Heat Transfer Unsteady state conduction

Unsteady-State Conduction (Transient Conduction)

If a solid body is subjected to a change in environment, some time must elapse before an
equilibrium temperature condition will prevail in the body. We refer to the equilibrium
condition as the steady state. The transient heating or cooling process that takes place in the
interim period before equilibrium is the unsteady state.

In the preceding course, we considered heat conduction under steady conditions, for which the
temperature of a body at any point does not change with time. This certainly simplified the
analysis, especially when the temperature varied in one direction only, and we were able to
obtain analytical solutions. In this lecture, we consider the variation of temperature with time
as well as position.

To analyze a transient heat-transfer problem, we could proceed by solving the general heat-
conduction equation:
˙
∂2 𝑇 ∂2 𝑇 ∂2 𝑇 𝑞 1 ∂𝑇
+ + + =
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑧 2 𝑘 𝛼 ∂𝑡

For one-diementional unsteady state heat conduction (no heat generation):

∂2 𝑇 1 ∂𝑇
=
∂𝑥 2 𝛼 ∂𝑡
Where the quantity 𝛼 = 𝑘/𝜌𝑐𝑝 is called the thermal diffusivity of the material (m2/s).

Salwan Alturki
Heat Transfer Unsteady state conduction

Consider a small hot copper ball coming out of an oven.

Measurements indicate that the temperature of the copper

ball changes with time, but it does not change much with

position at any given time. Thus the temperature of the ball

remains uniform at all times, and we can talk about the

temperature of the ball with no reference to a specific location.

Now let us go to the other extreme and consider a large roast

in an oven. If you have done any roasting, you must have

noticed that the temperature distribution within the roast

is not even close to being uniform. You can easily verify this

by taking the roast out before it is completely done and cutting it in half. You will see that the
outer parts of the roast are well done while the center part is barely warm. Thus, lumped system
analysis is not applicable in this case.

Salwan Alturki
Heat Transfer Unsteady state conduction

Applicability of Lumped Heat Capacity System:

The criteria used for a system to be LHC system is:
ℎ𝐿𝑐
≤ 0.1
𝑘
Where hLc/k is called Biot number and it represents the ratio of the
convection at the surface to conduction within the body.
Lc is the characteristic length.
Lc= V/ As
So that lumped system analysis is applicable if
Bi ≤ 0.1
Where:
Lc = 1/2 (thick) = L for plate
Lc = r/2 for cylinder
Lc = r/3 for sphere

Consider heat transfer from a hot body to its cooler surroundings

(Fig. aside). Heat will be transferred from the body to the
surrounding fluid as a result of a temperature difference. But this
energy will come from the region near the surface, and thus the
temperature of the body near the surface will drop.
This creates a temperature gradient between the inner and
outer regions of the body and initiates heat flow by conduction
from the interior of the body toward the outer surface.
When the convection heat transfer coefficient h and
thus convection heat transfer from the body are high, the
temperature of the body near the surface will drop quickly
This will create a larger temperature difference between the inner and outer regions unless the
body is able to transfer heat from the inner to the outer regions just as fast.

Salwan Alturki
Heat Transfer Unsteady state conduction

Thus, the magnitude of the maximum temperature difference within the body depends strongly
on the ability of a body to conduct heat toward its surface relative to the ability of the
surrounding medium to convect this heat away from the surface. The Biot number is a measure
of the relative magnitudes of these two competing effects.

Example: A steel ball [c = 0.46 kJ/kg · ◦C, k = 35 W/m · ◦C] 5.0 cm in diameter and initially
at a uniform temperature of 450◦C is suddenly placed in a controlled environment in which the
temperature is maintained at 100◦C. The convection heat-transfer coefficient is 10 W/m2 · ◦C.
Calculate the time required for the ball to attain a temperature of 150◦C. (ρsteel= 7800 kg/m3)

Solution:
We anticipate that the lumped-capacity method will apply because of the low value of h and
high value of k. We can check by using Bi:

Lc=D/6=0.05/6=0.0083 m

ℎ𝐿𝑐 (10)(0.0083)
𝐵𝑖 = = = 0.0023 < 0.1
𝑘 (35)
So we can use the equation of LHC system:
𝑇 = 150∘ C 𝜌 = 7800kg/m3
𝑇∞ = 100∘ C ℎ = 10W/m2 ⋅∘ C
𝑇𝑖 = 450∘ C 𝑐 = 460J/kg ⋅∘ C

𝜌𝑐𝑉 (7800)(460)(0.0083)
= = 2990 𝑠
ℎ𝐴𝑠 10

𝜃 = 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 150 − 100 = 50 °C
𝜃𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ = 450 − 100 = 350 °C
50 = 350 𝑒 −𝑡/2990
t≈ 5818 𝑠 = 1.62 ℎ

Salwan Alturki
Heat Transfer Unsteady state conduction

Example: An ingot (K=40 W/m.°C) has a cylindrical shape with 10 cm diameter and 30 cm
long passes through a heat treatment furnace .The ingot must reach a temperature of 800 °C
before if comes out of the furnace. The furnace gas is at 1250 °C and ingot initial temperatures
is 90 °C. What is the time with which the ingot should stay in the furnace to attain the required
temperature? The convective surface heat transfer coefficient is 100 W/m 2. °C. Take the
thermal diffusivity of ingot=1.16 m2/sec, (ρ=7800 kg/m3, C=460 J/kg. °C).

Salwan Alturki
Heat Transfer Unsteady state conduction

H.W: A thermocouple junction, which may be approximated by a sphere, is to be used for

temperature measurement in a gas stream. The convection heat transfer coefficient between the
junction surface and the gas is known to be h = 400 W/m2 .K, and the junction thermophysical
properties are k = 20 W/m.K, Cp = 400 J/kg.K, and ρ = 8500 kg/m3 . Determine the junction
diameter needed for the thermocouple to have a time constant of 1 s. If the junction is at 25°C
and is placed in a gas stream that is at 200°C, how long will it take for the junction to reach
199°C?

Salwan Alturki
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

THE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

A heat exchanger typically involves two

flowing fluids separated by a solid wall.
Heat is first transferred from the hot fluid
to the wall by convection, through the wall
by conduction, and from the wall to the cold
fluid again by convection.
The thermal resistance network associated
with this heat transfer process involves
two convection and one conduction resistances.
Here the subscripts i and o represent the inner and outer
surfaces of the inner tube

Where U: is the overall heat transfer coefficient.

For plane wall:

For cylindrical wall:

The overall heat-transfer coefficient may be based on either the inside or the outside area
of the tube. Accordingly,
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

Fouling Factor
The performance of heat exchangers usually deteriorates with time as a result of
accumulation of deposits on heat transfer surfaces. The layer of deposits
represents additional resistance to heat transfer, which is represented by a fouling
factor Rf.

Rf must be included along with the other thermal resistances making up the
overall heat-transfer coefficient, thus For an unfinned shell-and-tube heat
exchanger, it can be expressed as:
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

ANALYSIS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice, and an engineer often finds
himself or herself in a position to select a heat exchanger that will achieve a
specified temperature change in a fluid stream of known mass flow rate, or to
predict the outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams in a specified
heat exchanger.

We will discuss the two methods used in the analysis of heat exchangers, the log
mean temperature difference (or LMTD) method and the effectiveness–NTU
method.
But first we present some general considerations. Heat exchangers usually
operate for long periods of time with no change in their operating conditions.
Therefore, they can be modelled as steady-flow devices. As such,
- the mass flow rate of each fluid remains constant.
- the fluid properties such as temperature and velocity at any inlet or outlet
remain the same.
- Axial heat conduction along the tube is usually insignificant and can be
considered negligible.
- The specific heat of a fluid, in general, changes with temperature. But, in
a specified temperature range, it can be treated as a constant.
- Finally, the outer surface of the heat exchanger is assumed to be perfectly
insulated, so that there is no heat loss to the surrounding medium, and any
heat transfer occurs between the two fluids only.
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

THE LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD)

METHOD
If q is the total rate of heat transfer between the hot and cold fluids and there is
negligible heat transfer between the exchanger and its surroundings:

˙
𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 (𝑇𝑐,out − 𝑇𝑐,in )
˙
𝑞 = 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ (𝑇ℎ,in − 𝑇ℎ,out )

Where the subscripts c and h stand for cold and hot fluids, respectively.
The heat transfer rate can be calculated by:

q = 𝑈𝐴𝑠 Δ𝑇lm
Where:
Δ𝑇Im : is called the log mean temperature difference (LMTD).

Δ𝑇1 − Δ𝑇2
Δ𝑇Im =
Δ𝑇
ln ( 1 )
Δ𝑇2

Here ∆T1 and ∆T2 represent the temperature difference between the two fluids at
the two ends (inlet and outlet) of the heat exchanger.
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

The variation of temperatures of hot and cold fluids in a counter-flow heat

exchanger is given in figure below. Note that the hot and cold fluids enter the heat
exchanger from opposite ends, and the outlet temperature of the cold fluid in this
case may exceed the outlet temperature of the hot fluid.
However, the outlet temperature of the cold fluid can never exceed the inlet
temperature of the hot fluid, since this would be a violation of the second law
of thermodynamics.
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

For specified inlet and outlet temperatures, the log mean temperature difference
for a counter-flow heat exchanger is always greater than that for a parallel-flow
heat exchanger. That is,Δ𝑇Im,CF ˃Δ𝑇Im,PF and thus a smaller surface area (and thus
a smaller heat exchanger) is needed to achieve a specified heat transfer rate in a
counter-flow heat exchanger.
Therefore, it is common practice to use counter-flow arrangements in heat
exchangers.
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

H.W: It is desired to heat 230 kg/h of water [cp =4.175 kJ/kg. ◦C] from 35 to 93◦C
with oil [cp =2.1 kJ/kg .◦C] having an initial temperature of 175◦C. The mass flow
of oil is also 230 kg/h. Two double-pipe heat exchangers are available:
exchanger 1: U =570 W/m2 · ◦C A=0.47 m2
exchanger 2: U =370 W/m2 · ◦C A=0.94 m2
Which exchanger should be used?
: ‫مالحظة مهمة‬
When Tc,out > Th,out counter flow must be used
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

Heat-Exchanger Design Considerations

In the process and power industries, or related activities, many heat exchangers are

purchased as off-the-shelf items, and a selection is made on the basis of cost and

specifications furnished by the various manufacturers. In more specialized applications,

such as the aerospace and electronics industries, a particular design is frequently called for.

Where a heat exchanger forms a part of an overall machine or device to be manufactured,

a standard item may be purchased; or if cost considerations and manufacturing quantities

warrant, the heat exchanger may be specially designed for the application. Whether the heat

exchanger is selected as an off-the-shelf item or designed especially for the application, the

following factors are almost always considered:

i. Heat Transfer Rate

This is the most important quantity in the selection of a heat exchanger. A heat exchanger

should be capable of transferring heat at the specified rate in order to achieve the desired

temperature change of the fluid at the specified mass flow rate.

ii. Cost

Budgetary limitations usually play an important role in the selection of heat exchangers,

except for some specialized cases where “money is no object.” An off-the-shelf heat

exchanger has a definite cost advantage over those made to order. However, in some cases,

none of the existing heat exchangers will do, and it may be necessary to undertake the

expensive and time-consuming task of designing and manufacturing a heat exchanger from

scratch to suit the needs. This is often the case when the heat exchanger is an integral part

1|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

of the overall device to be manufactured. The operation and maintenance costs of the heat

exchanger are also important considerations in assessing the overall cost.

iii. Pumping Power

In a heat exchanger, both fluids are usually forced to flow by pumps or fans that consume

electrical power. The annual cost of electricity associated with the operation of the pumps

and fans can be determined from:

Where the pumping power is the total electrical power consumed by the motors of the

pumps and fans.

For example, a heat exchanger that involves a 1-hp pump and a 1/3-hp fan (1 hp = 0.746

kW) operating 8 h a day and 5 days a week will consume 2017 kWh of electricity per year,

which will cost $161.4 at an electricity cost of 8 cents/kWh. (1 cent= $ 0.01)

iv. Size and Weight

Normally, the smaller and the lighter the heat exchanger, the better it is. This is especially

the case in the automotive and aerospace industries, where size and weight requirements

are most stringent.

v. Type

The type of heat exchanger to be selected depends primarily on the type of fluids involved,

the size and weight limitations, and the presence of any phase change processes.

2|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

vi. Materials

The materials used in the construction of the heat exchanger may be an important

consideration in the selection of heat exchangers. In the case of corrosive fluids, we may

have to select expensive corrosion-resistant materials such as stainless steel or even

titanium.

3|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are devices that used to promote the exchange of heat between two
fluids that are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other.

Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from
heating and air-conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power
production in large plants.

Heat exchangers are often given specific names to reflect the specific application for
which they are used. For example, a condenser is a heat exchanger in which one of the
fluids is cooled and condenses as it flows through the heat exchanger.

A boiler is another heat exchanger in which one of the fluids absorbs heat and vaporizes.
A space radiator is a heat exchanger that transfers heat from the hot fluid to the
surrounding space by radiation.

Types of Heat Exchanger

Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and types of
construction.

1. Double pipe (or concentric tube) - Parallel and counter flow.

Either the hot or cold fluid occupying the annular space and the other fluid occupying the
inside of the inner pipe. Heat Exchangers can be classified depending on the basic of the
fluid paths into:

• Parallel flow: Both the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at the same

end and move in the same direction.

• Counter flow: Hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at opposite ends and

flow in opposite directions.

1|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

Fig: Scheme of flow regimes and associated temperature profiles in a double-pipe heat
exchanger

2. Cross flow: the two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other (mixed and
unmixed).

2|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

3. Compact heat exchangers

Another type of heat exchanger, which is specifically designed to realize a large heat
transfer surface area per unit volume. The ratio of the heat transfer surface area of a heat
exchanger to its volume is called the area density (β).

A heat exchanger with β ˃700 m2/m3 (or 200 ft2/ft3) is classified as being compact.
Examples of compact heat exchangers are car radiators (β ≈1000 m 2/m3), glass ceramic
gas turbine heat exchangers (β ≈ 6000m2/m3), and the human lung (β ≈ 20,000 m2/m3 ).

Compact heat exchangers enable us to achieve high heat transfer rates between two fluids
in a small volume, and they are commonly used in applications with strict limitations on
the weight and volume of heat exchangers (see Fig. below).

The large surface area in compact heat exchangers is obtained by attaching closely spaced
thin plate or corrugated fins to the walls separating the two fluids. Compact heat
exchangers are commonly used in gas-to-gas and gas-to-liquid (or liquid-to-gas) heat
exchangers to counteract the low heat transfer coefficient associated with gas flow with
increased surface area. In a car radiator, which is a water-to-air compact heat exchanger,
for example, it is no surprise that fins are attached to the air side of the tube surface.

In compact heat exchangers, the two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other, and
such flow configuration is called cross-flow.

3|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

4. Shell-and-tube Heat Exchanger

A type of heat exchanger widely used in the chemical-process industries is that of the shell-
and-tube arrangement, One fluid flows on the inside of the tubes, while the other fluid is
forced through the shell and over the outside of the tubes.

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers contain a large number of tubes (sometimes several

hundred) packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat transfer takes
place as one fluid flows inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes
through the shell. Baffles are commonly placed in the shell to force the shell-side fluid to
flow across the shell to enhance heat transfer and to maintain uniform spacing between the
tubes. Despite their widespread use, shell and-tube heat exchangers are not suitable for use
in automotive and aircraft applications because of their relatively large size and weight.
Note that the tubes in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger open to some large flow areas called
headers at both ends of the shell, where the tube-side fluid accumulates before entering the
tubes and after leaving them.

4|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are further classified according to the number of shell and
tube passes involved. Heat exchangers in which all the tubes make one U-turn in the
shell, for example, are called one-shell-pass and two tube-passes heat exchangers.
Likewise, a heat exchanger that involves two passes in the shell and four passes in the
tubes is called a two-shell-passes and four-tube-passes heat exchanger.

Fig: The schematic of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger (one-shell pass and one
tube pass)

Fig: Multipass flow arrangements in shell and-tube heat exchangers

5|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

5. Plate heat exchanger

A plate heat exchanger is a unit which transfers heat continuously from one media
to another media without adding energy to the process. The basic concept of a plate
and frame heat exchanger is two liquids flowing on either side of a thin corrugated
metal plate so heat may be easily transferred between the two. (By conduction
across the plate)

6|Page
Heat Transfer Heat Exchangers

The plates are compressed by means of tie bolts between a stationary frame part
(called the head) and a movable frame part (called the follower).
The plate heat exchanger efficiency requires less floor space compared to other
types of heat transfer equipment and is lighter in weight.

Also, plate heat exchangers can grow with increasing demand for heat transfer by
simply mounting more plates. They are well suited for liquid-to-liquid heat
exchange applications, provided that the hot and cold fluid streams are at about the
same pressure.

7|Page
H.W: It is desired to heat 230 kg/h of water [cp =4.175 kJ/kg. ◦C] from 35 to 93◦C
with oil [cp =2.1 kJ/kg .◦C] having an initial temperature of 175◦C. The mass flow
of oil is also 230 kg/h. Two double-pipe heat exchangers are available:
exchanger 1: U =570 W/m2 · ◦C A=0.47 m2
exchanger 2: U =370 W/m2 · ◦C A=0.94 m2
Which exchanger should be used?
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers (Use of a Correction

Factor)

If a heat exchanger other than the double-pipe type is used, the heat transfer is
calculated by using a correction factor applied to the LMTD for a counterflow
double-pipe arrangement with the same hot and cold fluid temperatures. The heat-
transfer equation then takes the form:

q=UA FΔTlm,CF
Where:

F: is the correction factor, which depends on the geometry of the heat exchanger
and the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams.

ΔTlm,CF : is the log mean temperature difference for the case of a counter-flow
heat exchanger with the same inlet and outlet temperatures and is determined
from below:

Δ𝑇1 − Δ𝑇2
Δ𝑇Im,CF =
Δ𝑇
ln ( 1 )
Δ𝑇2

By taking

ΔT1 = Th,in - Tc,out ; and

ΔT2 = Th,out - Tc,in

Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

Values of the correction factor are plotted in Figures below for several different
types of heat exchangers versus two temperature ratios P and R defined as.

and

Where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent the inlet and outlet, respectively. Not that
for a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, T and t represent the shell- and tube-side
temperatures, respectively, as shown in the correction factor charts. It makes no
difference whether the hot or the cold fluid flows through the shell or the tube.
The determination of the correction factor F requires the availability of the inlet
and the outlet temperatures for both the cold and hot fluids.

When a phase change is involved, as n condensation or boiling (evaporation), the

fluid normally remains at essentially constant temperature and the relations are
simplified. For this condition, P or R becomes zero and we obtain:

F =1.0 for boiling or condensation

Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer (II)

Remember that:
cen58933_ch13.qxd 9/9/2002 9:57 AM Page 684

684
HEAT TRANSFER

1.0
T1
0.9 t2

Correction factor F
t1
0.8 T2
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.7

0.6 T1 – T2
R = ——–
t2 – t1
0.5 t2 – t1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 P = ——–
T1 – t1
(a) One-shell pass and 2, 4, 6, etc. (any multiple of 2), tube passes

1.0
T1
0.9
Correction factor F

t2

0.8
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 t1
0.7
T2
0.6 T1 – T2
R = ——–
t2 – t1
0.5 t2 – t1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 P = ——–
T1 – t1
(b) Two-shell passes and 4, 8, 12, etc. (any multiple of 4), tube passes

1.0
T1
0.9
Correction factor F

0.8 t1 t2
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.7

0.6 T1 – T2 T2
R = ——–
t2 – t1
0.5 t2 – t1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 P = ——–
T1 – t1
(c) Single-pass cross-flow with both fluids unmixed

1.0
T1
0.9
Correction factor F

0.8 t1 t2
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.7
FIGURE 13–18 T1 – T2
0.6 T2
Correction factor F charts R = ——–
t2 – t1
for common shell-and-tube and 0.5 t2 – t1
cross-flow heat exchangers (from 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 P = ——–
T1 – t1
Bowman, Mueller, and Nagle, Ref. 2). (d) Single-pass cross-flow with one fluid mixed and the other unmixed
re
ho
try to use other methods to calculate the effectiveness
cen58933_ch13.qxd 9/9/2002 9:57 AM Page 695

695
CHAPTER 13

100 100
=0 =0
ax ax
Cm Cm
80 55

/
80

/
0.2

n
0.25

mi
mi

C
C

Effectiveness ε, %
Effectiveness ε, %
5
0.50 0.71.00

0
0.5
60 0.75 60
1.00
40 40 Shell fluid
Tube Tube
fluid fluid
20 20

Shell fluid
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer units NTU = AsU/Cmin Number of transfer units NTU = AsU/Cmin
(a) Parallel-flow (b) Counter-flow

100 100
=0 =0
x ax
/C ma / C m
n 0.25 80 in 0.250
80 0.5

m
i

C
m

0.50
C

0.75

Effectiveness ε, %
Effectiveness ε, %

0.75 1.00
60 1.00 60

40 Shell fluid 40 Shell fluid

20 20
Tube fluid
Tube fluid
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer units NTU = AsU/Cmin Number of transfer units NTU = AsU/Cmin
(c) One-shell pass and 2, 4, 6, … tube passes (d ) Two-shell passes and 4, 8, 12, … tube passes

100 100
,
=0 =0 0.25
d 4
xe
ax mi 0.5
Cm un
5 80
d /C

80 2
0.2 0
n/

0.75
mi

0.5 5
xe
C

1.33
mi
Effectiveness ε, %

0.7 00
Effectiveness ε, %

1
60 1. 60
Cold fluid

40 Hot 40 Mixed
fluid fluid

20 20
Unmixed fluid
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer units NTU = AsU/Cmin Number of transfer units NTU = AsU/Cmin
(e) Cross-flow with both fluids unmixed ( f ) Cross-flow with one fluid mixed and the
other unmixed
FIGURE 13–26
Effectiveness for heat exchangers (from Kays and London, Ref. 5).
Heat Transfer

(4) A stainless-steel rod (ρ=7817 kg/m3, C=460 J/kg. °C) 6.4 mm in diameter is initially at a
uniform temperature of 150◦C and is suddenly immersed in a liquid at 25◦C with h = 120
W/m2°C. Using the lumped-capacity method of analysis, calculate the time necessary for the
rod temperature to reach 120◦C.
Sol:
Given information:
𝑇 = 120∘ C 𝜌 = 7817 kg/m3
𝑇∞ = 25 °C ℎ = 120W/m2 ⋅∘ C
𝑇𝑖 = 150∘ C 𝑐 = 460J/kg ⋅∘ C
Lc=D/4=0.0064/4=0.0016 m

By using the equation of LHC system:

𝜃 = 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏

𝜌𝑐𝑉 (7817)(460)(0.0016)
𝜏= = = 47.94 𝑠
ℎ𝐴𝑠 120

𝜃 = 𝜃𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 120 − 25 = 95 °C
𝜃𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ = 150 − 25 = 125 °C
95 = 125 𝑒 −𝑡/47.94
t=13.16 𝑠

(11) A sphere has a thermal diffusivity of 9.5 ×10-7 m2/s, a diameter of 2.5 cm, and a thermal
conductivity of 1.52 W/m.◦C. The sphere is initially at a uniform temperature of 25 ◦C and
is suddenly subjected to a convection environment at 200 ◦C. The convection heat-transfer
coefficient is 110 W/m2◦C. Calculate the temperatures at the center and at a radius of 6.4
mm after a time of 3 min. Ans: To= 179 ◦C , T(6.4)= 181.3◦C

Given information:

k = 1.52 W/m · ◦C

α = 9.5 × 10-7 m2/s

1|Page
Heat Transfer

Ti=25◦C

T∞=200◦C

h = 110 W/m2 · ◦C

t = 3 min = 180 s

r0 = 1.25 cm=0.0125 m

r = 0.064 cm

Then:

To calculate (To):

𝛼𝑡 (9.5 × 10−7 )(180)

= = 1.094
𝑟02 (0.0125)2 From figure (7)

𝑘 1.52 𝜃0
= = 1.105 = 0.12
ℎ𝑟0 (110)(0.0125) 𝜃𝑖

𝜃0
𝜃0 = ∗ 𝜃𝑖 = 0.12 ∗ (25 − 200) = −21 °𝐶
𝜃𝑖
𝜃0 = To-T∞→To=-21+200=179 °𝐶

Now you complete the solution:

To calculate (T):

𝑟
= = From figure ( )
𝑟0
𝜃
𝑘 =
= 𝜃𝑜
ℎ𝑟0

𝜃
𝜃= × 𝜃𝑜 = … … × … … = ℃
𝜃𝑜

𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ → 𝑇 =

2|Page
Heat Transfer

Principles of Convection

We have considered conduction, which is the mechanism of heat transfer through a solid or a
quiescent fluid. We now consider convection, which is the mechanism of heat transfer through
a fluid in the presence of fluid motion.

Conduction and convection are similar in that both mechanisms require the presence of a
material medium. But they are different in that convection requires the presence of fluid
motion. The higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat transfer.

Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection, depending on how the fluid
motion is initiated. In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe
by external means such as a pump or a fan. In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused
by natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer fluid
and the fall of the cooler fluid.

3|Page
Heat Transfer

VISCOUS FLOW

 For a flow over a flat plate as shown in Figure above, different flow region develops
by the influence of viscous forces.
 The viscous forces are described in terms of a shear stress τ between the fluid layers.
 The region of flow that develops from the leading edge of the plate in which the
effects of viscosity are observed is called the boundary layer.

The development of boundary layer from the leading edge passes three stages:

1- Laminar: flow of the fluid in smooth streamlines.

2- Transition: small disturbances in flow.

3- Turbulent: random flow which is characterized by eddies.

For flat plate the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when:

𝑢∞ 𝑥 𝜌𝑢∞ 𝑥
= > 5 × 105
𝑣 𝜇

Where

u∞ = free-stream velocity, m/s

x = distance from leading edge, m

ν = μ/ρ = kinematic viscosity, m2/s

μ= dynamic viscosity, (N.s/m2 or kg/m.s)

4|Page
Heat Transfer

The boundary layer thickness,𝛿, is typically defined as the distance y from the surface to
the position at which u= 0.99 u∞.

This region of the flow above the plate bounded by 𝛿 in which the effects of the viscous
shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity, it is called the velocity boundary layer.

Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

Consider the boundary-layer flow system shown in Figure. The free-stream velocity outside
the boundary layer is u∞ , and the boundary-layer thickness is δ.

The thickness of the boundary layer at any distance on the flat plate can be estimated by
using the following equation:

𝛿 4.64
= 1
𝑥
Re2𝑥

Where:

𝑢∞ 𝑥 𝜌𝑢∞ 𝑥
Re𝑥 = =
𝑣 𝜇

5|Page
Heat Transfer

Example: Air at 27◦C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s. Calculate the
boundary-layer thickness at distances of 20 cm and 40 cm from the leading edge of the plate.
The viscosity of air at 27◦C is 1.85 × 10−5 kg/m.s.

Solution:

H.W: Air flows over a flat plate at a constant velocity of 20 m/s and ambient conditions of
1 atm and 60 °C. Calculate the boundary-layer thickness at a 3 cm distance from the leading
edge of the plate.

6|Page
Heat Transfer

7|Page
Heat Transfer

THE RELATION BETWEEN FLUID FRICTION AND HEAT

TRANSFER

We have already seen that the temperature and flow fields are related. Now we seek an
expression whereby the frictional resistance may be directly related to heat transfer.

The shear stress at the wall may be expressed in terms of a friction coefficient Cf:

2
𝜌𝑢∞
𝜏𝑤 = 𝐶𝑓
2

The exact solution of the boundary-layer equations yields:

𝐶𝑓𝑥 −1/2
= 0.332Re𝑥
2

And:

1/2
Nu𝑥 = 0.332Pr1/3 Re𝑥

The above equation may be rewritten in the following form:

1
Nu𝑥 ℎ𝑥 −
2 −
= = 0.332 Pr 3 Re𝑥 2
Re𝑥 Pr 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢∞

The group on the left is called the Stanton number,

ℎ𝑥
St 𝑥 =
𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢∞

so that

2 1
−
St 𝑥 Pr 3 = 0.332Re𝑥 2

And

The last equation called the Reynolds-Colburn analogy, expresses the relation between
fluid friction and heat transfer for laminar flow on a flat plate.

1|Page
Example: For the flow system in the previous example which includes: Air at 27°C and 1
atm flow over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s. Assume that the plate is heated over its entire
length to a temperature of 60◦C. compute the drag force exerted on the first 40 cm of the
plate using the analogy between fluid friction and heat transfer. Assume unit depth in the z
direction.

Solution:

All fluid properties are calculated at the film temperature:

27 + 60
𝑇𝑓 = = 43.5∘ C = 316.5K
2

2|Page
 H.W
1) Air at 90◦C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 30 m/s. How thick is
the boundary layer at a distance of 2.5 cm from the leading edge of the plate?
Ans: 6.21x10-4 m
2) Air at 1 atm and 30◦C flows over a 15-cm-square plate at a velocity of 10 m/s.
Calculate the maximum boundary layer thickness.
Ans: 0.00225 m
3) Helium at 1 atm and 300 K is used to cool a l-m-square plate maintained at 500 K.
The flow velocity is 50 m/s. Calculate the total heat loss from the plate. What is the
boundary-layer thickness as the flow leaves the plate?
Ans: 10.52 kW, 0.0094 m

3|Page
Example: Calculate the ratio of thermal boundary layer thickness to hydrodynamic
boundary layer thickness for the following liquids:

Air at 100 KPa and 20 ; water at 20 ; liquid ammonia at 20 .

Solution:

By applying this eq:

And by extracting Pr the from fluid properties tables:

Subs Pr

Air 0.709 1.093

H2 O 7 0.509
NH3 0.887 1.014

Example: free stream velocity of 6 m/s.

Determine the velocity boundary layer and thermal boundary layer thickness at a distance
of 0.5 m from the leading edge.

Solution:

Pr = 0.711 from Table A-5

Then:
 Properties of gases at atmospheric pressure† (Continued).
Values of , , , and Pr are not strongly pressure-dependent for He, H2 , O2 , and N2
and may be used over a fairly wide range of pressures

K kg/m3 kJ/kg C , kg/m s , m2 s W/m C , m2 s Pr

Carbon dioxide

220 2 4733 0 783 11 105 10 6 4 490 10 6 0 010805 0 05920 10 4 0 818

250 2 1657 0 804 12 590 5 813 0 012884 0 07401 0 793
300 1 7973 0 871 14 958 8 321 0 016572 0 10588 0 770
350 1 5362 0 900 17 205 11 19 0 02047 0 14808 0 755
400 1 3424 0 942 19 32 14 39 0 02461 0 19463 0 738
450 1 1918 0 980 21 34 17 90 0 02897 0 24813 0 721
500 1 0732 1 013 23 26 21 67 0 03352 0 3084 0 702
550 0 9739 1 047 25 08 25 74 0 03821 0 3750 0 685
600 0 8938 1 076 26 83 30 02 0 04311 0 4483 0 668

Ammonia, NH3

273 0 7929 2 177 9 353 10 6 1 18 10 5 0 0220 0 1308 10 4 0 90

323 0 6487 2 177 11 035 1 70 0 0270 0 1920 0 88
373 0 5590 2 236 12 886 2 30 0 0327 0 2619 0 87
423 0 4934 2 315 14 672 2 97 0 0391 0 3432 0 87
473 0 4405 2 395 16 49 3 74 0 0467 0 4421 0 84

Water vapor

380 0 5863 2 060 12 71 10 6 2 16 10 5 0 0246 0 2036 10 4 1 060

400 0 5542 2 014 13 44 2 42 0 0261 0 2338 1 040
450 0 4902 1 980 15 25 3 11 0 0299 0 307 1 010
500 0 4405 1 985 17 04 3 86 0 0339 0 387 0 996
550 0 4005 1 997 18 84 4 70 0 0379 0 475 0 991
600 0 3652 2 026 20 67 5 66 0 0422 0 573 0 986
650 0 3380 2 056 22 47 6 64 0 0464 0 666 0 995
700 0 3140 2 085 24 26 7 72 0 0505 0 772 1 000
750 0 2931 2 119 26 04 8 88 0 0549 0 883 1 005
800 0 2739 2 152 27 86 10 20 0 0592 1 001 1 010
850 0 2579 2 186 29 69 11 52 0 0637 1 130 1 019
†Adapted to SI units from E. R. G. Eckert and R. M. Drake, Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959.
 Properties of water (saturated liquid).†
2
Note: Gr Pr 3

F C kJ/kg C kg/m3 kg/m s W/m C Pr 1/m3 C

32 0 4.225 999.8 1 79 10 3 0.566 13 25

40 4 44 4.208 999.8 1 55 0.575 11 35 1 91 109
50 10 4.195 999.2 1 31 0.585 9 40 6 34 109
60 15 56 4.186 998.6 1 12 0.595 7 88 1 08 1010
70 21 11 4.179 997.4 9 8 10 4 0.604 6 78 1 46 1010
80 26 67 4.179 995.8 86 0.614 5 85 1 91 1010
90 32 22 4.174 994.9 7 65 0.623 5 12 2 48 1010
100 37 78 4.174 993.0 6 82 0.630 4 53 33 1010
110 43 33 4.174 990.6 6 16 0.637 4 04 4 19 1010
120 48 89 4.174 988.8 5 62 0.644 3 64 4 89 1010
130 54 44 4.179 985.7 5 13 0.649 3 30 5 66 1010
140 60 4.179 983.3 4 71 0.654 3 01 6 48 1010
150 65 55 4.183 980.3 43 0.659 2 73 7 62 1010
160 71 11 4.186 977.3 4 01 0.665 2 53 8 84 1010
170 76 67 4.191 973.7 3 72 0.668 2 33 9 85 1010
180 82 22 4.195 970.2 3 47 0.673 2 16 1 09 1011
190 87 78 4.199 966.7 3 27 0.675 2 03
200 93 33 4.204 963.2 3 06 0.678 1 90
220 104 4 4.216 955.1 2 67 0.684 1 66
240 115 6 4.229 946.7 2 44 0.685 1 51
260 126 7 4.250 937.2 2 19 0.685 1 36
280 137 8 4.271 928.1 1 98 0.685 1 24
300 148 9 4.296 918.0 1 86 0.684 1 17
350 176 7 4.371 890.4 1 57 0.677 1 02
400 204 4 4.467 859.4 1 36 0.665 1 00
450 232 2 4.585 825.7 1 20 0.646 0 85
500 260 4.731 785.2 1 07 0.616 0 83
550 287 7 5.024 735.5 9 51 10 5
600 315 6 5.703 678.7 8 68
†Adapted to SI units from A. I. Brown and S. M. Marco, Introduction to Heat Transfer, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958.
Example: , assume that

the plate is heated over its entire length to a temperature of 60 C. Calculate the heat

transferred in (a) the first 20 cm of the plate and (b) the first 40 cm of the plate.
Solution:
Heat Transfer (II)

Heisler Charts
A group of curves are used with unsteady-state case when Biot no. is greater than 0.1. The most
cases that to be treated are:

1- Infinite plate (plate where thickness is very small in comparison to other dimension).

2- Infinite cylinder (where the diameter is very small compared to length)

3- Sphere.

In these charts we note the definitions:

T∞ = Environment temperature
Ti = Initial temperature of the solid(t = 0)
𝜃 = 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑡) − 𝑇∞ or𝑇(𝑟, 𝑡) − 𝑇∞
𝜃𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
𝜃0 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇∞

There are three charts associated with each geometry:

The first chart is to determine the temperature To at the center of the geometry at a given time
(t).
Heat Transfer (II)

𝜃0
= (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )/(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ )
𝜃𝑖

The second chart is to determine the temperature at other locations at the same time in terms
of To.

𝜃/𝜃0 = (𝑇 − 𝑇∞ )/(𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )

The third chart is to determine the total amount of heat transfer up to the time t (Q/Qo).

Where:

𝑄0 = 𝜌𝑐𝑉(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ ) = 𝜌𝑐𝑉𝜃𝑖

- If a centreline temperature (To) is desired, only one chart is required to obtain a value
for θ0 and then T0, i.e Chart (1) for infinite plate, Chart (4) for infinite cylinder and
Chart (7) for sphere.
- To determine an off-center temperature, two charts are required to calculate the product:
𝜃 𝜃0 𝜃
=
𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑖 𝜃0
For example, Charts (1) and (2) would be employed to calculate an off-center
temperature for an infinite plate.

-The heat losses for the infinite plate, infinite cylinder, and sphere are given in
Charts 3, 6 and 9, respectively, where Q0 represents the initial internal energy content
of the body in reference to the environment temperature, and Q is the actual heat lost
by the body in time t.
Note that: (x,r) is measured from the center towards the surface.

The Biot and Fourier Numbers

The temperature profiles and heat flows may all be expressed in terms of two
dimensionless parameters called the Biot and Fourier numbers:
Heat Transfer (II)

ℎ𝑠
Biot number = Bi =
𝑘
𝛼𝑡 𝑘𝑡
Fourier number = Fo = =
𝑠 2 𝜌𝑐𝑠 2

In these parameters s for the plate it is the half-thickness, whereas for the cylinder and
sphere it is the radius.
The value of Fo no. means that the period of time is required to heat or cool the body.
A low value of (Fo) indicates that a long period of time is required to cool or heat the
body.

Applicability of the Heisler Charts

The Heisler charts is applicable in the case of Fo no. is greater than 0.2.

𝛼𝑡
(Fo) = > 0.2
𝑠2

Example: A large plate of aluminum (k = 215 W/m · ◦C) 5.0 cm thick and initially at 200◦C
is suddenly exposed to the convection environment of 70◦C with a heat-transfer coefficient of
525 W/m2 · ◦C. Calculate the temperature at a depth of 1.25 cm from one of the faces 1 min
after the plate has been exposed to the environment. How much energy has been removed per
unit area from the plate in this time?

α = 8.4 × 10−5 m2/s, ρ=2700 kg/m3, cp=900 j/kg.°C

Solution:

The Heisler charts of Figures (1) and (2) may be used for solution of this problem. We first
calculate the center temperature of the plate, using Figure (1), and then use Figure (2) to
calculate the temperature at the specified x position.

Given information:

k = 215 W/m · ◦C

ρ=2700 kg/m3
Heat Transfer (II)

cp=900 j/kg.°C

α = 8.4 × 10−5 m2/s

Ti=200◦C

T∞=70◦C

h = 525 W/m2 · ◦C

2L = 5.0 cm then L = 2.5 cm =0.025 m

x = 2.5 − 1.25 = 1.25 cm

t = 1 min = 60 s

Then

𝛼𝑡 (8.4 × 10−5 )(60)

= = 8.064 From figure (1)
𝐿2 (0.025)2
𝜃0
𝑘 215 = 0.61
= = 16.38 𝜃𝑖
ℎ𝐿 (525)(0.025)

𝑥 1.25
= = 0.5
𝐿 2.5 From figure (2)

𝑘 𝜃
= 16.38 = 0.98
ℎ𝐿 𝜃0

𝜃 𝜃0 𝜃
= × = 0.61 ∗ 0.98 = 0.5918
𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑖 𝜃0

𝜃 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇 − 70
= = → 𝑻 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟕 °𝑪
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 200 − 70
Heat Transfer (II)

To find the amount of heat transfer by using Figure (3):

ℎ2 𝛼𝑡 (525)2 (8.4 × 10−5 )(60)

= = 0.03 From figure (3)
𝑘2 (215)2
𝑄
ℎ𝐿 = 0.41
= 0.061 𝑄0
𝑘

𝑄0 = 𝑚𝑐𝜃𝑖 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝜃𝑖 = 𝜌𝐴(2𝐿)𝑐𝜃𝑖

For unit area:

𝑄0 𝜌𝑐𝐴(2𝐿)𝜃𝑖
= = 𝜌𝑐(2𝐿)𝜃𝑖
𝐴 𝐴
= (2700)(900)(0.05)(130)
= 15.8 × 106 J/m2

so that the heat removed per unit surface area is:

𝑄 𝐉
= (15.8 × 106 )(0.41) = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟐
𝐴 𝐦

Example: A long aluminum cylinder (k = 215 W/m · ◦C) 5.0 cm in diameter and initially at
200◦C is suddenly exposed to a convection environment at 70◦C and h = 525 W/m2 · ◦C.
Calculate the centreline temperature; and temperature at a radius of 1.25 cm and the heat lost
per unit length 1 min after the cylinder is exposed to the environment.

α = 8.4 × 10−5 m2/s, ρ=2700 kg/m3, cp=900 j/kg.°C

Solution:

Given information:

k = 215 W/m · ◦C

ρ=2700 kg/m3

cp=900 j/kg.°C

α = 8.4 × 10−5 m2/s

Ti=200◦C
Heat Transfer (II)

T∞=70◦C

h = 525 W/m2 · ◦C

t = 1 min = 60 s

r0 = 2.5 cm=0.025 m

r = 1.25 cm

Then:

To calculate (To):

𝛼𝑡 (8.4 × 10−5 )(60)

= = 8.064
𝑟02 (0.025)2 From figure (4)

𝑘 215 𝜃0
= = 16.38 = 0.38
ℎ𝑟0 (525)(0.025) 𝜃𝑖

𝜃0
𝜃0 = ∗ 𝜃𝑖 = 0.38(200 − 70) = 49.4 °𝐶
𝜃𝑖
𝜃0 = To-T∞→To=49.4+70=119.4 °𝐶

To calculate (T):

𝑟 1.25
= = 0.5 From figure (5)
𝑟0 2.5
𝜃
𝑘 = 0.98
= 16.38 𝜃𝑜
ℎ𝑟0

𝜃 = 0.98 × 𝜃𝑜 = 0.98 × 49.4 = 48.4 ℃

𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ → 𝑇 = 70 + 48.4 = 118.4∘ C

To compute the heat lost:

ℎ2 𝛼𝑡 (525)2 (8.4 × 10−5 )(60)

= = 0.03
𝑘2 (215)2 From figure (6)
𝑄
ℎ𝑟0 (525)(0.025) = 0.65
= = 0.061 𝑄0
𝑘 215
Heat Transfer (II)

𝑄0 = 𝑚𝑐𝜃𝑖 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝜃𝑖 = 𝜌𝑐𝐿𝜋𝑟02 𝜃𝑖

For unit length:

𝑄0 𝜌𝑐𝐿𝜋𝑟02 𝜃𝑖
= = 𝜌𝑐𝜋𝑟02 𝜃𝑖 = (2700)(900)𝜋(0.025)2 (130) = 6.203 × 105 J/m
𝐿 𝐿

and the actual heat lost per unit length is:

𝑄
= (6.203 × 105 )(0.65) = 4.032 × 105 J/m
𝐿
Unsteady-State Conduction (Charts & Tables) Plate

Chart (1)

2
Salwan Alturki
Unsteady-State Conduction (Charts & Tables) Plate

Chart (2)

Chart (3)

3
Salwan Alturki
Unsteady-State Conduction (Charts & Tables) Cylinder

Chart (4)

4
Salwan Alturki
Unsteady-State Conduction (Charts & Tables) Cylinder

Chart (5)

Chart (6)

5
Salwan Alturki
Unsteady-State Conduction (Charts & Tables) Sphere

Chart (7)

6
Salwan Alturki
Unsteady-State Conduction (Charts & Tables) Sphere

Chart (8)

Chart (9)

7
Salwan Alturki