INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Proponent:
George A. Miller
- Information Processing Theory, a cognitive framework developed by
American psychologists George A. Miller and Richard Shiffrin in the (1960s),
explains how the human mind processes, stores, and retrieves information.
- George Armitage Miller was the first to put forth the idea of the theory of
information processing. He considered as a progenitor of the information
processing model in psychology.
- George Miller, one of the key figures in this theory, introduced the idea of
parallel processing, which asserts that our brain processes multiple pieces of
information simultaneously.
- Miller discovered the capacity of the working memory, which can generally
hold up to seven plus or minus two items.
- Additionally, he coined the term “chunking” when describing the functionalities
of short-term memory.

Statement of the Theory

- American psychologist George A. Miller and Richard Shiffrin state that
Information Processing focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored in
and is retrieved from our memory.
- They describe IPT (Information Processing Theory) as how the learner
receives information (stimuli) from the environment through the senses and
what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue
to pass through the sensory register, then the short term memory and the long
term memory.
- Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved
or “remembered” when the learner needs it. We first consider the types of
knowledge that the learner may receive include:

General vs Specific

This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in

one.

Declarative

This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things
are. They may be in the form of a word or an image.

Episodic

This includes memories of lifeProcedural

events, like your high school graduation.

This includes knowledge on how to do things.

Conditional

This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or

procedural strategies.
 -The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-
term memory and the long-term memory.
- IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information
becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema,
concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).These three primary stages in IPT
are:
 Encoding- Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

 Storage- The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of

time, depending upon the processes following encoding.

 Retrieval- The information is brought back at the appropriate time and

reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective
memory.

Executive Control Processes

- involve the executive processor of what is referred to as metacognitive

skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system,
help the learner make informed decisions about how to categorize,
organize or interpret information. Example of processes are attention,
rehearsals and organization.

Forgetting - is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:
Decay – Information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’
away. Very prevalent in Working Memory.
Interference- New or old information ‘blocks’ access to the
Information in the question.

Conclusion:
The conclusion of the information processing theory is that understanding how
individuals process and organize information can provide insights into learning and
cognitive functioning. By examining the cognitive processes involved in information
processing, researchers and educators can develop effective strategies to enhance
learning and problem-solving abilities.

References

https://www.structural-learning.com/post/information-processing-
theory#:~:text=Information%20Processing%20Theory%2C%20a%20cgnitive,%2C
%20stores%2C%20and%20retrieves%20information.
https://research.com/education/what-is-information-processing-theory

SCRIPT THEORY

Proponent:
Silvan Tomkins
- Script theory was first introduced and presented by Silvan Tomkins in 19541)
as an extension of his affect theory2), but was further developed3) in late
1970s by Roger Schank. Script theory is an extension of schema theory,
orientated on explaining of the structure of knowledge, especially on
representation of complex event sequences.
- Silvan Tomkins developed script theory to further develop his affect theory,
which considers human beings’ emotional responses to stimuli to fall into
categories called “affects.”
- He noted that the biological response of effect can be followed by
consciousness and cognitive action on that consequence, signaling that more
was needed to explain “human being theory.”

Statement of the Theory

Script theory was first introduced and presented by Silvan Tomkins in 19541) as an
extension of his Affect theory, but was further developed3) in late 1970s by Roger
Schank. Script theory is an extension of schema theory, orientated on explaining of
the structure of knowledge, especially on representation of complex event
sequences.

What is script theory?

A script is a mental construct like schema, but which consist of a sequence of actions
or events necessary to achieve a goal. It can also include relevant people, locations
or objects. There are several similar definitions of scripts like:

 “a set of expectations about what will happen next in a well-understood

situation”
 “a coherent sequence of events expected by an individual in a particular
context, involving him either as participant or as an observer” or
 “a mental picture plus caption representing the action sequences,
participants, and physical objects found in a situation”.
This sequence of actions contained in a script is then applied in a situation also
called a scene. As Tomkins explains,
• “In my script theory, the scene, a happening with a perceived beginning and end, is
the basic unit of analysis. The whole connected set of scenes lived in sequence is
called the plot of a life. The script, in contrast, does not deal with all the scenes or
the plot of a life, but rather with the individual’s rules for predicting, interpreting,
responding to, and controlling a magnified set of scenes.”

Scripts can be defined into four different types:

 Episodic (for managing situations and events),

 Instrumental (for using and displaying procedural knowledge),

 Personal (for representing one’s own goals and plans), and

 Definitional (for object-recognition).

According to Schank, scripts are just like schemata, also a memory construct, yet he
believes that memory is organized around one’s personal experiences (episodic)
rather than categories of meaning. Schank is therefore a proponent of learning by
doing and experiential learning. New scripts are developed during lifetime and old
scripts can change as the result of new experiences.
- Roger Schank expanded upon the ideas of script theory proposed by Silvan
Tomkins and focused on the representation of complex event sequences in
cognitive processes. He emphasized the role of scripts in organizing
knowledge and guiding behavior.

- Schank’s work on script learning theory explored how individuals acquire and
develop scripts through their experiences and interactions with the
environment. He highlighted the importance of understanding the structure
and content of scripts in various domains, such as storytelling, education, and
problem-solving.
- It is important to note that while Silvan Tomkins laid the foundation for script
theory, Roger Schank further developed and expanded upon it, particularly in
the context of script learning theory.

Conclusion:
To conclude, the script learning theory is that schemas or scripts play a crucial role in
learning and memory. By organizing information into meaningful frameworks,
individuals can efficiently process and retrieve information, make predictions, and
engage in problem-solving. Script learning theory highlights the importance of prior
knowledge and experiences in learning. When individuals encounter new
information, they activate relevant schemas or scripts that help them interpret and
make sense of the information. This process of schema activation and integration
facilitates learning and comprehension.

References
https://www.learning-theories.org/doku.php?id=learning_theories:script_theory
https://learningdiscourses.com/discourse/script-theory/#:~:text=Script%20Theory
%20rests%20on%20an,sequence%20of%20events%20and%20actions.
 ANCHORED INSTRUCTIONS THEORY

Proponent:
John Bransford
- It was proposed by a cognitive and technical team under the leadership of
American professor John Bransford in Vanderbilt University in 1992. The
Anchored Instruction Theory emphasizes technology-based learning.
- While there have been many contributors to the paradigm of anchored
instruction, John Bransford is considered the leader of this framework.
Through the Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt University, he
 facilitated the idea of combining rich, meaningful contexts with technology-
based learning.
- According to him the anchored activity not only promotes connections
between the content and real-life but also between subject areas; students
can reflect on how other domains related to the learning activity, what
knowledge can be integrated to assist in understanding. As anchored
instruction promotes problem-solving, students are able to see how the
learning is meaningful.
Statement of the Theory
Anchored instruction is often considered to be a form of situated learning, which
connects prior knowledge to authentic situations. Students use the context provided
to apply their knowledge of a particular idea, which furthers develops their
understanding of a topic. The situations are realistic in order to assist students in
making connections. In anchored instruction, the task itself is considered the anchor,
or the idea around which all understanding will revolve. This usually comes in the
form of a story with a problem that needs to be solved. Anchoring refers to the
connection between the story and the real-life situation.
The anchored activity not only promotes connections between the content and real-
life but also between subject areas. Students can reflect on how other domains
related to the learning activity, what knowledge can be integrated to assist in
understanding. As anchored instruction promotes problem-solving, students are able
to see how the learning is meaningful.
A story or an adventure Is often used as the ‘anchor’ for an activity. This helps
capture the interest of the students and motivate them to solve the problem. The
activity itself usually includes all of the information necessary to find a resolution. Not
only does this make it more manageable for those who work in environments with
limited resources, the data provided is also used in scaffolded instruction.
Anchored instruction is similar to two other learning styles: case-based and problem-
based learning. Case-based learning is a slight extension of anchored instruction;
students elaborate on the texts and videos with class discussions. Alternatively,
problem-based learning focuses on expanding one’s thinking beyond the ideas
taught in class; students would continue to research the topic online.
Anchored Instruction Stages
1.) Introduction: Stage objectives:
 Engage or interest students
 Sets the stage or contest for the problems students should address
2.) Familiarization: Stage objectives:
 Get all learners on the same page
 Transfer ownership of the problem to learners
 Learners become responsible for concept application
3.) Expansion: Stage objectives:
 Opportunity for learners to research their topic and ideas
4.) Plan: Stage objectives:
 Learners plan how to address the problem
5.) Transfer: Stage objectives:
 Learners identify how concepts are applied elsewhere
 6.) Share: Stage objectives:
 Learners share their experiences

Anchored Instruction Components

There are four essential components to anchored instruction:

1. Meaningful context: videos provide a large-scale visualization of real

issues in the field as well as tools that experts use to problem-solve.
2. Authentic activities that offer the real-life practice of skills
3. Videos themselves, which are considered valuable to learning
because:
 They allow students to see the patterns between ideas.
 They clearly demonstrate the problem and encourage students to visualize a
solution.
 Students can see various dynamics and perspectives that occur within the
problem.
4. Goal-focused problem solving: identifying the learning target and
preparing strategies to overcome obstacles is what allows students to
be successful in their learning.

Principles
There are three underlying principles to anchored instruction:

1. Instructors relinquish control of learning control to students. Instead of

directing learning, they now act as facilitators or guides to support and assist
students on their learning journey.
2. Students develop their own questioning process as well as strategies to tackle
obstacles that they may encounter. They are also responsible for synthesizing
the information from the anchor video.
3. The instruction itself focuses on supporting students in developing the skills
necessary to summarize information and create a plan for learning.

Anchored instruction is arguably considered to be learning in a macro-context. This

is because many perspectives are often analyzed from one video or context. The
opposite of macro-context is micro-context, which assesses just one particular
dimension of an example. There are a few reasons why anchored instruction uses
macro and not micro-contexts.

 Macro-contexts offer an abundance of rich information and it is more

manageable.
  It provides neutral ground from which students can discover what they have in
common. Students are more likely to engage and participate in an element
that is relevant to them or that they find interesting.
 It is much easier for instructors to locate anchors for a project than it is to
develop specific resources to support a micro-context problem.
One of the greatest benefits of anchored learning is that it encourages active
participation from the students in their learning journey. The story often motivates the
learners to seek resolution to a problem while challenging them to look for clues. The
learner themselves must organize the information presented. This type of learning is
best suited for small groups so everyone is able to take part in each of the steps. As
the group evolves their solution to the problem, every student is able to reflect on the
questions that come up. Multiple ideas may arise, and the small group is responsible
for discussing and deciphering the information.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the anchored theory is that it provides a rigorous and systematic
approach to theory development. It allows researchers to generate theories that are
grounded in the data and closely aligned with the experiences and perspectives of
the participants. Anchored theory emphasizes the importance of inductive reasoning,
where theories are derived from the data rather than being preconceived or imposed
on the research. It involves a constant comparative analysis of the data, where
patterns, themes, and categories are identified and refined.

References:
https://educationaltechnology.net/anchored-instruction-model/
 ALGO-HEURISTIC THEORY

Proponent:
Landa, Lev N.
 - Landa’s theory is concerned with identifying mental processes — conscious
and especially unconscious — that underlie expert learning, thinking and
performance in any area.
- His methods represent a system of techniques for getting inside the mind of
expert learners and performers which enable one to uncover the processes
involved.
- Landa (1976) provides the following example of an algorithm for teaching a
foreign speaker how to choose among the English verbs “to offer”, “to
suggest” and “to propose”: Check to see whether something that one presents
to another person is a tangible object or viewed as tangible. If yes, use “offer”.
If no, it is an idea about some action to be performed. Check to see if this idea
is presented formally. If yes, use “propose”, otherwise use “suggest”. Applying
the snowball method would involve teaching the student the action of
checking the first condition and then the action of checking the second
condition followed by practice that requires both conditions to be checked.
Landa explains that after sufficient practice the application of the algorithm
would become automatic and unconscious.

Statement of the Theory

Algo-heuristics is a way of prescribing instruction for problem solving. In algo-
heuristics, the learner is encouraged to learn either algorithmic or heuristic problem
solving in a step by step process.
Specification of Theory
(a.) Goals and Preconditions
Problem-solving:
Processes – Sets of operations: Operations are transformations of (or changes to)
material objects or mental models.

(b.) Principles
1. It is more important to teach algo-heuristic processes versus prescriptions.
2. Processes can be taught through prescriptions and demonstrations of operations.
(Operations = changes of mental or material knowledge)
3. Discovery of processes is more valuable than providing formulated processes.
4. Individualize instruction.

(c.) Condition of learning

1. Instructional processes are influences directed by a “teacher” and directed at
transformation. (teacher refers to any teaching agent, live or material, i.e. books, AV,
computer)
2. Instructional processes are affected by teacher actions or instructional operations.
3. Instructional processes can be affected by certain conditions.
- external conditions, student psychology, teacher knowledge
4. There are three types of instructional rules: descriptive, prescriptive, and
permissive. Descriptive rules are statements about what occurs. Prescriptive rules
are statements about what should be done. Permissive rules indicate possible
alternatives to prescriptive rules.

(d.) Required media

None

(e.) Role of facilitator

Teaching involves solving instructional problems; the teacher has to determine and
perform actions that should be executed in order to meet objectives.

(f.) Instructional strategies

Determining Content

1. Uncover process underlying expert learners and mastery level performers.

2. Describe the process with a hypothetical descriptive model.
3. Test the correctness of the model.
4. Improve the model if necessary.
5. Optimize the model if possible.
6. Design the final algorithmic or non-algorithmic process to allow the learners to
perform on a mastery level.
7. Identify learning procedures leading to the development of algorithm or heuristic
performance.
8. Design algo-heuristic teaching procedures.
9. Design algo-heuristic based training materials.
10. If necessary, create a computer-based or other media based programmed
instruction.
11. Design methods for evaluation.
Instructional Method 1 – The step-by-step approach
1. Present the procedure to the student and demonstrate problem solving.
2. Develop the first operation.
3. Present a problem that requires the first operation and practice that operation.
4. Develop the second operation.
5. Present a problem that requires application of both operation and practice.
6. Develop the third operation.
7. Present a problem that represents all three problems.
8. Proceed until all problems are mastered.

Instructional Method 2 – Developing individual operations

1.Determine whether the student understands the meaning of a direction in the a
prescription and its operations.
If yes:
2. Present a problem that requires application of the problem.
3. Name the operation (give the learner a self-command) before he/she executes the
problem.
4. Present the next problem and have the learner give the command internally.
5. Continue practicing the operation until mastery.
If no:
2. Explain what the student does not understand.
3. Test the correctness of understanding and allow for practice. Provide extra
explanation and practice.
4. Go to #2 under “yes” above.

(g) Assessment method

Student is able to complete the operation at a mastery level.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the Algo-Heuristic Theory of Landa, Lev N. provides insights into the
different cognitive operations individuals employ when solving problems. By
understanding these operations, educators and instructional designers can develop
effective instructional strategies to facilitate learning and problem-solving skills.
References:
https://web.cortland.edu/frieda/id/IDtheories/3.html#:~:text=Algo%2DHeuristic
%20Theory&text=Authors%3A%20Landa%2C%20Lev%20N.
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/algo-heuristic/

CONTIGUITY THEORY

Proponent:
Edwin Ray Guthrie
-Edwin Ray Guthrie, (born January 9, 1886, Lincoln, Neb., U.S.—died April 23, 1959,
Seattle, Wash.), American psychologist who played a major role in the development
of the contiguity theory of learning, a classical account of how learning takes place.
- Guthrie’s contiguity theory specifies that “a combination of stimuli which has
accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that
movement”.
- According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association between a
particular stimulus and response.

Statement of the Theory

Guthrie’s contiguity theory specifies that “a combination of stimuli which has
accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that
movement”. According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association
between a particular stimulus and response. Furthermore, Guthrie argued that
stimuli and responses affect specific sensory-motor patterns; what is learned are
movements, not behaviors.

In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no significant role in learning since

they occur after the association between stimulus and response has been made.
Learning takes place in a single trial (all or none). However, since each stimulus
pattern is slightly different, many trials may be necessary to produce a general
response. One interesting principle that arises from this position is called
“postremity” which specifies that we always learn the last thing we do in response to
a specific stimulus situation.

Contiguity theory suggests that forgetting is due to interference rather than the
passage of time; stimuli become associated with new responses. Previous
conditioning can also be changed by being associated with inhibiting responses such
as fear or fatigue. The role of motivation is to create a state of arousal and activity
which produces responses that can be conditioned.

Application
Contiguity theory is intended to be a general theory of learning, although most of the
research supporting the theory was done with animals. Guthrie did apply his
framework to personality disorders (e.g. Guthrie, 1938).

Example
The classic experimental paradigm for Contiguity theory is cats learning to escape
from a puzzle box (Guthrie & Horton, 1946). Guthrie used a glass paneled box that
allowed him to photograph the exact movements of cats. These photographs
showed that cats learned to repeat the same sequence of movements associated
with the preceding escape from the box. Improvement comes about because
irrelevant movements are unlearned or not included in successive associations.

Principles
1.In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e., do
things).
2.Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements, instruction must
present very specific tasks.
3.Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a
generalized response.
4.The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the one that
will be associated.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the contiguity theory is that learning is influenced by the proximity and
timing of stimuli and responses. When a stimulus consistently precedes a specific
response, the association between the two strengthens, and the likelihood of the
response occurring in the presence of the stimulus increases.
References:
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/contiguity-theory/
 CONVERSATION THEORY

Proponent:
Gordon Pask
-The conversation theory is a transdisciplinary learning theory. Developed by Gordon
Pask in 1975, it is influenced by a range of cybernetics, linguistics, computer science
concepts, cognitive psychology and neurophysiology.
- his model of the underlying processes involved in complex human learning. As
such it can be read as a radical cybernetic constructivist account of human cognitive
emergence, a kind of ontology of human being.
- Pask’s Conversation Theory can apply normatively to schemes for designing and
evaluating technology-supported human learning.

Statement of the Theory

It tries to understand how complex topics are understood in conditions that are
controlled. A number of complex interactions are necessary for learners to construct
meaning and make knowledge explicit within real life sociocultural environments.
Language plays a major role in social systems where interpretation of another’s
behavior influences responses and where a conversation enables the creation of
meaning. These conversations are interactions that help overcome differences. It is a
mechanism for conflict resolution where through information transfer, the dissension
levels between participants is reduced and an agreement is reached to understand
something in a particular way. This sense making process involves a negotiation of
shared perspectives about various themes and leads to coordination.

A conversation normally takes place In a contractual or normative framework. An

individual agrees to participate in the conversation in order to learn about something.
The two participants in a conversation represent the cognitive structures of
knowledge and each has a different perspective and a role to play. The participants
can be human beings, states, countries, cultures and even artificial intelligence
machines which are a special form of human-machine interaction. A student may talk
with himself (critical thinking or metacognition) or refer to books or the internet in an
attempt to understand a topic.

Participants do not profit from the variety they bring as an individual but from the
variety that evolves from these interactions. All participants may profit from these
exchanges. Although specific outcomes of such interactive dialogues are
unpredictable in time they may lead to new inventions and discoveries. Becoming a
participant is an active process of developing goals that shape further participation. It
involves developing characteristics that identify one’s contributions to the
conversation and it leads to the development of procedures to ascertain that one is
still a participant.

Learning occurs as a result of continuing conversations on a focused subject matter

that these participants engage in over time. A conversation includes and depends on
mutual comprehension, agreements and agreements to disagree.

There are two types of learners

1. Global learners (learners that achieve understanding in large wholesome

leaps)
 2. Sequential learners (learners that acquire understanding in small related
portions)
Knowledge is agreed upon through the

Exchange of information. When understanding is tested, responses based on rote

memory are not accepted rather understanding has to be demonstrated by applying
this knowledge to an unfamiliar situation in a concrete non-verbal way. The theory
emphasizes teach back, a process in which one entity teachers another entity what
they have learned.
The theory is based on linguistic exchanges and itself therefore is a generator of the
languages involved. The conversational language must have the power to express
commands, questions, obedience, answers and requests. The language need not be
verbal; it can be graphics, music or facial expression. The theory aims to deregulate
and not to control. During a conversation, personal concepts are exchanged and
shared concepts (common meaning agreements) also known as public concepts
evolve. Only when there is a difference in concepts is there a need for a
conversation. Post a conversation, the personal concepts of two individuals may be
enriched but need not be identical.

Example
The first participant starts the conversation with the word mouse. This word will have
different meanings for the other participant. In order to clarify and agree upon the
meaning, a conversation is necessary. The first participant then clarifies on what a
mouse is, how it looks, what its purpose is, etc. The other participant then listens to
these views, considers the perspective and come as close as they can to the first
participant’s meaning. Then he shares his understanding. If there is a conflict in the
views, they are discussed. Once there is a consensus among the participants on
views about the mouse, there is an agreement over an understanding.

Conclusion:
To conclude, the conversation theory is that meaningful learning occurs through
effective and interactive conversations. By engaging in dialogue with others,
individuals can actively construct knowledge, clarify their understanding, and develop
new insights.

References:
https://www.communicationtheory.org/conversation-theory/
 Model-Centered Instruction/Design Layers Theory

Proponent:
Andrew Gibbons
Model-Centered Instruction (MCI) is a set of principles to guide instructional
designers in selecting and arranging design constructs, so it is appropriately called a
design theory. It favors designs that originate with and maintain the priority of models
as the central design
Background: A Layered View of Design—MCI is closely tied to a layered view of
designs. This view assumes that a designer organizes constructs within several
somewhat independent layers characteristic of instructional designs: the
model/content layer, the strategy layer, the control layer, the message layer, the
representation layer, the media-logic layer, and the management layer. The designer
selects and organizes structures within each layer in the process of forming a
design. The designer also aligns the structures within layers with those of other
layers to create a vertical modularity in the design that improves its manufacturability,
maintainability, and the reusability of designed elements. A design layer is typified by:
characteristic design goals, building-block constructs, design processes, design
expression and construction tools, and principles to guide the arrangement of
structures. Over time, a layer becomes associated with specialized skill sets,
publications, and a design culture. Instructional theories provide principles to guide
design within one or more of these layers, but no theory provides guidelines for all of
them, suggesting to designers the wisdom of subscribing to multiple local theories of
design rather than a single monolithic theory.

MCI Theory: Model-Centered Instruction, as any design theory, can be described

in terms of the prescriptive principles it expresses for each of these layers.
Content: The content of instruction should be perceived in terms of models of three
types: (1) models of environments, (2) models of cause-effect systems (natural or
manufactured), and (3) models of human performance. Together these constitute the
elements necessary for performance and therefore for learning. Content should be
expressed relative to the full model structure rather than simply as facts, topics, or
lists of tasks.
Strategy: The strategy of instruction should be perceived in terms of problems. A
problem is defined as any self-posed or instructor/designer-posed task or set of
tasks formed into structures called “work models” (Gibbons, et al., 1995). These are
essentially scoped performances within the environment, acting on systems,
exhibiting expert performance. Problems may be presented as worked examples or
as examples to be worked by the learner. During problem solution instructional
augmentations of several kinds may be offered or requested. Dynamic adjustment of
work model scope is an important strategic variable.
Control: Control (initiative) assignment should represent a balance between learner
and instructor/designer initiatives calculated to maximize learner momentum,
engagement, efficient guidance, and learner self-direction and self-evaluation.
Instructional controls (manipulative) should allow the learner maximum ability to
interact with the model and the instructional strategy’s management.
Message: Contributions to the message arise from multiple sources which may be
architecturally modularized: (1) from the workings of the model, (2) from the
instructional strategy, (3) from the controls management, (4) from external
informational resources, and (5) from tools supplied to support problem solving. The
merging of these into a coherent, organized, and synchronized message requires
some kind of message or display management function.
Representation: MCI makes no limiting assumptions about the representation of the
message. Especially with respect to model representation, it anticipates a broad
spectrum of possibilities—from externalized simulation models to verbal “snapshots”
and other symbolics that call up and make use of models learners already possess
in memory.
Medial-Logic: MCI makes no assumptions regarding the use of media. Its goal is to
achieve expressions that are transportable across media. The selection of the model
and the problem as central design constructs assist in this goal.
Principles
The principles of model-centered instruction are:
1.Experience: Learners should be given maximum opportunity to interact for
learning purposes with one or more systems or models of systems of three types:
environment, system, and/or expert performance. The terms model and simulation
are not synonymous; models can be expressed in a variety of computer-based and
non-computer-based forms.
2.Problem solving: Interaction with systems or models should be focused by the
solution of one or more carefully selected problems, expressed in terms of the
model, with solutions being performed by the learner, by a peer, or by an expert.
3.Denaturing: Models are necessarily denatured from the real by the medium in
which they are expressed. Designers must select a level of denaturing matching the
target learner’s existing knowledge and goals.
4.Sequence: Problems should be arranged in a carefully constructed sequence for
modeled solution or for active learner solution.
5.Goal orientation: Problems selected should be appropriate for the attainment of
specific instructional goals.
7.Resourcing: The learner should be given problem solving information resources,
materials, and tools within a solution environment (which may exist only in the
learner’s mind) commensurate with instructional goals and existing levels of
knowledge.
8.Instructional augmentation: The learner should be given support during solving
in the form of dynamic, specialized, designed instructional augmentations.

Conclusion:
The conclusion of Model-Centered Instruction and the Design Layers Theory is that
they provide a structured and effective approach to instructional design. By
incorporating models as central learning tools, MCI promotes active engagement,
critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
References:
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/design-layers/
 ELABORATION THEORY

Proponent:
Charles Reigeluth
 - Charles Reigeluth (Indiana University) and his colleagues in the late 1970s.
- Charles Reigeluth of Indiana University posited Elaboration Theory, an
instructional design model that aims to help select and sequence content in a
way that will optimize attainment of learning goals. Proponents feel the use of
motivators, analogies, summaries and syntheses leads to effective learning.
Statement of the Theory
According to elaboration theory, instruction should be organized in increasing order
of complexity for optimal learning. For example, when teaching a procedural task,
the simplest version of the task is presented first; subsequent lessons present
additional versions until the full range of tasks are taught. In each lesson, the learner
should be reminded of all versions taught so far (summary/synthesis). A key idea of
elaboration theory is that the learner needs to develop a meaningful context into
which subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated.

Elaboration theory proposes seven major strategy components: (1) an elaborative

sequence, (2) learning prerequisite sequences, (3) summary, (4) synthesis, (5)
analogies, (6) cognitive strategies, and (7) learner control. The first component is
the most critical as far as elaboration theory is concerned. The elaborative sequence
is defined as a simple to complex sequence in which the first lesson epitomizes
(rather than summarize or abstract) the ideas and skills that follow. Epitomizing
should be done on the basis of a single type of content (concepts, procedures,
principles), although two or more types may be elaborated simultaneously, and
should involve the learning of just a few fundamental or representative ideas or skills
at the application level.
It Is claimed that the elaboration approach results in the formation of more stable
cognitive structures and therefore better retention and transfer, increased learner
motivation through the creation of meaningful learning contexts, and the provision of
information about the content that allows informed learner control. Elaboration theory
is an extension of the work of Ausubel (advance organizers) and Bruner (spiral
curriculum).
According to Reigeluth (1999), Elaboration Theory has the following values:

1.It values a sequence of instruction that is as holistic as possible, to foster meaning-

making and motivation
2.It allows learners to make many scope and sequence decisions on their own
during the learning process
3.It is an approach that facilitates rapid prototyping in the instructional development
process
4It integrates viable approaches to scope and sequence into a coherent design
theory
There are three major approaches: (1) Conceptual Elaboration Sequence (used
when there are many related concepts to be learned), (2) Theoretical Elaboration
Sequence (used when there are many related principles to be learned), and (3)
Simplifying Conditions Sequence (used when a task of at least moderate
complexity is to be learned).

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the elaboration theory is that meaningful learning occurs when
learners make connections between new information and their prior knowledge. By
actively elaborating on the new material, such as by relating it to real-life examples,
organizing it into meaningful structures, or explaining it in their own words, learners
can deepen their understanding and make the information more memorable.

References:https://learning-theories.com/elaboration-theory-reigeluth.html
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/elaboration-theory/
 DOUBLE LOOP LEARNING THEORY

Proponent:
Chris Argyris
- Argyris (1976) proposes double loop learning theory which pertains to
learning to change underlying values and assumptions. The focus of the
 theory is on solving problems that are complex and ill-structured and which
change as problem-solving advances.
- It was created by Chris Argyris, a leading organizational trainer, in the mid-
1980’s, and developed over the next decade into an effective tool.
- According to him Double-loop learning is different than single-loop learning
which involves changing methods and improving efficiency to obtain
established objectives (i.e., “doing things right”). Double-loop learning
concerns changing the objectives themselves (i.e., “doing the right things”).
Statement of the Theory

What is Double-Loop Learning?

Double-loop learning is an educational concept and process that involves teaching
people to think more deeply about their own assumptions and beliefs. Double-loop
learning involves changing the setting on the thermostat (i.e., changing the objective
of the system). Double-loop learning calls for changing the objective itself. Indeed,
double-loop learning is not only about changing the objective, but involves
questioning the assumptions about that objective, the ways of discovering and
inventing new alternatives, objectives, and perceptions, as well as ways of
approaching problems.
Double-loop learning can be viewed as a distinctive educational strategy that
contains high- level potential to shift the perceptions of our learners.
There are four basic steps in the action theory learning process:
(1) discovery of espoused and theory-in-use, (2) invention of new meanings,
(3) production of new actions, and (4) generalization of results. Double loop
learning involves applying each of these steps to itself. In double loop learning,
assumptions underlying current views are questioned and hypotheses about
behavior tested publically. The end result of double loop learning should be
increased effectiveness in decision-making and better acceptance of failures and
mistakes.
Double-Loop Learning and Leadership Educating
One of the key purposes of leadership education is to influence people’s thinking and
behavior to become more effective leaders. Leading is about transformation. The
intent of double-loop learning is also transformation; the transformation of deeply
held perspectives of the world in which we work and act. Double-loop learning can
be viewed as a distinctive educational strategy that contains high- level potential to
shift the perceptions of our learners.
The strategy or method used to achieve this type of deeper learning Is a form of
communication, of dialogue that involves a good deal of interaction among learners.
It proposes that the educator “drill down” into a topic in order to identify and bring the
taken-for-granted assumptions and beliefs of the learners to the surface. Double-
Loop Learning helps people acquire and integrate new information and develop new
skills, to question and possibly discard familiar and perhaps dysfunctional ways of
thinking, feeling, and acting.
Conclusion
Therefore, I conclude that double loop learning is that it promotes deeper
understanding and more meaningful change. By engaging in reflective thinking and
questioning the underlying assumptions, individuals can identify and challenge the
root causes of problems or limitations in their actions. This allows for a more
comprehensive and transformative learning experience.

References:
https://journalofleadershiped.org/jole_articles/double-loop-learning-a-concept-and-
process-for-leadership-educators/#:~:text=Double%2Dloop%20learning%20is
%20an,decade%20into%20an%20effective%20tool.
https://journalofleadershiped.org/jole_articles/double-loop-learning-a-concept-and-
process-for-leadership-educators/
 DUAL CODING LEARNING THEORY

Proponent:
Allan Paivio
- Allan Paivio (1971), proposed that individuals process visual and verbal
information individually and at the same time. This is a human cognition
theory, which claims that combining both verbal material and visuals is a
useful learning technique.
- Paivio (1986) states: “Human cognition is unique in that it has become
specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal
objects and events.
 - The dual-coding teaching strategy finds its roots in Allan Paivio’s Dual-Coding
Theory and cognitive load theory. This approach aims to reduce cognitive
overload in learners by utilizing both visuospatial sketchpads and
phonological loops for presenting complex concepts, effectively boosting
memory capacity and understanding.

Statement of the Theory

What is Dual Coding?
The process of providing students with verbal and visual materials at the same
time is called Dual Coding. Cognitive Psychologists have identified the six most
effective learning strategies for improving long-term memory and dual coding is
one of those strategies. Learning materials can be visually represented in many
ways such as graphic organizers’, flow charts, diagrams, cartoon strips,
editable timeline and infographics.

Having the same information in both formats – visual images and words – offers
two ways to remember the information. This domain of research has received a lot of
interest as a learning technique. With the rise of evidence-informed education,
teachers are beginning to drop outdated ideas like learning styles. Institutions like
the education endowment foundation are providing accessible resources that have
been shown to improve student learning. Dual coding offers an opportunity for
teachers to confidently advance their classroom practice.
According to the Dual-Coding Theory, if a teacher shares visual and verbal
explanations simultaneously, the students are more likely to process the knowledge
and retain knowledge more effectively.

The educational phenomena of Dual coding is based on scientific evidence. It is

different from learning styles, which deals with students deciding how they believe
they learn best. Dual coding primarily relates to how the brain processes information.

The Working Memory Model of Alan Baddeley also supports the concept of
complementary audio and visual processing routes inside the brain to benefit
detailed memories.

The Dual-Coding Theory posits that the human mind processes information through
separate systems: one for visual stimuli and another for verbal stimuli. By
simultaneously engaging both systems, learners can better grasp and retain complex
concepts. This idea aligns with human cognition theory, which emphasizes the
importance of minimizing cognitive overload when performing cognitive tasks.
Using Dual Coding in the Classroom
When an instructor is using the most effective learning strategies for dual coding,
students can understand and remember the details later on. Even it might help to
draw something on the classroom board alongside the explanations.

Conclusion
In conclusion of the dual coding theory is that utilizing both verbal and visual coding
can be beneficial for learning and memory. By combining words and images, we can
create a more robust and interconnected representation of information in our minds.
This can lead to better comprehension, recall, and problem-solving abilities.

References:
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/dual-coding/
https://www.structural-learning.com/post/dual-coding-a-teachers-guide