ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Advance Geodesy Seng(4163)

Prepared by : Demeke G.
Email:- [email protected]
For 4th Year Surveying Engineering
Students
 Geodesy
Chapter 01
Definition and
classification of geodesy
 Definition of Geodesy

 According to the classical definition of Friedrich Robert Helmert

(1880), ''geodesy (Geo = earth, desy = divide) is the science of the
measurement and mapping of the earth's surface"
 The classical definition has to be extended to include temporal variations
of the earth's surface and its gravity field.
 Determination of the geometrical and physical shape of the Earth and its
orientation in space as well as the gravitational field and also the surface
of the ocean floor.
 Classification of Geodesy
 Geodesy can be divided in different Branches
1. Physical Geodesy
2. Geometric Geodesy
3. Satellite Geodesy
4. Marine Geodesy etc.
 Geodesy can also be divided into the areas
1. Global Geodesy
2. National Geodesy and
3. Plane Surveying
 ….Cont

1. Physical Geodesy
 The branch of geodesy that is concerned with determining the physical
shape of the Earth is called physical geodesy.
 It’s concerned with determining the Earth's gravity field, which is
necessary for establishing heights.
 It’s the study of the physical properties of Earth's gravity and its potential
field (the geopotential), with a view to their application in geodesy.
 ….Cont

2. Geometric Geodesy
 It’s concerned with describing locations in terms of geometry.
 Consequently, coordinate systems are one of the primary products of
geometrical geodesy.
 It’s the measurement of the shape and size of the earth, these properties
actually change over time,
 so there is the need to continually measure them because they are usually
parameters to solving some problems related to the earth.
 ….Contd.

3. Satellite Geodesy
 It’s geodesy by means of artificial satellite the measurement of the form
and dimensions of Earth, the location of objects on its surface and
 The figure of the Earth's gravity field by means of artificial satellite
techniques.
 comprises the observational and computational techniques which allow
the solution of geodetic problems by the use of precise measurements.
 It belongs to the broader field of space geodesy.
 The division of Geodesy into the areas
1. Global Geodesy
 It’s responsible for determination of the figure of the earth surface and the
external gravity field.
 It includes the determination of the shape and size of the earth, it's
orientation in space.
 The earth's curvature and gravity field must be considered.
 ….Cont

2. National Geodesy
 It’s establishes the fundamentals for the determination of a
sufficiently large number of control points, arranged in geodetic
and gravimetric networks.
 In this fundamental work, curvature and gravity field of earth
must be considered
 ….Cont

3. Plane Surveying
 The details of the earth's surface are determined on a local level.
 It is used in (topographic surveying, cadastral surveying, Engineering
surveying).
 The curvature and gravity effects are generally ignored.
 It’s used extensively in the development of national and state map-series,
cadastral information systems, and in civil engineering projects.
 The Problem of Geodesy

 The problem of geodesy may be described as follows:

 This geodetic boundary-value problem incorporates a geometric
(figure of the earth) and a physical (gravity field) formulation; both
are closely related.
 Determine the figure and external gravity field of the earth and of
other celestial bodies as a function of time.
 The physical surface of the earth is the border between the solid or
fluid masses and the atmosphere.
 ….Cont

 Bounding surface between the solid terrestrial body and the oceanic
water masses.
 The irregular surface of the solid earth (continental and ocean floor
topography) cannot be represented by a simple mathematical function.
 In general, the boundary value problem (bvp) tries to determine a
function in a spatial domain from:
• its value on the boundary,
• its spatial behavior, described by a partial differential equation (pde).
 ….Cont

 In our particular case of gravitational fields we have two different

partial differential equations:
 the Poisson equation, leading to an interior bvp and,
 the Laplace equation, leading to the exterior bvp.
 The three Boundary problems are;
a) Dirichlet:- geopotential values
b) Neumann:- gravity distrubances
c) Robin:- gravity anomalies
….Contd
 Historical development of Geodesy
 The development in geodesy can be divided into four sections:

1. Period from Thales till the end of Roman Empire

2. The middle Ages, The Renaissance till the mid-eighteenth

century.

3. Next 200 years, ending with second World War

4. The most recent developments.

 ….Contd
 During the Greek era, geodesy was considered to be one of the most
challenging disciplines.
 Thales of Miletus (625-447 B.C.) involves the first documented ideas
about Geodesy
 The first star maps were prepared by Eudoxus Aristoteles (384-322
B.C) formulated the argument for the sphericity of the earth and first
hints of gravity was considered.
 Around the end of the 3rd century the spherical coordinates were
introduced.
 ….Contd
 Aristarchus (310-250 B.C.) tried to determine the dimensions and
distances of the moon and the sun.
 Aristarchus can be called the Father of Geodesy.
 The major explorations got under way at the end of the fifteenth
century with Columbus (1492), Vasco da Gama (1497), Magellan
(1519).
 Scientific Beginnings in the Middle Ages
 Cartography is the art of displaying the final product of geodesy.
 Mercator can be considered to be the father of modern cartography.
 Geodesy in Modern Era

 The mid-20th century saw the drawing of the technological revolution.

 Prompted by weapons and defense requirements during 2nd World War,

 The invention of a radio detection and ranging system, radar, had a deep

effect on the philosophy behind geodetic instruments.

 They first used polarized light, then radio waves and finally lasers.

 The launching of the first satellites was another giant leap for geodesy.
 ….Cont

 Satellites also brought about a new project for geodesy:

 The mapping of the gravity field above the earth to predict the

satellite orbits.

 The last important development of geodesy concerns the sea.

 It helps to satisfy the steadily growing demand for accurate

navigation.
 Chapter Two
Gravity measurements and
data processing
 Gravity Measurements
 Gravimetry, is measurement of gravity, that allow the determination of
gravity acceleration, gravity, for specific positions and gravity changes
with time at a given location.
 Geodetic networks with local, regional or global extent can be surveyed
to monitor short-term and long-term gravity variations.
 The national and international gravity base networks are not stable with
time because of
• The dynamics within the Earth’s system (tectonics),
• Climate change, and Sea-level rise
 ….Cont.
 The recommended unit of acceleration in the System International (SI)
Unit is the unit m/s2.
 In geodesy and geophysics, the non-SI unit Gal or gu (1 Gal = 1cm/s2 =
0.01 m/s2) is also used
 In order to provide gravity differences and to describe small deviations or
uncertainties 1Gal = 103 mGal
1 mGal = 10−5 m/s2 1Gal = 106 μGal
1 μGal = 10−8 m/s2 1mGal = 103 μGal
 The two basic gravity measurements are:

1. Absolute Gravimetry:- the determination of gravity, (g), from the

fundamental acceleration quantities length and time,

 and is classically made using large pendulums or falling body techniques,

 which can be made with a precision of 0.01 Gal.

2. Relative Gravimetry:- the determination of a difference in gravity, ∆g,

by direct or indirect observations of the two acceleration quantities length

and time
Absolute Gravimetry
 ….Cont.
 Absolute gravity values at survey stations are obtained by reference to the
International Gravity Standardization Network (IGSN) of 1971.
 To determine the difference in gravity between an IGSN station and a
field location the absolute value of gravity at that location can be
determined.
 IGSN71 - a network of stations using 24,000 gravimeters, 1,200
pendulums at which the absolute values of gravity have been determined
by reference to sites of 10 absolute gravity measurements
International Gravity Standardization Network (IGSN) of 1971
Relative Gravimetry
 Gravity reference Network
 There are International and regional Gravity Reference system.
 Three international gravity reference systems are well-known globally.
• ITRF (International Terrestrial Reference Frame)
• WGS (World Geodetic System)
• EGM (Earth Gravitational Model)
 There are also regional controllers suitable for certain areas, such as
• North American Gravity Database (NAGD) and
• European Combined Geodetic Network (ECGN).
 ….Cont.
Gravity Reference
Description Application
System
Combines GPS data with Geodetic measurement
ITRF 5 other space geodesy with millimeter-level
techniques accuracy

Covers terrestrial and Navigation, geocoding,

WGS
ocean areas and targeting applications

Combines satellite data Geodesy and

EGM
with ground observations oceanographic studies
Gravity Measurement in the Air
 Gravity Measurement on Water Bodies
 Measuring gravity on the surface of a body of water presents
unique challenges.
 The motion of waves and currents can cause fluctuations in the
readings, which must be compensated for.
 One method involves using a floating gravimeter that is
stabilized by a platform on the water's surface.
 Another method is to use a device called an echo sounder,
which can measure the depth of the water using sound waves.
 From this information, the density of the water can be estimated,
and the gravitational acceleration can be calculated
 Gravity Measurement Under Water Bodies
 Gravimeters must be deployed underwater, which requires
specialized equipment and techniques.
 using a remote-controlled submersible that contains the
gravimeter and
using a device autonomous underwater vehicle, which can be
programmed to follow a specific path while collecting gravity
data.
These methods have been used to create detailed maps of the sea
floor, which can provide insights into plate tectonics and other
geological phenomena.
 ….Cont.
 Understanding the gravitational forces at work beneath the
ocean is crucial for understanding the geophysical processes
shaping the Earth's crust.“
 A submersible can be used to deploy a gravimeter below the
surface of the water.
 An autonomous underwater vehicle can collect gravity data
while exploring the ocean floor
 Gravity measurement has many practical applications,
 from understanding the structure of the earth to assessing the
risk of natural disasters.
 It is a critical tool for scientists and engineers, allowing us to
explore and understand the world around us.
 ….Cont.
Error sources in gravimetry.
Gravimeters are essential tools in the field of geophysics.
They measure variations in gravitational fields and are used to
study the structure and composition of the Earth's subsurface.
 However, measurements can be affected by various sources of
error.
 Environmental Factors:- Changes in temperature, humidity, and
air pressure can cause fluctuations in gravity and affect
measurements.
 Instrumental Errors:- Instrumental drifts, tilts, and malfunctions
can cause systematic errors in measurements.
 Human Errors:- Human error in handling, calibration, or data
recording can cause random errors in measurements.
 CHAPTER THREE

Fundamentals of physical geodesy

 The figure and structure of the earth.

In geodesy, the figure of the Earth is the size and shape used to model
planet Earth.
The kind of figure depends on application, including the precision needed
for the model.
A spherical Earth is a well-known historical approximation that is
satisfactory for geography, astronomy and many other purposes.
Several models with greater accuracy (including ellipsoid) have been
developed so that coordinate systems can serve the precise needs
of navigation, surveying, cadastre, land use, and various other concerns.
 ….Cont.
 The Pythagorean concept of a spherical Earth offers a simple surface that
is easy to deal with mathematically.
 Many astronomical and navigational computations use a sphere to model
the Earth as a close approximation.
 However, a more accurate figure is needed for measuring distances and
areas on the scale beyond the purely local.
 Better approximations can be made by modeling the entire surface as
an oblate spheroid, using spherical harmonics to approximate the geoid, or
modeling a region with a best-fit reference ellipsoid.
 Sphere
 The simplest model for the shape of the entire Earth is a sphere.
The Earth is only approximately spherical, so no single value serves as its
natural radius.
Distances from points on the surface to the center range from 6,353 km
(3,948 mi) to 6,384 km (3,967 mi).
Several different ways of modeling the Earth as a sphere each yield a mean
radius of 6,371 km.
The difference 21 km correspond to the polar radius being approximately
0.3% shorter than the equatorial radius.
 Ellipsoid of revolution
 As theorized by Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens, the Earth is
flattened at the poles and bulged at the equator.
Thus, geodesy represents the figure of the Earth as an oblate spheroid.
The oblate spheroid, or oblate ellipsoid, is an ellipsoid of revolution
obtained by rotating an ellipse about its shorter axis.
A spheroid describing the figure of the Earth or other celestial body is
called a reference ellipsoid.
The reference ellipsoid for Earth is called an Earth ellipsoid.
 Fundamental Ellipsoid parameters
 An ellipsoid of revolution is uniquely defined by two quantities.
 Several conventions for expressing the two quantities are used in geodesy,
but they are all equivalent to and convertible with each other.
 Equatorial radius a (called semi major axis), and polar radius b (called
semi minor axis);
 a and eccentricity (e)
 a and flattening (f)
 …Cont.
• Due to Geoidal variation in the Earth’s shape, there are different ellipsoids
developed in the world to approximate the geoid.

• They may have different origins and orientations to best fit the surface area
of interest. For example, in Figure, ellipsoid ‘A’ best fits over one region of
the geoid, and ellipsoid ‘B’ fits globally to the geoid, but both provide a
poor fit in many other areas.

• In general, for global measurements, it is ideal to use a global reference

ellipsoid (e.g., WGS84) that best fits the entire globe.

• For local applications, locally fitted ellipsoids are preferable.

Ellipsoidal Parameters
Principal radii of curvature of rotational ellipsoid
 Widely used reference ellipsoids
Name Year a (m) 1/f Remarks

Clarke 1880 6 378 249.145 293.465 Ethiopia

GRS 80 1980 6 378 137 298.257 222 101 Recomm. by IAG

WGS 84 1984 6 378 137 298.257 223 563 Used in GPS

Hayford 1910 6 378 388 297 N America, ED 87

Radius of curvature on the ellipsoid
Radius of curvature on the ellipsoid
Radius of curvature on the ellipsoid
Length of the Meridian Arc
Length of the Meridian Arc
Length of the Meridian Arc (latitude) value
 Radius of Curvature on the reference ellipsoid

• (Meridian, Prime vertical radius of the curvature and mean radius)

The meridians and parallels are the lines of curvature of the rotational
ellipsoid.

The principal radii of curvature are therefore in the plane of the meridian
and in the plane of the prime vertical perpendicular to the meridian plane

The radius (M) of curvature of the meridian (N-S):

 …Cont.
The radius of curvature in the prime vertical:

The radius of curvature of the ellipsoidal normal section with the geodetic
azimuth α is computed:

Mean radius (𝑅𝑚) of curvature (𝑅𝛼 averaged over all directions)

Theory of the earth gravity field and the earth gravity potential

Newton made fundamental observations on

gravitation:

The force between two attracting bodies is

proportional to the individual masses.

The force is inversely proportional to the

square of the distance.

The force is directed along the line

connecting the two bodies.
 Gravitational potential

The gravitational attraction field a is a conservative field.

This means that the same amount of work has to be done to go from
point A to point B, no matter which path you take.
 Gravity Field of the Earth
Total force (Gravity) = the gravitational force + centrifugal force

Centrifugal force

Centrifugal potential
 Laplace’s and Poisson's differential equation

• If you are in a region of space where there is no mass density,

• then Poisson’s equation reduces to Δϕ(x) = 0, which is called Laplace’s

equation.

• Laplace’s equation is easier to solve than Poisson’s equation.

• The solution of the Laplace equation is the most important step in

solving the boundary value problem.
 The Laplace equation - Spherical Coordinates
• We can solve Laplace’s equation and the first and second bvp globally.
• The Laplace equation will provide a new set of base functions.
• We will assume a spherical Earth and we will use spherical coordinates r,
 and . The strategy consists of the following steps:
• i) write down Laplace’s equation in spherical coordinates,
• ii) separation of variables,
• iii) solution of 3 separate odes,
• iv) combining all possible solutions into a series development
(superposition),
• v) apply the regularity condition and discard conflicting solutions,
• vi) develop boundary functions (Dirichlet and Neumann) into series,
• vii) compare coefficients,
• viii) write down full solution.
The Laplace equation in spherical coordinates
• Thus we can separate the
Laplace operator in a radial
and surface part.
• This idea is followed in the
subsequent separation of
variables, too.
• First we will treat the radial
component by putting (r, ,
) = f(r)Y (, ).
• After that, the angular
components are treated by
setting Y (, ) = g()h().
• Applying the Laplace
operator to  = fY , omitting
the arguments and using
primes to abbreviate the
derivatives, we can write:
The Laplace equation - Spherical Coordinates
 The Laplace equation - Spherical Coordinates

Following the same reasoning again, the left part only depends on  and the
right part only on . The latter yields the ode of an harmonic oscillator again,
leading to the known solutions:
 The Laplace equation - Spherical Coordinates
The ode of the -part is somewhat more elaborate. It is called the
characteristic differential equation for the associated Legendre3 functions.
After division by sin2 it reads:

The functions Plm(cos ) are called the associated Legendre functions of the
1st kind, the functions Qlm(cos ) those of the 2nd kind. The functions
Qlm(cos ) are infinite at the poles, which is why they are discarded right
away.
Solid and surface spherical harmonics

The indices l and m of these functions have roles similar to the wave-
numbers n and m in the Fourier series :
• l is the spherical harmonic degree,
• m is the spherical harmonic order, also known as the longitudinal wave-
number
 The full general solution
• As we will see later, the degree l must always be larger than or equal to
m: l  m.
• The full, general solution is attained now by adding all possible
combinations of base functions, each multiplied by a constant, over all
possible l and m..
 Normal Field
• Geodetic observables depend on the geometry (r) and the gravity field (W)
of the Earth.
• In general the functional relation will be nonlinear:
f = f(r,W)
• Approximation of the Earth by a sphere would be too inaccurate. The
equatorial radius of the Earth is some 21.5 km larger than its polar radius.
• A rotationally symmetric ellipsoid is accurate enough, though. The geoid,
which represents the physical shape of the Earth, doesn’t deviate more than
100m from the ellipsoid.
• The potential and the gravity field that are consistent with such an ellipsoid
are called normal potential and normal gravity. Thus, the normal field is
an ellipsoidal approximation to the real gravity field.
 Normal Field
• For the actual gravity potential we have the following linearization:

•W=U+T

• with: W = full gravity potential

• U = normal potential (W0)

• T = disturbing potential (W)

• γ = Normal gravity

• γ Derivation of W
 Normal potential
• The geometry of the ellipsoid is determined by two parameters for size and
shape (a and f)
• The description of the physical field, i.e. the normal gravity potential,
requires two further parameters.
• The strength is given by the geocentric gravitational constant (GM0). And
since we’re dealing with gravity the Earth rotation rate () must be
involved, too.
• This basic set of 4 parameters defines the normal field fully (a, J2,GM0, )
• The normal potential is defined to have the following properties:
• it is rotationally symmetric (zonal),
• it has equatorial symmetry,
• it is constant on the ellipsoid.
 Normal potential
• This set of properties provides an algorithm to derive the normal potential
and gravity formulae.

• The normal potential U:

• Since we only want to represent the normal potential on and outside the
ellipsoid, its mass distribution is irrelevant.
• For the following development it will be useful to assume all masses to be
contained in a sphere of radius a.
 Normal potential
• With the first property, rotational symmetry, we get the following
simplification:

• The next property—equatorial symmetry—reduces the series to even

degrees only. Actually only terms up to degree 8 are required. We
thus get:
 Normal Gravity
• We cannot have a constant normal gravity on the surface of the ellipsoid
simultaneously with a constant normal potential. Thus the -dependency
remains.

• If we evaluate the equation on the equator and on the pole, we get the
values:
 Gravity Flattening
• Note that b > a since the pole is closer to the Earth’s center of mass.
• Similar to the geometric flattening f = (a − b)/a we now define the gravity
flattening:

• Numerically f* is approximately 0.005, i.e. the same size as the other three
small quantities.
• If we now insert the normal gravity on equator and pole into this gravity
flattening formula we end up with:
 Normal gravity outside the ellipsoid
• Upward continue the normal gravity value on the ellipsoid, i.e. to have a
formula like (h, ) = ()g(h), in which g(h) is some function of the
height of above the ellipsoid.

• This is achieved by a Taylor series:

 Adopted normal gravity
• The theory of the equipotential ellipsoid was first given by Pizzetti in 1894.
• It was further elaborated by Somigliana in 1929.
• The following formula for normal gravity is generally valid.
• It is called the Somigliana-Pizzetti normal gravity formula:
 Normal gravity as function of latitude
• The variable is the geodetic latitude. In case of GRS80 the constants a, b, a,
b, e2 and k are known
• For GRS80 the following series expansion is used:

With 0.1 mGal accuracy