module 2).

A different interpretation of learner-centeredness emerged at the same time under the rubric of
individualized approaches to language teaching. This was based on the assumption that people
learn in different ways, that they can learn from a variety of different sources, and that they may
have different goals and objectives in language learning assumptions that are now part of the
perspective known as learner autonomy. Other learner roles have also emerged in more recent
methods. The role of the learner as a participant in dialogue and interpersonal communication is
central to functional and task-based methods, while the learner as an active processor of
language and information and one who draws on prior knowledge, schema, and innate cognitive
processes is also reflected in Task-Based Language Teaching as well as in Content-Based
Instruction and CLIL. In examining the different approaches and methods in this book, we will
describe the different roles they assume for learners.

3.5 Teacher roles

Learner roles in an instructional system are closely linked to the teachers' roles and function.
Teacher roles are similarly related ultimately to assumptions about both language and language
learning at the level of approach. Some methods are totally dependent on the teacher as a source
of knowledge and direction; others see the teachers' role as catalyst, consultant, guide, and model
for learning; still others try to "teacher-proof" the instructional system by limiting teacher
initiative and by building instructional content and direction into texts or lesson plans. Teacher
and learner roles define the type of interaction characteristic of classrooms in which a particular
method is being used and consequently the kinds of learning processes and opportunities for
learning that are provided for.

Teacher roles in methods are related to the following issues: (a) the types of functions teachers
are expected to fulfill, whether that of practice director, counselor, or model, for example; (b) the
degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place; (c) the degree to which the
teacher is responsible for determining the content of what is taught; and (d) the interactional
patterns that develop between teachers and learners. Methods typically depend critically on
teacher roles and their realizations. In the classical Audiolingual Method, the teacher is regarded
as the primary source of language and of language learning, and in more recent methods such as
Task-Based Language Teaching and Text-Based Instruction a very direct role for the teacher is
assumed. But less teacher-directed learning may still demand very specific and sometimes even
more demanding roles for the teacher. The role of the teacher in Cooperative Language Learning,
for example, requires teachers who are confident enough to step back from teacher-fronted
teaching and adopt the role of a facilitator. Only teachers who are thoroughly sure of their role
and the concomitant learners' role will risk departure from the security of traditional textbook-
oriented and teacher- fronted teaching.

For some methods, the role of the teacher has been specified in detail. Individualized approaches
to learning define roles for the teacher that create specific patterns of interaction between
teachers and learners in classrooms. These are designed to shift gradually the responsibility for
learning from the teacher to the learner. Community Language Learning sees the teachers' role as
that of psychological counselor, the effectiveness of the teachers' role being a measure of
counseling skills and attributes - warmth, sensitivity, and acceptance. As these examples suggest,
the potential role relationships of learner and teacher are many and varied. They may be
asymmetrical relationships, such as those of conductor to orchestra member, therapist to patient,
coach player. Some contemporary methodologies have sought to establish more symmetrical
kinds of learner-teacher relationships, such as friend to friend, colleague to colleague, teammate
to teammate. The role of the teacher will ultimately reflect both the objectives of the method and
the learning theory on which the method is predicated, since the success of a method may depend
on the degree to which the teacher can provide access to the learning processes and content or
create the conditions for successful language learning.

3.6 Roles of instructional materials

The last component within the level of design concerns the role of instructional materials within
the instructional system. What is specified with respect to objectives, content (i.e., the syllabus),
learning activities, and learner and teacher roles suggests the function for materials within the
system. The syllabus defines linguistic content in terms of language elements - structures, topics,
notions, functions, or tasks. It also defines the goals for language learning in terms of listening,
speaking, reading, or writing skills. The instructional materials in their turn further specify
subject matter content, even where no syllabus exists, and define or suggest the intensity of
coverage for syllabus items, allocating the amount of time, attention, and detail particular
syllabus items or tasks require. Instructional materials also define or imply the day-to-day
learning objectives that collectively constitute the goals of the syllabus. Materials designed on
the assumption that learning is initiated and monitored by the teacher must meet quite different
requirements from those designed for student self-instruction or for peer tutoring. Some methods
require the instructional use of existing materials, found materials, and realia. Some assume
teacher-proof materials that even poorly trained teachers with imperfect control of the target
language can teach with. Some materials require specially trained teachers with near-native
competence in the target language. Some are designed to replace the teacher, so that learning can
take place independently. Some materials dictate various interactional patterns in the classroom;
others inhibit classroom interaction; still others are noncommittal about interaction between
teacher and learner and learner and learner.

The role of instructional materials within a method or instructional system will reflect decisions
concerning the primary goal of materials (e.g., to present content, to practice content, to facilitate
communication between learners, or to enable learners to practice content without the teachers
help), the form of materials (e.g., textbook, DVDs, computer software) the relation of materials
to other sources of input (i.c., whether they serve as the major source of input or only as a minor
component of it), and the abilities of teachers (e.g., their competence in the language or degree of
training and experience). A particular design for an instructional system may imply a particular
set of roles for materials in support of the syllabus and the teachers and learners. For example,
the role of instructional materials within a functional/communicative methodology includes
allowing for interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning; focusing on understandable,
relevant, and interesting exchanges of information, rather than on the presentation of
grammatical form, and for involving different kinds of texts and different media, which the
learners can use to develop their competence through a variety of different activities and tasks.
Within the framework of autonomous learning, materials allow learners to progress at their own
rates of learning and use different styles of learning; they also provide opportunities for
independent study and use, and to provide opportunities for self-evaluation and progress in
learning.

In Task-Based Language leaching, classroom materials provide examples of tasks learners will
need to use language beyond the classroom, or they create the need for negotiation of meaning
and interaction. In Text-Based Instruction, materials model the features of texts and initiate the
process by which learners engage in the creation of their own texts. In CLIL and Content-Based
Instruction, materials are the vehicles for the communication of the content that serves as the
basis of the lesson.

Activity 5: Match each of these key concepts of Design to their appropriate example.

Key concepts Definitions

1. Objectives
A. Teaching and learning modules are organized according to the
ascending difficulty of typical language use tasks that learners
often deal with in their profession.

2. Syllabus B. Learners are encouraged to give comments on their own L2

performance before receiving those from their peers and teachers.

3. Teaching/learning C. Information gap and jigsaw are two two popular learning tasks
activities that Communicative Language Teaching Approach has embraced.

4. Leamer roles D. This series of TED Talks videos aim to model what a good
formal presentation looks like. They are also to enrich their
background knowledge of various topics in their 12 academic
speaking lessons.

5. Teacher roles E. By the end of this course, learners are able to identify the key
features of typical academic writing genres, including the writing
purpose, the target audience, the discourse structure as well as the
typical language patterns associated with those genres.

6. Instructional materials F. In the Communicative-Language-Teaching-based classroom,

the teacher functions as a facilitator who renders the learning
process more engaging and conducive to learning.
Activity 6: In groups, discuss the relationship between Approach and Design. Make at least
three claims about the above relationship. Use the material from the above readings to support
your claims

4. Procedure
The last level of conceptualization and organization within a method is what we will refer to as
procedure. This encompasses the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors
that operate in teaching a language according to a particular approach or method. It is the level at
which we describe how a method realizes its approach and design in classroom behavior. At the
level of design, we saw that a method will advocate the use of certain types of teaching activities
as a consequence of its theoretical assumptions about language and learning. At the level of
procedure, we are concerned with how these tasks and activities arc integrated into lessons and
used as the basis for teaching and learning. There are some key dimensions to a method at the
level of procedure: (a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues, information gap activities,
etc.) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other
aspects of the target language; (b) the ways in which particular teaching activities are used for
practicing and producing language; (c) the procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to
learners concerning the form or content of their utterances or sentences; (d) the interaction
patterns in the classroom context; and (e) the teaching aids and resources.

Essentially, then, procedure focuses on the way a method handles the presentation,
practice/production, and feedback phases of teaching, In Situational Language Teaching, for
example, a sequence of five activities is often used:
1. Presentation. The new structure is introduced and presented.
2. Controlled practice. Learners are given intensive practice in the structure, under the teacher's
guidance and control.
3. Free practice. The students practice using the structure without any control by the teacher.
4. Checking. The teacher elicits use of the new structure to check that it has been learned.

5. Further practice. The structure is now practiced in new situations or in combination with other
structures.

In Communicative Language Teaching (Module 3), the following sequence of activities is often
used:
1. Pre-communicative activities. Accuracy-based activities which focus on presentation of
structures, functions, and vocabulary.
2. Communication activities. Fluency-based activities which focus on information-sharing and
information-exchange.

Text-based lessons or units often contain the following five-stage sequence of activities:
1. Building the context (the situations in which a particular text-type is used and its purpose are
discussed)
2. Modeling and deconstructing the text (the teacher shows how the text is constructed and what
its linguistic and discourse features are)
3. Joint construction of the text (teacher and students jointly create a new text following the
format of the model text)
4. Independent construction of the text (students create their own texts)
5. Links to related texts (similarities and differences between other types of texts are discussed).

We expect methods to be most obviously idiosyncratic at the level of procedure, though

classroom observations often reveal that teachers do not necessarily follow the procedures a
method prescribes. Over time they adapt the procedures to their own preferred teaching style.

Activity 7: In groups, design a poster which aims to define the key concepts in Richards and
Rodgers' (2014) conceptual framework of Approach, Design and Procedure as well as highlight
the relationship between these concepts.

5. Resource Bank: Further discussion questions

1. How would you explain, in your own words, the difference between an approach, a method,
and a technique?
2. Match the models of language below with their best descriptions. There are more descriptions
than you may need.

Sociocultural A. Language is a system of structurally related elements for the

Interactional coding of meaning, such as phonemes and grammar.
Functional B. Language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meanings
Structural and for performing real-world activities.

C. Language is the acquisition of abstract knowledge and involves

properties of the mind.

D. Language is a communicative activity in which the social context,

customs, and beliefs are central.

E. Language is considered primarily through the role of lexis and

 lexical chunks or phrases.

F. Language is a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations.

G. Language is governed by discourse-specific norms and texts for

different purposes.

3. What theories of learning are reflected in the materials or textbooks you use in your teaching?

4. Which approaches and methods have been popular in your country in the past? Can you
identify the reasons for their success?

5. What do you understand by the concept of scaffolded learning? Why might dialogue with a
more knowledgeable other be important to sociocultural learning theory?

6. How important do you think practice is in language learning? How can practice affect learning
and language use?

7. Do your learners have particular learning style preferences? How can these be identified and,
if necessary, supported or modified?

8. What are the different components of design? Why is each one important? What are some
examples of how design translates into procedure?