course of algebra 1

A. DJOUMAKH

December 12, 2023

Contents

1 Logic and Set Theory 3

1.1 The Statement Calculus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Sentential Connectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Tautology and Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Algebra of propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.4 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.5 Strategies for proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.1 subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 Elementary properties of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1 Union of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.2 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.3 Generalized union and intersection . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.4 Différence symétrique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Functions or Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.2 Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.3 Restriction, extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.4 The composite function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.5 Direct image and inverse image under a function . . . . 25
1.4.6 inverse image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4.7 One-to-one functions and onto functions . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.8 Onto function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.9 Bijection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2 Relations 30
2.0.1 Properties of relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.0.2 Equivalence relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.0.3 Partial and totaL ordered relations . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.0.4 Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.0.5 Comparable and Compatible Elements . . . . . . . . . 39

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3 ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES: Groups,Rings and Fields 40

3.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.1 Order of an element of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.2 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.3 Subgroups of (Z, +) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.4 Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.5 Image and Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.6 Sub group generated by an element . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.7 Lagrange Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.8 Le groupe Z/nZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.1 Definitions and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.2 Lagrange Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.3 Calculus in Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2.4 Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.5 Ring morphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.1 Subfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.2 Field morphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4 Polynomial rings 62
4.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3 Polynomial division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.1 The Euclidean Algorithm for polynomials . . . . . . . 64
4.3.2 gcd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.3 Irreducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3.4 Bezout theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 lcm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5 Factorisation of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5.1 Factor theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.6 Relation between roots and the coefficients of Polynomial . . . 67
4.6.1 Relation between roots and the coefficients of a quadratic
Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.6.2 Relation between roots and the coefficients of a quadratic
Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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Chapter 1

Logic and Set Theory

1.1 The Statement Calculus.

A proof in mathematics demonstrates the truth of certain statement. It is
therefore natural to begin with a brief discussion of statements.

Definition 1 (Proposition or statement). A statement, or proposition,

is the content of an assertion. It is either true or false, but cannot be both
true and false at the same time.
The two possibilities are recorded in a truth table:
P
T
F

Remark 2. There are two types of propositions. An atom is a proposition

that is not comprised of other propositions.

Example 3. the angle sum of a triangle equals two right angles. and some
quadratic equations have real solutions.

A proposition that is not an atom but is constructed using other propo-

sitions is called a compound proposition. There are five types.

1.1.1 Sentential Connectives

In this section, we present five ways to form new statements from old ones.
They correspond to the English expressions: not; and; or; if, then; if and
only if. In the discussion below, P and Q represent two abstract statements.

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A.DJOUMAKH Algebra 1

Definition 4 (Negation ). In mathematics, a negation is an operator on

the logical value of a proposition that sends true to false and false to true.
The negation (or logical NOT) of P, denoted ¬P or ∼ P , is given by

p (¬P :∼ P )
T F
F T

Therefore, the double negation corresponds to an affirmation; in other words,

the proposals P et non(non(P )) are logically equivalent.

Example 5. For example, the negation of 3 + 8 = 5 is 3 + 8 6= 5. In this

case, we say that 3 + 8 = 5 has been negated.
Negating the proposition ”the sine function is periodic yields the sine func-
tion is not periodic.”

Definition 6 (Conjunction: and). A logical conjunction is an operation

on two logical propositions that produces a value of true if both statements
are true, and is false otherwise. The conjunction (or logical AND) of P and
Q, denoted by P ∧ Q, is precisely defined by
P Q P ∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Example 7. the base angles of an isosceles triangle are congruent, and a

square has no right angles

Definition 8 (Disjunction: or). A logical disjunction is an operator on two

logical propositions that is true if either statement is true or both are true,
and is false otherwise. The disjunction (or logical OR) of P and Q, denoted
P ∨ Q, is defined by
P Q P ∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

The next method of combining mathematical statements is slightly more

subtle than the preceding ones.

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Definition 9 (Implication: →). The conditional connective P → Q (or

P ⇒ Q) is a logical statement that is read “if P then Q” and defined by the
truth table
P Q P →Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The conditional P ⇒ Q is true unless P is true and Q is false.
In other words, property P ⇒ Q states that a true proposition cannot imply
a false proposition.
Logicians draw a firm distinction between the conditional connective and
the implication relation. They use the phrase “if P then Q” for the condi-
tional connective and the phrase “P implies Q” for the implication relation.
They explain the difference between these two forms by saying that the con-
ditional is the contemplated relation, while the implication is the asserted
relation. We will discuss this distinction in the Section 1.2, where we for-
mally study relations between statements. The importance and soundness of
the conditional form P → Q will become clearer then.
Definition 10 (“if and only if”: iff). The logical biconditional is an
operator connecting two logical propositions that is true if the statements are
both true or both false, and it is false otherwise. The biconditional from P to
Q, denoted P ↔ Q, is precisely defined by
p Q P ↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
We read P ↔ Q as “P if and only if Q.” The phrase “if and only if” is
often abbreviated as “iff”
Remark 11. The following expressions give the same meaning:
1. P ⇔ Q,

2. P is necessary and sufficient for Q,

3. Q is necessary and sufficient for P ,

4. P if and only if Q.

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Definition 12. Two propositions P and Q are said to be logically equivalent

if their truth tables are identical. We denote the logical equivalence of P
and Q by P ≡ Q.
Using the five basic operations defined above, it is possible to form more
complicated compound statements. We sometimes need parentheses to avoid
ambiguity in writing compound statements. We use the convention that ¬
takes precedence over the other four operations, but none of these operations
takes precedence over the others. For example, let P, Q and R be three
propositions. We wish to make a truth table for the following statement,

(P → R) ∧ (Q ∨ ¬R)

We can form the true table for this statement, using simple steps, as follows

P Q R ¬R P →R Q ∨ ¬R (P → R) ∧ (Q ∨ ¬R)
T T T F T T T
T T F T F T F
T F T F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F T F F
F F F T T T T

We conclude this section with a brief mention of two important concepts.

1.1.2 Tautology and Contradiction

Definition 13. A tautology is a statement that is true in every valuation of
its propositional variables, independent of the truth values assigned to these
variables.
In other words, a tautology will contain only T in the last column of its truth
table.
Example 14. The proverbial tautology is P ∨ ¬P , draw the table truth.
Definition 15. The negation of a tautology is a contradiction, a statement
that is necessarily false regardless of the truth values of its propositional vari-
ables.
In other words, a contradiction will contain only F in the last column of its
truth table.

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Example 16. The statement P ∨ ¬P is a contradiction, and its truth table

is

Definition 17. A propositional form that is neither a tautology nor a con-

tradiction is called a contingency

Remark 18. Let P and Q be propositions. Then

• (P ≡ Q) if and only if (P ⇔ Q) is a tautology,

• P is a contradiction if and only if ∼ P is a tautology.

Definition 19. 1. The proposition Q ⇒ P is called the converse of

P ⇒ Q.

2. The proposition ∼ P ⇒∼ Q is called the inverse of P ⇒ Q.

3. The proposition ∼ Q ⇒∼ P is called the contrapositive of P ⇒ Q.

1.1.3 Algebra of propositions

Idempotent laws
Let P be a proposition. Then

• ¬(¬P ) ≡ P.

• P ∨ P ≡ P, P ∧ P ≡ P.

• P ∨ Q ≡ Q ∨ P, P ∧ Q ≡ Q ∧ P,

• P ⇒ Q ≡∼ P ∨ Q.

Associative laws Let P, Q and R be propositions. Then

• (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R),

• (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R).

Distribution laws
Let P, Q and R be propositions. Then

• P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R),

• P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).

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Contrapositive
P ⇒ Q ≡∼ Q ⇒∼ P
De Morgan’s laws
Let P and Q be propositions. Then

• ∼ (P ∧ Q) ≡∼ P ∨ ∼ Q,

• ∼ (P ∧ Q) ≡∼ P ∧ ∼ Q.

1.1.4 Quantifiers
Let A be a set. An open sentence on A is an expression, denoted by P (x),
which has the property that P (a) is true or false for each a ∈ A.

Example 20. 1. Let P (x) be “x+3 > 8.” Then P (x) is an open sentence
on N.

2. Let P (x) be “x + 3 > 8.” Then P (x) is not an open sentence on C since
inequalities are not defined for all complex numbers.

If P (x) is an open sentence on a set A, then the set of elements a ∈ A

with the property that P (a) is true , is called truth set Tp of P (x). In other
words,
Tp = {x : x ∈ A, P (x) is true},
or, simply, Tp = {x : P (x)}.

Definition 21. Let P (x) be an open sentence on a set A. Then the proposi-
tion (∀x ∈ A) or ∀x, P (x) can be read as “For every element x in A, P (x)
holds” or simply, “For all x, P (x)”.
The symbol ∀, which reads “for all” or “for every”, is called the univer-
sal quantifier

Example 22. The proposition for all natural number n, n + 2 > 5 is false
since
{n : n + 2 > 5} = {4, 5, 6, ...} =
6 N.

Definition 23. Let P (x) be an open sentence on a set A. Then the propo-
sition “∃x ∈ A)P (x)” or “∃x, P (x)” reads “There exists x ∈ A such that
P (x) holds” or simply, “For some x, P (x)”.
The symbol ∃, which reads “there exists” or “for some” or “for at
least”, is called the existential quantifier.

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Example 24. The proposition exists n ∈ N, n + 4 < 7 is true since

{n ∈ N : n + 4 < 7} = {1, 2} =
6 ∅.
Definition 25. For an open sentence P (x), the proposition “(∃!x), P (x)” is
read “There exists a unique x, such that P (x)”. The sentence “(∃!x), P (x)”
is true, when the truth set for P (x) contains exactly one element from the
universe; hence ∃! is called the unique existence quantifier.
The negation of the proposition “All the integers are positive” reads “It
is not true that all integers are positive”; in other words, there exists at least
one integer, which is not positive.
Symbolically, if Z denotes the set of integer, then the above can be written
as
¬(∀x ∈ Z)(x is positive) ≡ (∃x ∈ Z)(x is not positive).
Furthermore, if P (x) denotes “x is positive”, then the above can be written
as
¬(∀x ∈ Z)P (x) ≡ (∃x ∈ Z)¬P (x).
Theorem 1. De Morgan If P (x) is an open sentence, then
1. ¬(∀x ∈ Z)P (x) ≡ (∃x ∈ Z)¬P (x).
2. ¬(∃x ∈ Z)P (x) ≡ (∀x ∈ Z)¬P (x).
Proof. 1. The sentence ¬(∀x)P (x) is true
iff (∀x)P (x) is false,
iff the truth set of P (x) is not the universe,
iff the truth set of ¬P (x) is not empty,
iff (∃x)¬P (x) is true.
Thus, ¬(∀x)P (x) is true if and only if (∃x)¬P (x) is true. So the propo-
sition is true.
2. Exercise.

Proposition 26. 1. (∀x ∈ E, P (x)∧Q(x)) ⇔ ((∀x ∈ E/P (x)) ∧ (∀x ∈ E, Q(x))) .

2. (∀x ∈ E, P (x) ∨ Q(x)) ; ((∀x ∈ E/P (x)) ∨ (∀x ∈ E, Q(x))) .
But
((∀x ∈ E/P (x)) ∨ (∀x ∈ E, Q(x))) ⇒ (∀x ∈ E, P (x) ∨ Q(x)).
3. (∃x ∈ E, P (x) ∧ Q(x)) ⇒ ((∃x ∈ E, P (x)) ∧ (∃x ∈ E, Q(x))) .
But
((∃x ∈ E, P (x)) ∧ (∃x ∈ E, Q(x))) ; (∃x ∈ E, P (x) ∧ Q(x)).
4. (∃x ∈ E, P (x) ∨ Q(x)) ⇐⇒ ((∃x ∈ E, P (x)) ∨ (∃x ∈ E, Q(x))) .

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1.1.5 Strategies for proofs

The relation between intuition and formal rigor is not a trivial matter. Intu-
ition tells us what is important, what might be true, and what mathematical
tools may be used to prove it. Rigorous proofs are used to verify that a given
statement which appears intuitively true is indeed true. Ultimately, a math-
ematical proof is a convincing argument that starts from some premises, and
logically deduces the desired conclusion. Most proofs do not mention the
logical rules of inference used in the derivation. Rather, they focus on the
mathematical justification of each step, leaving to the reader the task of fill-
ing the logical gaps. The mathematics is the major issue. Yet, it is essential
that you understand the underlying logic behind the derivation as to not get
confused while reading or writing a proof.
True statements in mathematics have different names. They can be called
theorems, propositions, lemmas, corollaries and exercises. A theorem is a
statement that can be proved on the basis of explicitly stated or previously
agreed assumptions. A proposition is a statement not associated with any
particular theorem; this term sometimes connotes a statement with a simple
proof. A lemma is a proven proposition which is used as a stepping stone to
a larger result rather than an independent statement in itself. A corollary
is a mathematical statement which follows easily from a previously proven
statement, typically a mathematical theorem. The distinction between these
names and their definitions is somewhat arbitrary. Ultimately, they are all
synonymous to a true statement.
A proof should be written in grammatically correct English. Complete
sentences should be used, with full punctuation. In particular, every sentence
should end with a period, even if the sentence ends in a displayed equation.
Mathematical formulas and symbols are parts of sentences, and are treated
no differently than words. One way to learn to construct proofs is to read a
lot of well written proofs, to write progressively more difficult proofs, and to
get detailed feedback on the proofs you write.

Direct proof
The simplest form of proof for a statement of the form P ⇒ Q is the di-
rect proof. First assume that P is true. Produce a series of steps, each
one following from the previous ones, that eventually leads to conclusion Q.
It warrants the name “direct proof” only to distinguish it from other, more
intricate, methods of proof. Direct proof:

Assume P

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..
.
..
.
T heref ore Q
T hus P ⇒ Q.
Example 27. Prove that if x is even integer, then x2 is even.
Proof. Suppose x is an even integer
Then x = 2k for some integer k.
Thus x2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ) = 2t for some integer t.
Since x2 is twice the integer t, x2 is even.

Proof by Contrapositive
A proof by contrapositive takes advantage of the mathematical equivalence
P ⇒ Q ≡ ¬Q ⇒ ¬P . That is, a proof by contrapositive begins by assuming
that Q is false (i.e., ¬Q is true). It then produces a series of direct implica-
tions leading to the conclusion that P is false (i.e., ¬P is true). It follows that
Q cannot be false when P is true, so P ⇒ Q. Proof by Contrapositive:

Suppose ¬Q.
..
.
..
.
T heref ore ¬P (V ia a direct proof ).
T hus ¬Q ⇒ ¬P.
T heref ore P ⇒ Q.
Example 28. Prove that a2 is even ⇒ a is even.
Proof. Consider the contrapositive

¬(a is even) ⇒ ¬(a2 is even).

That is,
a is odd ⇒ a2 is odd.
Since a is odd, then a = 2k + 1, for some integer k. Then
a2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k 2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1
= 2r + 1, whererisaninteger.

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Thus a2 is odd.
So, by contrapositive, if a2 is even, then a is even.

Proof by Contradiction
A proof by contradiction is based on the mathematical equivalence ¬(P ⇒
Q) ≡ P ∧ ¬Q. In a proof by contradiction, one starts by assuming that both
P and ¬Q are true. Then, a series of direct implications are given that lead
to a logical contradiction. Hence, P ∧ ¬Q cannot be true and P ⇒ Q. Proof
by Contradiction:

Suppose ¬P.
..
.
T heref ore Q.
..
.
T heref ore ¬Q.
Hence Q ∧ ¬Q, acontradiction.
Thus P.
Example 29. Prove that x 6= 0 ⇒ x−1 6= 0 as rational numbers
Proof. Consider P : x 6= 0, Q : x−1 6= 0.
We need to show that P ⇒ Q. Suppose ¬(P ⇒ Q) is true.
Since ¬(P ⇒ Q) ≡ P ∧ ¬Q,
then P ∧ ¬Q is true, that is x 6= 0 ∧ x−1 = 0 is true.
Since x∆x−1 = 1 and x−1 = 0 ⇒ x∆x−1 = x∆0 = 0,
then 1 = 0. So, one has (1 = 0) and (1 6= 0).
It contradicts the number equality. Consequently ¬(P ⇒ Q) is false.
Thus P ⇒ Q is true. Hence x 6= 0 ⇒ x−1 6= 0.

Induction
Definition 30. Let P (n) be a logical statement for each n ∈ N. The principle
of mathematical induction states that P (n) is true all n ∈ N if:

• P (0) is true, and

• P (n) ⇒ P (n + 1) for all n ∈ N.

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Example 31. Prove that for all positive integers n,

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = ,
2
i.e.,
n
X n(n + 1)
P (n) = i=
i=1
2
Proof:
Step 1: Let us check whether the formula is true for n = 1. Indeed
1
X
• i = 1.
i=1

1(1 + 1) 2
• = = 1.
2 2
i.e., the formula is true for n = 1.
Step 2 Now suppose that the formula is true for n and prove that it remains
true for n + 1. In other words, the question is:
n n+1
X n(n + 1) X (n + 1)(n + 2)
i= −→ i= .
i=1
2 i=1
2
The sum for n + 1 may be written as:
Pn+1 Pn
i=1 i = i=1 i + (n + 1)
n(n + 1)
= + (n + 1)
2
n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1)
=
2
(n + 1)(n + 2)
= .
2
So, we have shown that if P (n) is true, then P (n + 1) is true

Prouver une équivalence

“P ⇔ Q” Soient P et Q deux assertions, pour prouver que l’équivalence
“P ⇔ Q” est vraie on peut
• Soit montrer les deux implications P ⇒ Q et Q ⇒ P avec l’une des
méthodes du paragraphe précédent,
• Soit procéder directement par équivalences :
P ⇔ P1 ⇔ P2 ⇔ · · · ⇔ Q.

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1.2 Set Theory

A set is taken to be any collection of objects, mathematical or otherwise.
The objects in a set are referred to as elements or members of the set.
The logical statement “a is a member of the set A” is written

a ∈ A.

Likewise, its logical negation “a is not a member of the set A” is written

a∈/ A.
Therefore, exactly one of these two statements is true.
In naive set theory, one assumes the existence of any set that can be de-
scribed in words. Later, we will see that this can be problematic when one
considers objects like the “set of all sets”.
For example, A = {a, e, i, o, u} is the set of standard English vowels. It is
important to note that the order elements are presented is irrelevant and the
set {i, o, u, a, e} is the same as A. Likewise, repeated elements have no effect
and the set {a, e, i, o, u, e, o} is the same as A.

N : the positive integers or

natural numbers,
Z : the integers,
Example 32.
Q : the irrational numbers :,
R : the real numbers,
C : the complex numbers
In general, sets will be denoted by capital letters

A, B, C, D, E, · · ·

The elements in our sets will be represented by lowercase letters

a, b, c, d, e · · ·

If the object a is an element of set B (a an element belongs to a set B), we

write a ∈ B, if not that is, if

¬(a ∈ B)we write a ∈

/ B.

Becarful, don’t write: a ∈ a.

One way to describe a set is simply to list its elements between curly
braces. For example, we can define the set A having exactly the four numbers
2, 4, 6, and 8 as elements by A = {2, 4, 6, 8}.

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We call this the tabular form of a set. But if we define a particular set by
stating properties that its elements must satisfy, for example let B be the set
of all odd numbers, then we use a letter, usually x, to represent an arbitrary
element and we write:
B = {x : x is odd},
which reads “B is the set of numbers x such that x is odd”. We call this the
builder form of a set.
Remark 33. i The set with no elements and is called an empty set. noted
∅.

ii A singleton set is a set containing exactly one element such as {a}.

Definition 34. For a finite set A, the cardinality |A| equals the number of
elements in A. If there is a bijective mapping between the set A and the nat-
ural numbers N, then |A| = ∞ and the set is called countably infinite. If
|A| = ∞ and the set is not countably infinite, then A is called uncountably
infinite.
Example 35. The set of rational numbers is countably infinite while the set
of real numbers is uncountably infinite.

1.2.1 subsets

Definition 36. Let E and F be sets. We say that F is a subset of

E iff every element of F is also an element of E. In symbols this is

F ⊆ E ⇐⇒ (∀x)((x ∈ F ) ⇒ (x ∈ E)).

It is a proper subset (denoted A ⊂ B) if A ⊆ B and A 6= B

Theorem 2. If A is a subset of B and B is a subset of C, then A is a subset

of C. That is
(A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ C) ⇒ A ⊆ C.
Proof. To prove that A ⊆ C, we must show that ∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ C).
Since A ⊆ B, then
∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B),
and since B ⊆ C, then
∀x(x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ C).

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Hence ∀x(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ C).

Therefore A ⊆ C.
Definition 37. For an arbitrary set A, the set of all the subsets of A is called
the power set of A. We denote the power set of A by P (A). Thus

P (A) = {B : B ⊆ A}.

Example 38. 1. Let A = {4, 7}. Then

P (A) = {∅, {4}, {7}, A}.

2. Let M = {a, b, c}. Then

P (M ) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, M }.

1.3 Elementary properties of sets

1.3.1 Union of sets

Definition 39. If A and B are sets. The union of A

and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set defined by

A ∪ B = {x ∈ E | (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)}

That is, x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B.

Example 40. lets A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 9}.Then

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9}.

Theorem 3. Let A and B be sets. Then

1. A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B,

2. A ⊆ B ⇔ A ∪ B = B.
Proof. 1. Let x ∈ A, then
x∈A ⇒ x∈A∨x∈B
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B.

Thus A ⊆ A ∪ B. By the same manner, we prove that B ⊆ A ∪ B

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2. Suppose A ⊆ B and x ∈ A ∪ B. Then

x∈A∪B ⇒ x∈A∨x∈B
⇒ x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ B (since A ⊆ B)
⇒ x ∈ B.

Thus A ∪ B ⊆ B. Since B ⊆ A ∪ B (by part (1)), then A ∪ B = B.

Conversely, suppose that A ∪ B = B. Since A ⊆ A ∪ B (by part (1)),
then A ⊆ B.

Let A, B, and C be sets. Then

1. A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law),
2. A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law),
3. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C (Associative law).
4. A ∪ ∅ = A,
5. A ∪ E = E, where E is the universal set.

1.3.2 Intersection
Definition 41. If A and B are sets. The inter-
section of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is defined
by

A ∩ B = {x ∈ E | (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}

That is,

x ∈ A ∩ B ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B.
Example 42. Let A = {x ∈ N : x ≤ 6}, B = {x : x is a prime number and ≤
6}. Then
A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∩ {2, 3, 5} = {2, 3, 5}
Definition 43. Let A, B be sets. We say that A and B are disjoint iff
A∩B =∅
Example 44. Let A = {x ∈ N : x is an odd number} and B = {x ∈ N :
x is an even number}.
Since A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are disjoint. But A ∩ N 6= ∅, thus A and N
are not disjoint.

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Proposition 45. Let A and B be sets. Then

1. A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B,

2. A ⊆ B ⇔ A ∩ B = A.

Theorem 4. Let A, B, and C be sets. Then

1. A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law),

2. A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law),

3. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C (Associative law).

4. A ∩ ∅ = ∅,

5. A ∩ E = A, where E is the universal set.

Proof. We prove (c) only. Let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C). Then

x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C) ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ (B ∩ C)
⇔ x ∈ A ∧ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ C)
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B) ∧ x ∈ C
⇔ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∧ x ∈ C
⇔ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C.

Thus A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C.
Theorem 5 (Distributive law). Let A,B, and C be sets. Then

1. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),

2. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Theorem 6. Let A and B be sets. Then

1. A ⊆ B ⇔ P (A) ⊆ P (B),

2. P (A) ∩ P (B) = P (A ∩ B),

3. P (A) ∪ P (B) ⊇ P (A ∪ B).

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COMPLEMENT OF SET

Definition 46. Let E be the universal set and A ⊆ E.

The set

/ A} = AC = A.
E \ A = {x ∈ E | x ∈

is said to be the complement of A.

Example 47. Let the universal set E be N and let

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, ...}.

Then
AC = {1, 3, 5, 7, ...}.
Theorem 7. Let A and B be sets. Then

A ⊆ B ⇒ B C ⊆ AC .

Proof. Since A ⊆ B, then x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B.

Thus x ∈/B⇒x∈ / A.
That is, x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ AC .
C

Hence B C ⊆ AC .
Proposition 48. Let A be a set. Then

(AC )C = A.

Proof. It is clear that

x ∈ (AC )C ⇔ x ∈
/ AC
⇒ x ∈ A.

Thus (AC )C = A.

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The difference of sets

Definition 49. Let A and B be sets. The difference
of A and B is defined by

A\B = {x ∈ E | ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈

/ B))} = A∩(E\B).

Or
A − B = {x, x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.
Remark 50.
A \ B = A ∩ BC .
Example 51. Let A and B be sets. Then
A − B = B C − AC .
Proof. We have
x∈A−B ⇔ x∈A∧x∈ /B
/ A ∧ x ∈ BC
⇔ x∈ C

⇔ x ∈ B C − AC .
Thus A − B = B C − AC .
Theorem 8. Let A be a set. Then
1. E C = ∅,
2. ∅C = E,
3. A ∩ AC = ∅,
4. A ∪ AC = E.
Theorem 9. Let A and B be sets. Then
1. (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ B C
2. (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ B C ,
Proof. 1. We have
x ∈ (A ∪ B)C ⇔ x∈/ A∪B
⇔ x∈ / A∧x∈ /B
⇔ x ∈ AC ∧ x ∈ B C
⇔ x ∈ AC ∩ B C .

Thus (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ B C .

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2. Exercise

1.3.3 Generalized union and intersection

Definition 52. Let F1 , . . . Fi , . . . be an indexed family of sets. Then
\
Fi = {x ∈ E | (∀i ∈ N)(x ∈ Fi )},
i∈N

and [
Fi = {x ∈ E | (∃i ∈ N)(x ∈ Fi )}.
i∈N
Example 53. Let Bn = [0, 1/n], where n ∈ N∗ . Then
[
Bi = [0, 1],
i∈N

and
\
Bi = {0}.
i∈N

1.3.4 Différence symétrique

Definition 54. Let A and B be sets. The symmetric difference

of A and B is defined by

A∆B = (A \ B) ∪ (A \ B) = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B).

Theorem 10. Let A and B be sets. Then

1. A∆∅ = A,
2. A∆B = ∅ ⇔ A = B.
Definition 55. Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B
consists of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. It is denoted by
A × B,
which reads “A cross B”. More concisely,
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}

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1. Let C = {x, y}. Then

C × C = {(x, x), (x, y), (y, x), (y, y)}.

2. Let A = R the set of real numbers. Then

R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R} = R2 .

The elements of R × R are the points of the xy − plane (Cartesian

plane).

1.4 Functions or Mapping

1.4.1 Definitions
Definition 56. A function ,or a mapping from X to Y , denoted by f :
X → Y is a relation from X to Y in which every element from X appears
exactly once as the first component of an ordered pair in the relation.
Definition 57. The set X on which f is defined is called the domain of f
and the set Y in which it takes its values is called the codomain. We write
f : x 7→ f (x) to indicate that f is the function that maps x to f (x).
Example 58. • The function f : R → R par f (x) = sin x. Then Y = R.
1
• The function f :]0, 1[→ R defined by f (x) = .then Y = R.
x2 −x
• The identity function idX : X → X on a set X is the function idX :
x 7→ x that maps every element to itself.

• Let A ⊂ X. The characteristic (or indicator) function of A,

χA : X → 0, 1,

is defined by 
1 if x ∈ A
χ(x) =
0 if x ∈
/ A.

• The square function f : N → N is defined by f (n) = n2 , which we also

write as f : n 7→ n2 .

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1.4.2 Graph
The graph of a function f is the set of all points in the plane of the form
(x, f (x)). We could also define the graph of f to be the graph of the equation
y = f (x). So, the graph of a function if a special case of the graph of an
equation.
G(f ) = {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ E}
is a subset of E × F .
Example 59. For example, if f : R → R, then the graph of f is the usual
set of points (x, y) with y = f (x) in the Cartesian plane R2 . Since a function
is defined at every point in its domain, there is some point (x, y) ∈ Gf for
every x ∈ X, and since the value of a function is uniquely defined, there is
exactly one such point. In other words, for each x ∈ X the “vertical line”
Lx = {(x, y) ∈ X × Y : y ∈ Y } through x intersects the graph of a function
f : X → Y in exactly one point: Lx ∩ Gf = (x, f (x)).
Definition 60. The range, or image, of a function f : X → Y is the set
of values
ranf = {y ∈ Y : y = f (x) f or some x ∈ X}.
A function is onto if its range is all of Y ; that is, if for every y ∈ Y there
exists x ∈ X such that y = f (x).

1.4.3 Restriction, extension

Definition 61. Let f : E → F be a function, and let A be a subset of E.
Then the function,
g : A → F,
which is defined by g(x) = f (x), ∀x ∈ A, is called the restriction of f to
A. We denote this restriction g by
f|A .
Example 62. Let f : R → R the function on R defined by f (x) = x2 . and
let g be a function from N to R defined by g(x) = x2 . Since N ⊂ R and
f (x) = g(x), ∀x ∈ N, then g : N → R is the restriction of f to N.
Definition 63. Let f : E → F be a function, and let E ⊆ E 0 . Then the
function,
g : E 0 → F,
is called an extension of f from E to E 0 , if
g(x) = f (x), ∀x ∈ A,

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that is g|A = f. i.e: ∀x ∈ E; f (x) = g(x).

Example 64. Let f : R \ {0} → R the function defined by f (x) = sinx x .Its
representative curve strongly suggests extending it to integer R by setting
g(0) = 1. Why ?
Definition 65. A function f : A → B is called a numerical function, if
B is a set of numbers.
Majority of the exercises and examples above are numerical functions

1.4.4 The composite function

Definition 66. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions. Then

g◦f :A→C

is a function and it is defined by g ◦ f := g(f (x)), ∀x ∈ A, is called the com-

posite function of f and g. And the construction of composite functions,
or the operation (◦) is called the composition.i.e,

g ◦ f (x) = g(f (x)), ∀x ∈ E.

√
Example 67. Let f : R+ → R be the function defined√by f (x) = x and
g√: R → R defined by g(y) = sin y.Then g ◦ f (x) = sin( x) and f ◦ g(y) =
sin x .
The above example demonstrates that the composite functions f ◦ g and
g ◦ f are not identical, in general, and hence, the composition (◦) is not
commutative (as an operation on functions).
Proposition 68. Associative law:
f g h
Let E −→F −→G−→H, then

h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g) ◦ f,

noted by h ◦ g ◦ f .
Proof. x ∈ E, (h ◦ (g ◦ f ))(x) = h((g ◦ f (x))) = h(g(f (x))) = (h ◦ g)(f (x)) =
((h ◦ g) ◦ f )(x).

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1.4.5 Direct image and inverse image under a function

Direct Image

Definition 69. Let f : E → F be a function and let

A ⊂ E. The set

f (A) = {f (x) | x ∈ A} = {y ∈ F | (∃x ∈ A), (y = f (x))}.

is called the direct image of A under f .

Remark 70. By definition, if f : E → F is a function, then the direct image

f (E) of E under f is nothing but the range Rng(f ) of f . Also, direct images
of all subsets of E become subsets of F , under an additional axiomatization:
the direct image of the empty set becomes the empty set: f (∅) = ∅.
Example 71. Let f de R dans R defined by f (x) = |x|. Then

• f ({−1, 2}) = {f (−1), f (2)} = {1, 2}

• f ([−3, −1]) = {f (x)/ x ∈ [−3, −1]},we have −3 ≤ x ≤ −1 ⇒ 1 ≤

|x| ≤ 3 donc 1 ≤ f (x) ≤ 3 Thus f ([−3, −1]) = [1, 3].

Proposition 72. Let f : E → F be a function and A, B be subsets of E.

Then

1. f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B),

2. f (A ∩ B) ⊆ f (A) ∩ f (B),

3. f (A − B) ⊇ f (A) − f (B).

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1.4.6 inverse image

Definition 73. Let f : E → F be a function, and let

B ⊂ F . The set

f −1 (B) = {x ∈ E | f (x) ∈ B}.

is called the inverse image (or, the pre image) of B

under f .

Remark 74. Note that, even though the inverse images are expressed under
the symbol f −1 , this symbol does not mean the inverse function of f . It is
simply used pure symbolically. Even if f is not invertible, one can define and
write the corresponding inverse images as above.
Remark 75. A ⊂ f −1 (f (A)) For all subset A of E
and
f (f −1 (B)) ⊂ B For all subset B de F.
Example 76. Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 . Find

f −1 ({4}), f −1 ({−1}), f −1 ([−1, 4]).

1. f −1 ({4}) = {x ∈ R/f (x) = 4} = {x ∈ R/x2 = 4} = {−2, 2}.

2. f −1 ({−1}) = {x ∈ R/f (x) = −1} = {x ∈ R/x2 = −1} = ∅.

3. f −1 ([−1, 4]) = {x ∈ R/ − 1 ≤ f (x) ≤ 4} = {x ∈ R/ − 1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4} =

[−2, 2].

Proposition 77. Let f : E → F be a function and A, B be subsets of F .

Then

1. f −1 (A ∪ B) = f −1 (A) ∪ f −1 (B),

2. f −1 (A ∩ B) = f −1 (A) ∩ f −1 (B),

3. f −1 (A − B) = f −1 (A) − f −1 (B).

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1.4.7 One-to-one functions and onto functions

Injections
Definition 78. Let f : E → F be a function. Then f is called a one-to-one
function, if

∀x, y ∈ E, x 6= y ⇒ f (x) 6= f (y),

Or, f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x = y.

A one-to-one function is also called an injection.
Example 79. 1. f : N → N, n 7→ n + 1 is one-to-one function
if n = n ⇒ n + 1 = n0 + 1 then f (n) = f (n0 )
0

2. f : R → R, x 7→ x2 is not a one-to-one function

−2 6= 2 but f (−2) = f (2) = 4.

3. f : R → R+ , x 7→ x2 is one-to-one function.

1.4.8 Onto function

Definition 80. Let f : E → F be a function. We say that
“ f is a function from E onto F ” or “ f maps E onto F”,
or “ f is an onto function,”
if

Rng(f ) = F.
In other words, “ f is onto function” if and only if

∀y ∈ F, ∃x ∈ E/f (x) = y.

An onto function is also called a surjection.

2x
Example 81. The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 1+x 2 is not an

onto function
since if y = 2 the equation f (x) = 2 ⇔ x = 2(1 + x2 )then x2 − x + 1 = 0
which has no real solutions

1.4.9 Bijection
Definition 82. A function f : E → F , which is both one-to-one and onto is
called a bijection, or an one–one correspondence.

∀y ∈ F, ∃!x ∈ E/f (x) = y

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Example 83. Let

A = {2n + 1|n is an integer},

and
B = {2n|n is an integer},
and let f (x) = 2x, and g(x) = x + 1. The function f : A → B is not
a bijection, because it is not onto, meanwhile, the function g : A → Bis a
bijection, since it is both one-to-one and onto.
Definition 84. Let f : E → F be a bijective function. The inverse function
of f is f −1 : F → E defined by

(f (x) = y) ⇔ (x = f −1 (y)).

Example 85. Let the function f : [1, +∞[→ [0, +∞[ telle que f (x) = x2 −1.
we have
i f is one-to-one: f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x2 − 1 = y 2 − 1 ⇒ x = ±y where x, y ∈
[1, +∞[ then x, y have the same sign ⇒ x = y.

ii f is onto : let y ∈ [0, ∞[. We are looking

√ for an element x ∈ [1, +∞[ such
that y = f (x) = x2 − 1.Then x = y + 1

ii f is therefore bijective and

√ its inverse function is f −1 : [0, +∞[→ [1, +∞[
defined by f −1 (y) = y + 1.
Theorem 11. If f : A → B is invertible function, then
1. f −1 ◦ f = IA ,

2. f ◦ f −1 = IB ,
where IA and IB are the identity functions on A, respectively, on B.
Theorem 12. Let E, F, G be nonempty sets,
and let f : E → F and g : F → G be functions. If f and g are invertible,
then g ◦ f : E → G is invertible and

(g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .

Proof. To show that the inverse is equal to f −1 ◦ g−1, we just need to show
that the following two compositions are identity maps:

(g ◦ f ) ◦ (f −1 ◦ g −1 ) = IG
(f −1 ◦ g −1 ) ◦ (g ◦ f ) = IE

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To prove the first identity, we compute as follows

(g ◦ f ) ◦ (f −1 ◦ g −1 ) = g ◦ (f ◦ (f −1 ◦ g −1 ))
= g ◦ ((f ◦ f −1 ) ◦ g −1 )
= g ◦ (IF ◦ g −1 )
= g ◦ g −1
= IG .

The proof of the other identity is similar:

(f −1 ◦ g −1 ) ◦ (g ◦ f ) = f −1 ◦ (g −1 ◦ (g ◦ f ))
= f −1 ◦ ((g −1 ◦ g) ◦ f )
= f −1 ◦ (IF ◦ F )
= f −1 ◦ f
= IE .

which completes the proof

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Chapter 2

Relations

A relation is an association between objects. A book on a table is an example

of the relation of one object being on another. It is especially common to
speak of relations among people. For example, one person could be the niece
of another. In mathematics, there are many relations such as equals and less-
than that describe associations between numbers. To formalize this idea, we
make the next definition
Definition 86. Given two non-empty sets A and B, the set of all ordered
pairs (x, y), where x ∈ A and y ∈ B is called Cartesian product of A and B;
symbolically, we write

A × B = {(x, y)|x ∈ Aandy ∈ B}.

Example 87. If A = 1, 2, 3 and B = 4, 5, then

A × B = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4), (1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5)}

and
B × A = {(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3)}
Definition 88. 1. Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if the corre-
sponding first elements are equal and the second elements are also equal,
i.e. (x, y) = (u, v) if and only if x = u and y = v.

2. If |A| = p and |B| = q then |A × B| = p × q

3. A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A}. Here (a, b, c) is called an ordered

triplet.
Definition 89. A Relation R from a non-empty set A to a non empty set
B is a subset of the Cartesian product set A × B. The subset is derived by

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A.DJOUMAKH Algebra 1

describing a relationship between the first element and the second element of
the ordered pairs in A × B.
R is a relation in A iff R is a subset of the Cartesian product A × A, written
as R ⊆ A × A.
The set of all first elements in a relation R, is called the domain of the
relation R, and the set of all second elements called images, is called the
range of R.
dmnR = {x : f orsomey, (x, y) ∈ R}
and we let
rngR = {y : f orsomex, (x, y) ∈ R};
Definition 90. Inverse relation: Let R be a relation from the set A to the
sat B, then the inverse relation R−1 from the set B to the set B is defined by:

R−1 = {(b, a)|(a, b) ∈ R}

Example 91. • A and B are the domain and range of R respectively,

iff A × B is the smallest Cartesian product of which R is a subset.
For example: Let R = {< 1, a >, < 1, b >, < 2, b >, < 3, b >}, then:
Dom(R) = {1, 2, 3}, Rng(R) = {a, b}

• Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b} and R = {(1, a), (1, b), (3, a), (2, b)} be the
relation from A to B. Then inverse relation is: R−1 = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (a, 3), (b, 2)}

2.0.1 Properties of relations

Type of relations: reflexivity, symmetry, transitivity
Definition 92. Given a set A and a relation R on A,

1. R is called reflexive relation if :∀x ∈ E, xRx.

2. R is called symmetric relation if: ∀x, y ∈ E, xRy ⇒ yRx.

3. R is called symmetric relation if:

∀x, y, z ∈ E, (xRy and yRz) ⇒ xRz.

4. R is called antisymmetric relation if : ∀x, y ∈ E, (xRy and yRx) ⇒

x = y.

Example 93. Take m ∈ Z+ and let a, b, and c be integers. Define a to be

congruent to b modulo m and write

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a ≡ b(modm)/ if and only if m|a − b

That is,
a ≡ b(modm) if and only if a = b + mk for some k ∈ Z.
For example, we have that 7 ≡ 1(mod3), 1 ≡ 13(mod3), and 27 ≡ 0(mod3),
Congruence modulo m defines the relation

Rm = {(a, b) : a ≡ b(modm)}

Example 94. Observe that

Rm = {(a, b) : m|a − b} = {(a, b) : ∃k ∈ Z ∧ a = b + mk}

Prove that Rm is an equivalence relation.

• (a, a) ∈ Rm because a ≡ a(modm).

• Assume (a, b) ∈ Rm . This implies that m|a − b.then m|b − a. Hence,

(b, a) ∈ Rm .

• Let (a, b), (b, c) ∈ Rm . Then a = b + mk and b = c + ml for some k, l ∈ Z.

Substitution yields

a = c + ml + mk = c + m(l + k).

Since the sum of two integers is an integer, (a, c) ∈ Rm .

2.0.2 Equivalence relations

Definition 95. Let R be a relation on a set A. Then R is called an equiva-
lence relation iff R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Example 96. Define a relation R on Z by xRy if x and y have the same
parity (even or odd). We claim that R is an equivalence relation:

1. Reflexivity: Since x has the same parity as x, xRx.

2. Symmetry: If xRy, then x and y have the same parity. Thus y and x
have the same parity, and hence yRx.

3. Transitivity: If xRy, then x and y have the same parity. If yRz, then
y and z have the same parity. Since y has only one parity, we can thus
conclude that x and z have the same parity, so xRz.

Therefore R is an equivalence relation.

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Example 97. Let R be the relation on the set R real numbers defined by
xRy if f x − y is an integer. Prove that R is an equivalence relation on
R.
Proof. • Reflexive: Suppose x ∈ R. Then x − x = 0 ∈ Z, which is an
integer. Thus, xRx.

• Symmetric: Suppose x, y ∈ R and xRy. Then x − y is an integer. Since

y − x = −(x − y),y − x is also an integer. Thus, yRx.

• Suppose x, y, z ∈ R, xRy and yRz. Then x − y and y − z are integers.

Thus, the sum (x − y) + (y − z) = x − z is also an integer, and so xRz.
Thus, R is an equivalence relation on R.

Equivalence classes
Definition 98. 1. Let R be an equivalence relation on A and let a ∈ A.
The set
[a] = x = cl(x) = {x ∈ A|aRx}
is called the equivalence class of a.

2. The element in the bracket in the above notation is called the Repre-
sentative of the equivalence class.
Example 99. 1. [0] = Z, the set of integers.
1 m
2. [ ] = { |m is an odd integer}
2 2
3. [π] = {π + n|n is an integer } = [π + n], for any integer n.
Theorem 13 (Properties of equivalence classes). Let R be an equivalence
relation on a set A and let a, b ∈ A. Then

1. a ∈ [a]

2. if b ∈ [a], then [a] = [b]

3. [a] = [b] iff (a, b) ∈ R,

4. if [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅,then [a] = [b].

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Proof. 1. By definition of [a], we have

[a] = {x ∈ A : (x, a) ∈ R} = {x ∈ A : xRa}.

Since R is a reflexive relation, then

aRa, ∀a ∈ A.

Thus a ∈ [a].
2. Suppose that b ∈ [a] and let x ∈ [b]. Then x ∈ [b] ⇒ (x, b) ∈ R. Since
b ∈ [a], then (b, a) ∈ R. Hence (x, b) ∈ R ∧ (b, a) ∈ R ⇒ (x, a) ∈ R (since R
is transitive), ⇒ x ∈ [a]. Thus

[b] ⊆ [a]. (2.1)

Now, suppose that y ∈ [a]. Then

y ∈ [a] ⇒ (y, a) ∈ R.
Hence
b ∈ [a] ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R
⇒ (a, b) ∈ R,
(y, a) ∈ R ∧ (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (y, b) ∈ R
since R is symmetric. Consequently
⇒ y ∈ [b],
since R is transitive. Therefore

[a] ⊆ [b]. (2.2)

Thus, it follows from Equations 2.1 and 2.2 that

[a] = [b].

3. Firstly, suppose that [a] = [b]. Then by part (1.), we have

a ∈ [a].

Since [a] = [b], then

a ∈ [a] ⇒ a ∈ [b]
⇒ (a, b) ∈ R.
Conversely, suppose that x ∈ [a]. Then, x ∈ [a] ⇒ (x, a) ∈ R. This
implies (x, a) ∈ R ∧ (a, b) ∈ R. Hence,

(x, a) ∈ R ∧ (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (x, b) ∈ R

⇒ x ∈ [b].

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Thus,
[a] ⊆ [b]. (2.3)
By the same manner, we prove that

[b] ⊆ [a]. (2.4)

From Equations 2.3and 2.4, we conclude

[a] = [b].

(4.) Suppose that [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅, and let x ∈ [a] ∩ [b]. Then
x ∈ [a] ∩ [b] ⇒ x ∈ [a] ∧ x ∈ [b]
⇒ (x, a) ∈ R ∧ (x, b) ∈ R
⇒ (x, b) ∈ R ∧ (x, a) ∈ R
⇒ (b, x) ∈ R ∧ (x, a) ∈ R( since R is symmetric)
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R( since R is transitive)
⇒ (a, b) ∈ R( since R is symmetric)
⇒ [a] = [b](see part (3))

Partition
Definition 100. Let {Ai }i∈I be a family of nonempty subsets of A. Then
{Ai }i∈I is called partition of A iff

1. Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ ∨ Ai = Aj
S
2. A = Ai .

Example 101. Let A = Z and let X = Ze and Y = Zo . It is clear that X

and Y are nonempty subsets of A and X ∩Y = ∅, also A = X ∪Y . Therefore,
the set {X, Y } is a partition of A.
Theorem 14. Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A and let {[a]}a∈A
be the family of all the equivalence classes of R in A. Then {[a]}a∈A is a
partition of A.
Proof. It is clear that [a] ⊆ A, ∀a ∈ A. Since R is a reflexive relation, then
(a, a) ∈ R and a ∈ [a] (by Theorem ”Properties of equivalence classes” part
(1)). Thus [a] 6= ∅, ∀a ∈ A.
Now, suppose that ∃a, b ∈ A, such that [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅. Then [a] = [b] (by
Theorem ”Properties of equivalence classes” part (4)). Finally, we must show
that [
A= [a].
a∈A

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Suppose that x ∈ A, then x S ∈ [x] (by Theorem ”Properties

S of equivalence
classes”Spart (1)). Thus, x ∈ a∈A [a]., that is A ⊆= a∈A [a]. and it is clear
that = a∈A [a] ⊆ A.
Thus, [
A= [a].
a∈A

Hence, [a]a∈A is a partition of A.

Theorem 15. If A is a nonempty set and Aii∈I is a partition of A, then there

exists an equivalence relation R on A, such that Aii∈I are the equivalence
classes of R.
Proof. Let R be a relation on A defined by

R = {(x, y) ∈ A × A : ∃Ai , such that x, y ∈ Ai }.

Below we show that R is an equivalence relation.

1. Let x ∈ A. Since Aii∈I is a partition of A, then
[
A= Ai .
i∈I

So, ∃Ai , such that x ∈ Ai . Then

x ∈ Ai ∧ x ∈ Ai ⇒ (x, x) ∈ R.

Thus R is a reflexive relation.

2. Suppose that (x, y) ∈ R. Then ∃Ai , such that x, y ∈ Ai . That is
∃Ai , y ∈ Ai ∧ x ∈ Ai . Hence (y, x) ∈ R. Hence R is symmetric.
3. Suppose that (x, y) ∈ R ∧ (y, z) ∈ R. Then ∃Ai , Aj , such that x, y ∈
Ai ∧ y, z ∈ Aj . Thus y ∈ Ai ∩ Aj . Hence Ai ∩ Aj 6= ∅, and Aii∈I is a partition
of the set A. Consequently Ai = Aj .
So, ∃Ai , such that x ∈ Ai ∧ z ∈ Ai and from the definition of R, we have
(x, z) ∈ R. Therefore, R is a transitive relation.
Thus R is an equivalence relation.

Now, we show that every subset Ai in Aii∈I is an equivalence class for R.

As Ai 6= ∅, ∀i ∈ I, then Ai has at least one element x, so [x] is an equivalence
class for R.
We claim that Ai = [x]. Suppose that y ∈ [x]. Then (y, x) ∈ R, and since
x ∈ Ai , then by definition of R, y ∈ Ai . That is

y ∈ [x] ⇒ y ∈ Ai .

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Then
z ∈ Ai ∧ x ∈ Ai
⇒ (z, x) ∈ R
⇒ z ∈ [x].
Consequently,
z ∈ Ai ⇒ z ∈ [x],
that is Ai ⊆ [x]. Hence Ai = [x].
Definition 102. Let R be an equivalence relation on A. The quotient set of
A modulo R is
A/R = {cl(a)|a ∈ A}.
Example 103.

2.0.3 Partial and totaL ordered relations

Definition 104. 1. a relation R on a set A is called a partial order (or
partial ordering) iff R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.
2. The set A is called a partially ordered set, or poset.
3. If, in addition, either aRb or bRa, for every a, b ∈ A, then R is called
a total order or a linear order or a simple order. In this case
(A, R) is called a chain.
4. The notation a  b is used for aRb when R is a partial order.
Example 105. 1. Let R1 be a relation on Z defined by
S = {(x, y) ∈ Z × Z : 3|(x − y)},
R1 is not a partial order relation on Z, because R1 is not antisymmetric.
For example, (8, 2) ∈ S ∧ (2, 8) ∈ S, but 2 6= 8.
2. Let X be a nonempty set and R2 be a relation on P (X) defined by R2
is a partial order relation on P (X). then (P (X), ⊆) is a poset.
R = {(A, B) ∈ P (X) × P (X) : A ⊆ B},
Example 106. 1. (Z, ≤) is a poset. Every pair of integers are related via
≤, so ≤ is a total order and (Z, ≤) is a chain.
2. (Z, |) is a poset. The relation a|b means “a divides b.”
Definition 107. A relation ≺ on S is called a pseudo-order if the relation
is irreflexive and transitive.
Some texts call this a quasi-order. Rosen uses quasi-order to mean a different
type of relation, though

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2.0.4 Bounds
Least and Greatest Elements
Definition 108. Let (A, ≤) be a poset.

1. An element a ∈ A is the least element of A if a ≤ b for every element

b ∈ A.

2. An element a ∈ A is the greatest element of A if b ≤ a for every

element b ∈ A.

Theorem 16. A poset (A, ≤) can have at most one least element and at
most one greatest element. That is, least and greatest elements are unique,
if they exist.

Upper and Lower Bounds.

Definition 109. Let S be a subset of A in the poset (A, ).

1. If there exists an element a ∈ A such that s  a for all s ∈ S, then a

is called an upper bound on S.

2. If there exists an element a ∈ A such that a  s for all s ∈ S, then a

is called an lower bound on S.

Least Upper and Greatest Lower Bounds.

Definition 110. Suppose (A, ) is a poset, S a is subset of A, and a ∈ A.

1. a is the least upper bound of S if

(a) a is an upper bound of S and

(b) if s is another upper bound of S, then a  s.

2. a is the greatest lower bound of S if

(a) a is an lower bound of S and

(b) if s is another lower bound of S, then s  a.

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2.0.5 Comparable and Compatible Elements

Definition 111. Let (A, ) be a poset and a, b ∈ A. If a  b or b  a, then
a and b are comparable with respect to .
Elements of A are incomparable if they are not comparable.
Definition 112. Let (A, ) be a poset and m ∈ A.

• m is a minimal element of A (with respect to) if a ⊀ m for all a ∈ A.

• m is a maximal element of A (with respect to ) if m ⊀ a for all a ∈ A.

Definition 113. A poset (A, ) is a lattice if every pair of elements has a

least upper bound and a greatest lower bound in A.

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Chapter 3

ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES:
Groups,Rings and Fields

3.1 Groups
Definition 114 (Operation). Let G be a set. An operation on G is a map
from G × G to G, i.e. a map that takes as input two elements of G and
returns an element of G
The binary operator ∗ is said to be a binary operation (closed operation)
on a non-empty set G, if
a ∗ b ∈ G for all a, b ∈ G (Closure property).
Remark 115. A set G with one or more binary(closed) operations defined
on it is called an algebraic system.
Such a map is usually not written as a function, in the form f (a, b), but
rather in the form a ? b (similar to how we usually write sum or product). Of
course, we may use other symbols than ? as ∗, +, >, ⊥, ◦., × . . .
Example 116. • + is an operation on R.

• × is an operation on R.

• Let E a set. ∪ et ∩ are an operations on P(E).

• + defined by ∀(x, x0 ) ∈ R2 , (y, y 0 ) ∈ R2 (x, y) + (x0 , y 0 ) = (x + y, x0 + y 0 )

is an operation on R2 .

• If E is a finite set, we can write a law in the form of a table. For

example, × on {0, 1}.

40
A.DJOUMAKH Algebra 1

× 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1

Groupes
Definition 117. A group is a set G together with an operation ∗ on G
that has the following properties:
On dira que la loi ∗ définit une structure de groupe sur un ensemble non
vide G si :

(G1 ) ∗ est Associativity

∀(x, y, z) ∈ G3 (x ∗ y) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z).

(G2 ) There exist a neutral element or identity , that is an ∃e ∈ E with:

∀x ∈ E x ∗ e = e ∗ x = x

(G3 ) Existence of inverses, that is ∀x ∈ E∃y ∈ G with

x∗y =y∗x=e
An element which admits an inverse is said to be invertible

If in addition the commutative law

∀x, y ∈ G, x ∗ y = y ∗ x

is obeyed, we call G abelian group. or commutative group

We will denote such a group by (G, ∗) (since it is given by both the set
G and the operation ∗).
Definition 118. 1. A set G together with an operation ∗ : G × G → G
which obeys (G1 ), is called a semigroup.

2. (G, ∗) with (G1 ) and (G2 ) is called a monoid.

3. The number of elements |G| of G is called the order of G (which can

be ∞). We denote it by |G| or o(G). If the order of a group G is finite,
then G is called a finite group.
Proposition 119. Let (G, ∗) be a group.

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1. Identity element e ∈ G is uniquely determined and it has the additional

property
g ∗ e = g; ∀g ∈ G

2. Let g ∈ G. The inverse element g 0 of g is uniquely determined and it

has the additional property

g ∗ g0 = e

(i.e., a has only one inverse, i.e., if a has 2 inverses then they are
equal);

3. For every a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a;

4. For every a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

−1 −1
5. For every a1 , . . . , an ∈ G, (a1 a1 · · · an )−1 = a−1
n · · · a2 a1 .

Proof. 1. By Definition, an element e is called an neutral element if

ae = ea = a f or every a ∈ G. (3.1)

If we have another identity element f , then

af = f a = a f or every a ∈ G. (3.2)

The trick is to look at ef and compute it in two ways: Once using that
e is a neutral element, once using that f is a neutral element.
If we use that e is a neutral element, we get ef = f (take a = f in line
3.1 above). If we use that f is a neutral element we get ef = e (take
a = e in line 3.2 above). Therefore e = f .

2. By Definition, an element b is the inverse of a if ab = ba = e. If c is

another inverse of a, then ac = ca = a. Computing bac we obtain:
bac = ec = c (using that ba = e and e is the identity), and bac = be = b
(using that ac = e and e is the identity). So

c = b.

3. We want to show that the inverse of a−1 is equal to a. By Definition,

an element b is the inverse of a−1 if ba−1 = e and a−1 b = e. So we just
have to check that the element a has these two properties: aa−1 = 1 (it
is because a−1 is the inverse of a), a−1 a = 1 (again, it is because a−1 is
the inverse of a).

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4. We want to show that the inverse of ab is b−1 a−1 . Going back to

the definition of the inverse (Definition 2.2), we have to show that
(ab)(b−1 a−1 ) = e and (b−1 a−1 )(ab) = e:

(ab)(b−1 a−1 ) = a(bb−1 )a−1 by associativity

= aea−1 since b−1 is the inverse of b
= aa−1 since ae = a
= e since a−1 is the inverse of a.

The verification of (b−1 a−1 )(ab) = e is similar and is left as a very

worthwhile exercise. Do it!

5. This one is left as an exercise. You can either apply result 4. above
n − 1 times, or prove it directly using the same method as in 4.

Proposition 120. Let G be a group and let x, y, z ∈ G. The following

properties hold:

• ∀(x, y, z) ∈ G3 , x ∗ y = x ∗ z ⇒ y = z (left cancellation law),

• ∀(x, y, z) ∈ G3 , y ∗ x = z ∗ x ⇒ y = z (right cancellation law).

• ∀x ∈ G, (x−1 )−1 = x (inverse of the inverse)

• e−1 = e

Proof. We prove the first first statement and leave the second as an exercise.
The elements au and aw are equal, so they stay equal if we multiply both on
the left by a−1 : a−1 au = a−1 aw. But a−1 a = e, so eu = ew and thus u = w.

Remark 121. In general there is no “mixed” cancellation law:

au = wa 6= u = w,

The power of an element in a group

Definition 122. Let (G, ∗) be a group, a ∈ G and n ∈ Z. We set
 0
 a =e
an = a ∗ an−1 si n > 0
a = (a−n )−1 si n < 0
 n

is the power of a

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−1
If n > 0, then an = a · · ∗ a}, and if n < 0 then, an = a
| ∗ ·{z · · ∗ a−1}.
| ∗ ·{z
n fois n fois
n
Example 123. • e = e, ∀n ∈ Z.

• If ab = ba,then (ab)n = an bn , ∀n ∈ Z.

• if ab 6= ba, , then, if n > 0, (ab)n = abababab . . .

If the law is noted additively, we will rather speak of multiple of a, and
we will write na instead of an .

 0a = e
na = a + (n − 1)a si n > 0
na = −(−n)a si n < 0


Be careful, na is not the product of n by a. a is an element of the group,

while n is an integer. This is an emphalaw of external composition.
Powers in groups have the same properties as powers real ones that you
know.
Proposition 124. Let G be a group, let a ∈ G , and let (p, q) ∈ Z2 . Then

• ap ∗ aq = ap+q

• (ap )q = apq

Proof. Montrons juste le premier point, nous verrons plus tard comment en
déduire le second.

• We begin by the case p and q are positives, and we prouve by induction

on n = p + q.

Initialisation : if n = 0, p = q = 0, we obtain the result immediately.

Hérédité : Let the result be true for n ∈ N. Let p and q in Z such
that p + q = n + 1. Suppose for example p 6= 0.
We write

ap ∗ aq = a ∗ (ap−1 ∗ aq ) = a ∗ an = a ∗ an+1

hence the result.

• The case p and q are negatives follows immediately.

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• Suppose p > 0 and q < 0. If for example |p| ≥ |q|, we write p = −q + r

with r ≥ 0.
We then have according to the positive case ap = a−q ∗ ar . By multi-
plying by aq , we obtain: ap ∗ aq = aq ∗ a−q ∗ ar . But a−q is the inverse
of aq . Thus ap ∗ aq = ar = ap+q

3.1.1 Order of an element of a group

Let (G, ∗) be a group. Let a be an element of G. The smallest integer n such
that an = e is called order of a. If no such number exists then the order is
infinite.

3.1.2 Subgroups
Definition 125. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, ∗) is a sub group of
G, if (H, ∗) is a group.
Remark 126. For any group (G, ∗), (e, ∗) and (G, ∗) are trivial sub groups.
Theorem 17. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, ∗) is a sub group of G
iff
1. a ∗ b ∈ H, ∀a, b ∈ H,

2. a−1 ∈ H, ∀a ∈ H,
Proposition 127. A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty
subset H of a group (G, ∗) to be a sub group is that

∀a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b−1 ∈ H.

Proof. case 1 Let (G, ∗) be a group and H is a subgroup of G.

Let a, b ∈ H ⇒ b−1 ∈ H ( since H is is a group)
⇒ a ∗ b−1 ∈ H. ( By closure property in H).

case 2 Let H be a non empty set of a group (G, ∗).

• Let a ∗ b−1 ∈ H; ∀a, b ∈ H

Now, a ∗ a−1 ∈ H( Taking b = a )
⇒ e ∈ H i.e., identity exists in H.
• Now, e ∈ H, a ∈ H ⇒ e ∗ a−1 ∈ H
⇒ a−1 ∈ H Each element of H has inverse in H.

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• Further, a ∈ H, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∈ H, b−1 ∈ H
⇒ a ∗ (b−1 )−1 ∈ H.
⇒ a ∗ b ∈ H. H is closed w.r.t ∗ .
• Finally, Let a, b, c ∈ H
⇒ a, b, c ∈ G ( since H ⊆ G )
⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
i.e ∗ is associative in H

Hence, H is a subgroup of G.

Proposition 128. Soit (G, ∗) un groupe d’élément neutre e. Soit H ⊂ G.

Si (H, ∗) est un sous-groupe de (G, ∗) alors

• e ∈ H and e is the identity of H

• H is stable by the composition i.e; a ∗ b ∈ H, ∀a, b ∈ H,

• H is stable when passing to the inverse .i.e; a−1 ∈ H, ∀a ∈ H,

Example 129. • If (G, ∗) is a group, e its identity element. G and {e}

are subgroups of G, called trivial subgroups of G.

• (Z, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +), which is itself a subgroup of (R, +).

• (2Z, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +)

• (2Z + 1, +) is not a subgroup of (Z, +) : + is not a closed operation.

• The set of rotations of the plane is a subgroup of the group of isometries

of the plan.
Example 130. Notons U = {x ∈ C | |x| = 1}. Montrons que (U, ×) est un
groupe. U est inclus dans C, donc nous allons montrer qu’il s’agit d’un sous
groupe de (C, ×).

• On a clairement 1 ∈ U.
|x|
• Soit x et x0 dans U. On a |xx0−1 | = |x0 |
= 1 et xx0 ∈ U.
Ce groupe est appelé groupe unimodulaire.

Pas besoin d’aller redémontrer l’associativité, l’existence d’un inverse,

etc. . .

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Proposition 131. The intersection of two sub groups of a group G is again

a sub group of G.
Proof. Let G0 and G00 are subgrouos of G. We proved that G0 ∩ G00 is a
subgroup of G.
For this, according to the proposition, it suffices to verify that the identity
element e of G is in G0 ∩ G00 and if x, y ∈ G0 ∩ G00 , then x ∗ y −1 ∈ G0 ∩ G00 .
Since G0 and G00 are subgroups of G, then e ∈ G0 and e ∈ G00 ,Thus e ∈ G0 ∩G00 .
Let x, y ∈ G0 ∩G00 , then x, y ∈ G0 and x, y ∈ G00 ,So x∗y −1 ∈ G0 et x∗y −1 ∈ G00
(proposition), Then x ∗ y −1 ∈ G0 ∩ G00 .
In general, the union of two sub groups of a group G is not be a sub group
of G. !
For exemple 2Z = {0, ∓2, ∓4, ∓6, ∓8 · · · } et 3Z = {0, ∓3, ∓6, ∓9, ∓12 · · · }
with additive operation. Here, 2Z and 3Z are subgroups of (Z, +), and
2 ∈ 2Zand 3 ∈ 3Z, but 2 + 3 = 5 ∈ / 2Z ∪ 3Z = {0, ∓2, ∓3, ∓4, ∓6 · · · }.

3.1.3 Subgroups of (Z, +)

Proposition 132. Subgroups of (Z, +) are excatly (nZ, +) with n ∈ N.
Proof. • Soit n ∈ N. We will start by showing that (nZ, +) is a subgroup
of (Z, +) using ??. Let a and b in nZ. It exists a0 and b0 in Z such that
a = na0 and b = nb0 . We then have a − b = n(a0 − b0 ) ∈ nZ.

• Let G a subgroup of (Z, +). Let’s put G+ = G∩Z+∗ . If G+ is emptyset,

we see easily G is reduced to {0} : Indeed, G ∩ Z−∗ is also empty,
otherwise we can invert one of its elements to find an element in G+ .
In this case we have G = 0Z.
Otherwise, let’s put a = min G+ . We will show that G = aZ.

aZ ⊂ G: we have a ∈ G by definition. By stability, we also have

a + a = 2a ∈ G. By induction, we show that na ∈ G, ∀n ∈ N∗ .
Furthermore, by stability by switching to the inverse, (−n)a ∈
G, ∀n ∈ N∗ . As more 0 ∈ G, we have aZ ⊂ G.
G ⊂ aZ: Let x ∈ G. Let us perform the Euclidean division of x by a
: x = aq + r, with 0 ≤ r < a. a and x are in G, then r = x − aq
also. The definition of a then imposes r = 0, i.e. x ∈ aZ.

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3.1.4 Homomorphism
Definition 133. Let (G, ∗) and (G0 , >) be groups. A function f : G 7→ G0
is called homomorphisme from G to G0 if
∀(x, y) ∈ G2 f (x ∗ y) = f (x)>f (y)
If G = G0 , f is called endomorphisme,
Definition 134. Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G → G0 is
a bijection then f is called isomorphism between G and G’. Then we write
G ' G0 and we said that G and G’ are isomorphe.
If f is an endomorphisme and isomorphisme ,f is called automorphisme.
Example 135. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition + and R+
be a group of all positive real numbers under multiplication ·. Show that the
mapping f : R → R+ defined by f (x) = 2x for all x ∈ R is an isomorphism.
Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism. Let a, b ∈ R . Now,
f (a + b) = 2a+b = 2a 2b = f (a)f (b).
Then f is an homomorphism.
Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection. For any a, b ∈ R, Let, f (a) = f (b) ⇔
2a = 2b ⇒ a = b.
Then f is one-to-one (injective).
Next, take any c ∈ R+ . Then log2 c ∈ R and f (log2 c) = 2log2 c = c. Then
every element in R+ has a pre image in R. i.e., f is onto (surjective).Thus f
is a bijection. Hence, f is an isomorphism.
Example 136. The function ϕ : (R, +) → (R, +) defined by ϕ(x) = −7x is
a homomorphisme, we have
ϕ(x + y) = −7(x + y) = −7x − 7y = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y)
Theorem 18. Consider the groups (G, ∗) and (G0 , ⊕) with identity elements
e and e’ respectively. If f : G → G0 is a group homomorphism, then
1. f (e) = e0
2. f (a−1 ) = [f (a)]−1
3. If H is a sub group of G, then f (H) is a sub group of G’.
4. If f is an isomorphism from G onto G’, then f −1 is an isomorphism
from G onto G’.
Proposition 137.
Let φ be a morphisme from (G, ∗) to (G0 , ∗0 ). Then
∀p ∈ Z ∀x ∈ G φ(x)p = φ(xp )

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Example 138. • The identity function is a morphism.

• Let (G, ∗) a group with identity element e. The mapping φ : x 7→ e is a

morphism from G to G : ∀(x, y) ∈ G2 , φ(x)∗φ(y) = e∗e = e = φ(x∗y).

• exp is a morphism from (R, +) to (R+∗ , ×) : let (x, y) ∈ R, exp(x+y) =

exp(x) × exp(y).

• ln is a morphism from (R+∗ , ×) to (R, +) : Let (x, y) ∈ R, ln(x × y) =

ln(x) + ln(y).
Example 139. • exp et ln are isomorphisms.

• Let (G, .) a group and g ∈ G. the function φ : x 7→ gxg −1 is an

automorphism :indeed, φ(x).φ(y) = gxg −1 gyg −1 = gxyg −1 = φ(xy),
and f is also bijective, with inverse function x 7→ g −1 xg (f is what we
call an inner automorphism).

3.1.5 Image and Kernel

Kernel
Definition 140. Let φ : G → G0 a morphism.

• The
{x ∈ G; f (x) = e0G }
is called Kernel of f and is denoted by ker(φ)

• The set
Imf = {f (x), x ∈ G}
is called image of φ and we have Im(φ) = φ(G).

Remark 141. • ker(f ) = f −1 1(e0G ).

• ker(f ) is never empty since f (eG ) = e0G , i.e, eG ∈ ker(f ).

Theorem 19. Let f : G → G0 a morphism. The following assertions are
equivalent:

1. f is injective.

2. ker(f ) = {eG }

Remark 142. We will therefore never use the classic definition of injectivity
to demonstrate the injectivity of a group morphism.

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Proof. (1) ⇒ (2) : we already know that eG ∈ ker(f ), i.e {eG } ⊂ ker(f ).
Let’s show that ker(f ) ⊂ {eG }. Let x ∈ ker(f ), then f (x) = e0G = f (eG ), but
the function f is injective, then x = eG , i.e x ∈ {eG },hence the inclusion.
(2) ⇒ (1) : f (x) = f (y) ⇒ f (x) ∗ (f (y))−1 = e0G , but (f (y))−1 = f (y −1 ) ,
we therefore obtain e0G = f (x) ∗ (f (y))−1 = f (x) ∗ f (y −1 ) = f (x⊥y −1 ), which
means x⊥y −1 ∈ ker(f ) = {eG }, then x⊥y −1 = eG , and after multiplication
to the right of both members of this equality by y, we obtain (x⊥y −1 )⊥y =
eG ⊥y.
But because (x⊥y −1 )⊥y = x⊥(y −1 ⊥y) = x⊥eG = x et eG ⊥y = y, we
therefore obtainx = y, i.e the function f is injective.
Proposition 143. Let φ a morphism betewen (G, .) and (G0 , .). Then

• The image of φ is a sub group of G0 .

• The kernel of φ is a sub group of G.

Proof. exercise

Example 144. Consider the morphism defined by f : p ∈ Z 7→ ap

• Its Kernel is a subgroup of Z, which means that there is a unique p ∈ Z

such that {n ∈ Z | an = e} = pZ .

the integer p is so called the order of a.

• Its image is a subgroup of G, which means that for every a ∈ G,

{. . . , a−2 , a−1 , e, a, a2 . . . } is a sub group of G.
This subgroup is called subgroup generated by a.

3.1.6 Sub group generated by an element

Definition 145. Given a group G and a subset S of G, the subgroup gener-
ated by S is defined in the following equivalent ways:

• It is the intersection of all subgroups of G containing S

• It is a subgroup H ≤ G such that S ⊂ H and S is a generating set for

H

Recall the fact that an intersection of subgroups is always a subgroup).

The subgroup generated by a subset S is denoted hSi.

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This is the smallest (in the sense of inclusion) subgroup of (G, .) contain-
ing A.
Example 146. • < e >= {e}

• < G >= G

• ∀a ∈ G < a >= {. . . , a−2 , a−1 , e, a, a2 . . . }

Proof. • {. . . , a−2 , a−1 , e, a, a2 . . . } is a subgroup of G containing a.

• Let’s show that it is the smallest: Let H a subgroup of G H con-

taining a2 = aa, and a3 = a2 a, etc . . . By stability by passage to the
inverse,H containing a−1 and likewise all the negative powers of a.
Then {. . . , a−2 , a−1 , e, a, a2 . . . } ⊂ H.

Recall that the order of a in G is the unique integer p such that ∀n ∈

N an = e ⇔ n ∈ pZ.
Proposition 147. Let (G, .) be a group, and a ∈ G. let n the order of a.
Then

• If n = 0, < A > is infinite and isomorphic to Z.

• Otherwise, < A > is finite and equal to {e = a0 , a = a1 , . . . an−1 }

Proof. • Suppose that n = 0.

The function f : p ∈ Z 7→ ap ∈< a > is a morphism trivially surjec-
tive.By definition of order, f (p) = e ⇔ p = 0, hence the injectivity.

• Suppose that n 6= 0.
{e, a, . . . an−1 }is trivially included in < a >.
We have an = e. Let p ∈ Z.We can write by Euclidean division of p by
n, p = nq + r, with 0 ≤ r < n.
We then have ap = anq+r = (an )q ar = eq ar = ar ∈ {e, a, . . . an−1 },
hence the reciprocal inclusion.

Definition 148. • A group is said to be monogenic if it is generated

by a unique element, i.e. iff ∃a ∈ G G =< a >.

• A group is said to be cyclic if it is monogeneous and finite.

Proposition 149. Every infinite monogeneous group is isomorphic to (Z, +).

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3.1.7 Lagrange Theorem

Theorem 20. Let (G, ·) be a group and H a subgroup of G. The relation R
defined on G by
xRy ⇔ x−1 · y ∈ H
is an equivalence relation.
Proof. • Forall x ∈ G we have x−1 · x = e ∈ H, then xRx.
• If xRy, then x−1 · y ∈ H, but H is a subgroup (x−1 · y)−1 = (y −1 ) ·
(x−1 )−1 = y −1 · x is in H, which means that yRx.
• suppose that xRy and yRz, we will show that xRz. So we have x−1 ·y ∈
H and y −1 ·z ∈ H, then (x−1 ·y)·(y −1 ·z) ∈ H, since (H, ·) is a group,then

(x−1 · y) · (y −1 · z) = x−1 · (y · y −1 ) · z = x−1 · e · z = x−1 · z ∈ H,

which means that xRz.

We will note G/Hthe set G/R the equivalence classes of the relation R
on G.
Proposition 150. Let (G, ·) be a group, H is a subgroup of G and R the
relation defined on G by

xRy ⇔ x−1 · y ∈ H

The equivalence class x of an element x ∈ G is the set

xH = {xh; h ∈ H}.

Proof. Soit y ∈ x, alors xRy, i.e h = x−1 · y ∈ H, d’où y = x.h, avec h ∈ H,

c’est à dire que y ∈ xH, donc x ⊂ xH.
Soit y ∈ xH, alors il existe h ∈ H tel que y = xh, d’où x−1 · y = h ∈ H, i.e
xRy, donc y ∈ x. Alors xH ⊂ x.
Definition 151. L’ensemble xH s’appelle la classe à gauche de l’élément
x ∈ G.
Remark 152. On pouvait définir la relation d’équivalence R par

xRy ⇔ y · x−1 ∈ H.

Dans ce cas, la classe d’équivalence d’un élément x ∈ G est l’ensemble

Hx = {hx; h ∈ H}

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Definition 153. L’ensemble Hx s’appelle la classe à droite de l’élément

x ∈ G.
Proposition 154. Soit (G, ·) un groupe, H un sous-groupe de G et R la
relation définie sur G par

xRy ⇔ x−1 y ∈ H.

Si H est fini alors pour tout x ∈ G, xH a le même cardinal que H

Proof. Soient x ∈ G et f : H → xH l’application définie par f (h) = xh. f
est injective car f (h) = f (h0 ) implique xh = xh0 , d’où, après multiplication
à gauche par x−1 , h = h0 . f est surjective car pour tout y ∈ xH, il existe
h ∈ H tel que y = xh, et donc y = xh = f (h). f étant à la fois injective et
surjective, elle est donc bijective, ce qui prouve que H et xH ont le même
cardinal.
Remark 155. On démontre de la même manière que toutes les classes à
droite pour une relation d’équivalence R ont le même nombre d’éléments que
H.

Théorème de Lagrange
Theorem 21 (Théorème de Lagrange). Soit (G, ·) un groupe fini, H un
sous-groupe de G, alors le cardinal |H| de H divise le cardinal |G| de G.
On notera |G/H| ou encore [G : H] le nombre |G|/|H|. Ce nombre |G|/|H|
s’appelle l’indice de H dans G.
Proof. On considère la relation d’équivalence R définie par : xRy ⇔ x−1 y ∈
H. Les ensembles xH,x ∈ G, forment une partition de G qui est fini, donc il
existe n ∈ N et x1 , · · · , xn ∈ G tels que {x1 H, · · · , xn H} forme une partition
de G. Comme les ensembles x1 H, · · · , xn H ont tous le même cardinal que H
, il s’en suit que |G| = |x1 H| + · · · + |xn H| = n|H|.

3.1.8 Le groupe Z/nZ

Soit n ∈ Z. On a vu que la relation R définie dans Z par

xRy ⇔ y − x ∈ nZ

est une relation d’équivalence dans Z.

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Proposition 156. La classe a d’un élément a ∈ Z est

a = {y ∈ Z; ∃k ∈ Z tel que y = a + nk} = a + nZ.

L’ensemble quotient Z/R sera noté Z/nZ = {a; a ∈ Z}.

Proof. Soit a ∈ Z. On a

b∈a ⇔ b − a ∈ nZ
⇔ ∃k ∈ Z tq b − a = kn
⇔ ∃k ∈ Z tq b = a + kn
⇔ b ∈ a + nZ

Proposition 157. Si n 6= 0 alors Z/nZ = {0, 1, . . . , n − 1} = {r; 0 ≤

r < n}. Les n classes r pour r ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1} sont toutes distinctes
et card(Z/nZ) = n.
Proof. Soient α ∈ Z et n ∈ Z il existe a ∈ Z tel que α = a. Soit r le reste de
la division de a par n :

a = kn + r, avec 0 ≤ r < n.

On a :
α=a=r avec 0 ≤ r < n.
Si r = r0 , r et r0 ont le même reste dans la division par n, et comme 0 ≤ r < n
et 0 ≤ r0 < n, on a r = r0 . Donc si r 6= r0 , alors r 6= r0 et les n classes sont
distinctes, d’où card(Z/nZ) = n.

3.2 Rings
3.2.1 Definitions and properties
Definition 158. Let R be a nonempty set and let + and ∆ be two closed
binary operations defined on R. The ordered triple (R, +, ∆) is called a ring
if the following conditions (ring axioms) arc satisfied.

• (R, +) is an abelian group with identity element denoted by 0 .

• × is associative:

∀(x, y, z) ∈ R3 (x.y).z = x.(y.z)

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• × is distributive on + :

∀(x, y, z) ∈ R3 x × (y + z) = x × y + x × z et (y + z) × x = y × x + z × x

Example 159. classical examples:

3.2.2 Lagrange Theorem

Exercise:
Theorem 22. Let (G, ·) be a group and H a subgroup of G. The relation R
defined on G by
is an equivalence relation.
Proof. A ring R is called a commutative ring if

ab = ba.∀a, b ∈ R

Forall x ∈ G we have x−1 · x = e ∈ H, then xRx.

If xRy, then x−1 · y ∈ H, but H is a subgroup (x−1 · y)−1 = a, b ∈ R
suppose that xRy and yRz, we will show that xRz. So we have x−1 · y ∈ H
and y −1 · z ∈ H, then (x−1 · y) · (y −1 · z) ∈ H, since

(x−1 · y) · (y −1 · z) = x−1 · (y · y −1 ) · z = x−1 · e · z = x−1 · z ∈ H,

Definition 160. A ring R is called a ring with identity (or a unitary

ring) if there is an element e in R such that ae = ea = a for all a ∈ R.
Sometimes e is denoted by 1.
Lemma 161. Let R be a ring with identity. Then its multiplicative identity
is unique. i.e., there is one and only one element e such that.

ea = ae = a, ∀a ∈ R.

Proof. If e and f are identity elements of R, then e = ef since f is a right

identity and ef = f since e is a left identity, so e = ef = f.
Example 162.

• (R, +, ×), (C, +, ×), (Z, +, ×) are a rings.

• (R[X], +, ×) is a ring – called ring of polynomials on R.

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• (R(X), +, ×) is a ring – called ring of rational fractions on R.

• (RR , +, ×) wih the operations ”usual addition and multiplication” is a

ring.

• {0, 1} with the following operations

+ 0 1 . 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1

is a ring.

Proposition 163. Let R be a ring and 0 is its zero elemnt.

• 0 is absorbent, i.e.

∀x ∈ R 0.x = x.0 = 0

•
∀(x, y) ∈ R2 (−x).y = −(x.y) = x.(−y)

Proof. • Let x ∈ R. 0.x = (0 + 0)x = 0x + 0x. by cancellation ,

0 neutre distr
we obtain 0x = 0.

• Let (x, y) ∈ R2 . (−x)y + xy = (−x + x)y = 0y = 0. (R, +) is

distr 0 abs
commutative, (−x)y = −(xy).We prove the other equality in the same
way.

Definition 164. Lei R be a ring. If a 6= 0, b 6= 0are. elements of R such

that ab = .o, then a is called a left zero divisor. and b is called a right
zero divisor.
Definition 165. A commutative ring with identity, which is distinct from
the null ring, and which has no zero divisors, is called an integral domain
Example 166.

• (R, +, ×), (C, +, ×), (Z, +, ×) are integral rings (ils sont des anneaux
intègres).

• (R[X], +, ×)is an integral ring.

• (RR , +, ×) is not an integral ring : 1{1} × 1{0} = 0

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3.2.3 Calculus in Rings

P
Proposition 167 (Distributivity with respect to ).
Let (ai )i∈I a finite family of elements of R. Let x ∈ R.
Then
X X
x ai = xai
i∈I i∈I

and
X X
( ai )x = ai x
i∈I i∈I

Proof.
By trivial induction on the cardinal of I.

We also have in any ring the following formulas:

Proposition 168.
Let (a, b) ∈ R2 two elements which commute (i.e. ab=ba). Let n ∈ N.
Then
n−1
X
n n
a − b = (a − b) ai bn−i−1
i=0

Especially,
n−1
X
n
a − 1 = (a − 1) ai
i=0

Proof.
We show this property using a simple calculation:

n−1
X n−1
X n−1
X n
X Xn−1
i n−i−1 i+1 n−i−1 i n−i i n−i
(a−b) ab = a b − ab = ab − ai bn−i = an −bn
i=0 i=0 i=0 i=1 i=0

Proposition 169.
Let (a, b) ∈ R2 two elements which commute (i.e. ab=ba). Let n ∈ N.
Then

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n  
n
X n i n−i
(a + b) = ab
i=0
i

Proof.
By induction on n.

Initialisation: par convention, (a + b)0 = a0 = b0 = 1,[Initialization:] by

convention, (a + b)0 = a0 = b0 = 1, hence the result.

Heredity: assume the result is true for n. Let’s write

n   n  
n+1 n n
X n i+1 n−i X n i n+1−i
(a + b) = a(a + b) + b(a + b) = a b + ab
i=0
i i=0
i
n+1   n  
X n i n+1−i
X n i n+1−i
= ab + ab
i=1
i−1 i=0
i
n     n  
X n n i n+1−i
X n + 1 i n+1−i
=1+1+ + ab =1+1+ ab
i=1
i i − 1 i=1
i
n+1 
X n+1 
= ai bn+1−i
i=0
i

3.2.4 Subrings
As in the case of groups, we· give a name to subsets of a ring which are
themselves rings
Definition 170. Let R be a ring. A nonempty subset B of R is called a
subring of R if S itself is a ring with respect to the operations on R.
Proposition 171. Let (R, +, ∆) be a ring and let B be a nonempty suhset
of R. Then (B, +, ∆) is a subring of R if and only if

• (B, +) is a subgroup (R, +)

• ∀a, b ∈ B, a.b ∈ B

Example 172.

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• ∀n ∈ N, (Rn [X], +, ×),the set of polynomials of degree at most n is a

subring of (R[X], +, ×).

• (C 0 (R, R), +, ×) is a subring of (RR , +, ×).

• (S0 (R), +, ×) –the set of sequences with zero limit is a subring of (§, +, ×).

3.2.5 Ring morphism

Definition 173 (Ring morphism).
Let (R, +, ×) et (R0 , +0 , ×0 ) be rings. and let φ : R → R0 be a mapping
from (R, +, ×) to (R0 , +0 , ×0 ) if

• φ is a group morphism from (A, +) to (A0 , +0 ). i.e,

∀(a, b) ∈ R2 φ(a + b) = φ(a) +0 φ(b)

• ∀(a, b) ∈ A2 φ(a × b) = φ(a) ×0 φ(b)

then φ is called a (ring) homomorphism.

Just as in the case of group morphisms, ring morphisms transport the
structures:
Proposition 174.

• The image of a subring by a ring morphisme is a subring.

• The pr-image of a subring by a ring morphisme is a subring.

Proof.
Let φ be a morphism from (R, +, ×) dans (R0 , +0 , ×0 )

• Let (B, +, ×) be a subring of (R, +, ×)

– φ is also a group morphism, and therefore (φ(B), +0 ) is a subgroup

of (R0 , +).
– Let (a0 = φ(a), b0 = φ(b)) ∈ φ(B). we have a0 ×0 b0 = φ(a)×0 φ(b) =
φ(a × b) ∈ φ(B).

• Let (B 0 , +, ×) be a subring of (R0 , +, ×)

– φ is also a group morphism, and therefore (φ−1 (B 0 ), +0 ) is a sub-

ribg of (R, +).

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– Let (a, b) ∈ φ−1 (B 0 ). we have φ(a × b) = φ(a) ×0 φ(b) ∈ B 0 , d’où

a × b ∈ φ−1 (B 0 ).

As for group morphisms, we also define the isomorphisms, endomor-

phisms and automorphisms of rings.
Example 175.
The conjugation of C in C is a ring automorphism: in fact,

• ∀(z, z 0 ) ∈ C 2 z + z 0 = z + z 0

• ∀(z, z 0 ) ∈ C 2 zz 0 = zz 0

3.3 Fields
Definition 176. Let K 6= ∅ be a ring with identity. Then K is a field if
every non-zero element is a unit.
That is, in a field we can “divide” by everything except 0.
Definition 177. A structure (K, +, .), where + and . are binary operations
on K is a field if the following axioms hold,

• (K, +) is an abelian group;

• (K × = K \ {0}, .) is a group;

• the distributive laws hold.

If in addition the commutative law

∀x, y ∈ K, x.y = y.x

is obeyed, we call K a commutative field

Example 178. Q, R, C are commutative fields: if x is a non-zero element
of one of these rings, then so is 1/x and x.(1/x) = 1 so x is a unit.
Z and Z[i] are integral domains but not fields. For example, 2 is not a unit
since 1/2 is not in either ring.
For p a prime integer; the set Z/pZ is a field, since Z/pZ is an additive group
and (Z/pZ) − {0} = (Z/pZ)× is a group under multiplication. Sometimes
when we want to emphasize that Z/pZ is a field, we use the notation Fp .
Theorem 23. 1. Every field is an integral domain

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2. Every finite integral domain is a field

Proof. Let R be a finite integral domain and list its distinct elements as
a1 , · · · , an . Let b ∈ R, b 6= 0. We have to show there exists c ∈ R such that
bc = 1.
To do this we invoke the cancellation property of an ID:bai = baj implies
ai = aj . Therefore {ba1 , · · · , ban } contains n elements and is all of R. In
particular, there exists j such that baj = 1

3.3.1 Subfield
Definition 179. Let K be a field. A nonempty subset F of K is called a
subfield of K if F itself is a field with respect to the operations on K.
Proposition 180. Let (K, +, ∆) be a field and let F be a nonempty suhset
of K. Then (F, +, ∆) is a subfield of K if and only if

• (F, +) is a subgroup (K, +)

• (F × , .) is a subgroup (K × , .)

3.3.2 Field morphism

Definition 181 (Field morphism).
Let (K, +, ×) et (K 0 , +0 , ×0 ) be fields. and let φ : K → K 0 be a mapping
from (K, +, ×) to (K 0 , +0 , ×0 ) if

• φ is a group morphism from (K, +) to (K 0 , +0 ). i.e,

∀(a, b) ∈ R2 φ(a + b) = φ(a) +0 φ(b)

• ∀(a, b) ∈ K 2 φ(a × b) = φ(a) ×0 φ(b)

then φ is called a (field) homomorphism oa morphism.

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Polynomial rings

4.1 Definitions
Definition 182. A polynomial in x is an expression obtained by taking pow-
ers of x, multiplying them by constants, and adding them. It can be written
in the form

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + . . . + a1 x + a0 .

where n is a positive integer , and ∀i ∈ {0, . . . , n}, ai are constants.

Example 183.
1
2x6 + 5x5 + x3 + x2 − 6x − 10
2
is a polynmial of degree 6.
1
Note that x 2 + 3 and 4x3 + x32 are not polynomials.
Definition 184. The constants an , · · · , a0 are called the coefficients. The
constant term is a0 .
The leading term is the term involving the highest power of x, here an xn .
The degree is the power of x in the leading term.
A degree 0 polynomial is just a constant, e.g., 2 is (a) constant
A degree 1 polynomial is called linear, e.g., 3x+2 is linear A degree 2 polyno-
mial is called quadratic, e.g., x2 + 2x + 1 is quadratic A degree 3 polynomial
is called cubic, e.g., y 3 + 7y − 2 is a cubic in y.

4.2 Operations
Addition:Polynomials can be added (or subtracted) simply by adding (or
subtracting) the corresponding terms.

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Let P = ni=0 ai xi and Q = ni=0 bi xi .

P P
We define:
Xn
P +Q= (ai + bi )xi
i=0

Multiplication: Let P = i=0 ai xi and Q = m

Pn P i
i=0 bi x .
We define:
P × Q = cr xr + cr−1 xr−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0
where: r = n + m and ck = rk=0 ak br−k . for k ∈ {0, · · · , r}.
P
Multiplication by a scalar: If λ ∈ K then λP is the polynomial whose
i-th coefficient is λaiP
.
Equality: Let P = ni=0 ai xi and Q = ni=0 bi xi .
P

P = Q ⇔ ∀iai = bi

and we say that P and Q are equal.

Proposition 185. The set of polynomials over a ring A is a commutative
ring denoted by A[x]

4.3 Polynomial division

Proposition 186. Suppose K is a field, and suppose f (x), g(x) ∈ K[x],
with g(x) 6= 0. Then there exist unique polynomials q(x), r(x) ∈ K[x] with
deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x)) such that

f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x).

Definition 187. • The polynomial q(x) is called the quotient, and r(x)
is called the remainder, obtained on dividing f(x) by g(x).

• If r(x) = 0, then f (x) = g(x)q(x). In this case, we say that g(x) divides
f(x), or that g(x) is a factor of f(x), or that f(x) is divisible by g(x).
We write g(x)|f (x) for ”g(x) divides f(x)”, and g(x) - f (x) for ”g(x)
does not divide f(x)”.
Let us apply the division algorithm in a few situations now.
Example 188. Find the quotient and remainder obtained on dividing x4 +
x3 + 5x2 − x by x2 + x + 1 in Q[x].

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Solution: We will apply long division of polynomials to solve this prob-

lem. Here f (x) = x3 + x2 − 1 and g(x) = x − 1

x3 +x2 −1 x −1
−x3 +x2 x2 +2x +2
2x2
−2x2 +2x
2x
−2x +2
+1

Now, since deg(+1) = 0 < deg(x−1), we stop the process. So, the remainder
r(x) = +1. So, we get

x3 + x2 − 1 = (x2 + 2x + 2)(x + 1) + 1.

Here the quotient is x2 + 2x + 2 and the remainder is +1.

4.3.1 The Euclidean Algorithm for polynomials

Let A and B be polynomials, B 6= 0.
We calculate the successive Euclidean divisions,
A = BQ1 + R1 degR1 < degB
B = R1 Q2 + R2 degR2 < degR1
R1 = R2 Q3 + R3 degR3 < degR2
.. ..
. .
Rk−2 = Rk−1 Qk + Rk degRk < degRk−1
Rk−1 Rk Qk+1
The degree of the remainder decreases with each division. We stop the algo-
rithm when the remainder is zero. The gcd is the last remains non-zero Rk
(unitary rendering).

4.3.2 gcd
Proposition 189. Let A, B ∈ K[x], with A 6= 0 or B 6= 0. There exists a
unique unit polynomial of greatest degree which divides both A and B.
Definition 190. This unique polynomial is called the gcd (greatest common
divisor) of A and B which we note gcd(A, B).

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Example 191. Let’s calculate the gcd of A = x4 − 1 and B = x3 − 1 We

apply Euclid’s algorithm:

X4 − 1 = (X 3 − 1) × X + X − 1
X 3 − 1 = (X − 1) × (x2 + x + 1) + 0

The gcd is the last non-zero remainder, so gcd(A, B) = X − 1.

Definition 192. Let A, B ∈ K[x]. We say that A and B are relatively prime
if gcd(A, B) = 1.

4.3.3 Irreducibility
Definition 193. The polynomial p(x) ∈ K[x] is said to be irreducible if it
cannot be factorised into polynomials of lower degree:

p(x) = g(x)h(x) ⇔ g(x)of h(x)isconstant.

4.3.4 Bezout theorem

Theorem 24. Let A, B ∈ K[x] polynomials with A 6= 0 or B 6= 0. We
note D = gcd(A, B). There are two polynomials U, V ∈ K[x] such that
AU + BV = D.
This theorem follows from Euclid’s algorithm and more especially from
its rise as seen in the example following.
Example 194. We calculated gcd(X 4 − 1, x3 − 1) = X − 1. We go back to
Euclid’s algorithm, here there was only one line: X 4 −1 = (X 3 −1)×X+X−1,
to deduce X − 1 = (X 4 − 1) × 1 + (X 3 − 1) × (−X). So U = 1 and V = −X
are suitable.
Corollary 195. Let A and B be two polynomials. A and B are coprime if
and only if there exist two polynomials U and V such that

AU + BV = 1.

Corollary 196. Let A, B, C ∈ K[X] with A 6= 0 or B 6= 0. If C|A and C|B

then C|gcd(A, B).
Corollary 197 (Gauss Lemma). Let A, B, C ∈ K[X]. If A|BC and gcd(A, B) =
1 then A|C.

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4.4 lcm
Proposition 198. Let A, B ∈ K[x] be non-zero polynomials, then there exists
a unique unit polynomial M of smallest degree such that A|M and B|M.
Definition 199. This unique polynomial is called the ppcm (smallest com-
mon multiple) of A and B which we note ppcm(A, B).

4.5 Factorisation of polynomials

Factoring a polynomial means writing this polynomial as a product of poly-
nomials of lower degrees.
Definition 200. Let P ∈ K[x] be a polynomial. Then P decomposes in a
unique way up to the order of the factors in the following form:

P = βP1α1 P2α2 P3α3 . . . Pmαm .

where the Pi are distinct unitary and irreducible polynomials in K[x] and
β ∈ K∗ is the leading term of P.
Example 201. We consider the polynomial P = X 2 + 1. Then P is in both
R[X] and C[X]. But, be careful, its factorization is not the same in these
two rings:

1. P is factorized in the form (X − i)(X + i) in C[x].

2. P is irreducible in R[x].

4.5.1 Factor theorem

Theorem 25. If (x − a) is a factor of a polynomial P, then P (x) = 0.
Conversely, if P (a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of P.
Let P ∈ K[X]. We denote by fP the polynomial function associated to P ,
that is to say the function:

fP K → K
x 7→ P (x)

Definition 202. Let P ∈ K[X]. We say that a ∈ K is a root of P if P (a) = 0

(or fP (a) = 0).
Remark 203. Factorizing helps to find the roots since, If a product of
numbers, then one of them must be zero.

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Definition 204. Let P ∈ K[X] and let α be a root of P . We say that α has
multiplicity k if and only if (X − α)k divides P and (X − α)k+1 - P.
In other words α is the root of P of multiplicity k if and only if P =
(X − α)k Q and Q(α) 6= 0.

Example 205. To determine the multiplicity of a root, we can therefore carry

out successive Euclidean divisions. Let P = X 5 − 2X 4 + 2X 3 − 3X 2 + 3X − 1
We easily verify that 1 is the root of P . Furthermore, we find

P = (X − 1)Q1 where Q1 (X) = X 4 − X 3 + X 2 − 2X + 1

Q1 = (X − 1)Q2 where Q2 (X) = X 3 + X + 1

And Q2 (1) 6= 0. Thus, 1 is the root of multiplicity 2 of P.

The following result is useful for determining the multiplicity of a root in
R or C.
Proposition 206. Let P ∈ K[X] with K = R or C. The following three
propositions are equivalent:

1. α is a root of multiplicity k.

2. P = (X − α)k Q and Q(α) 6= 0.

3. Forall j ∈ J{0, · · · k − 1}, we haveP (j) (α) = 0 and P (k) (α) 6= 0.

Theorem 26 (Alembert-Gauss). A non-constant polynomial of C[X] has at

least one root. In particular, the irreducible polynomials of C[X] are exactly
the polynomials of degree 1.

4.6 Relation between roots and the coefficients

of Polynomial
4.6.1 Relation between roots and the coefficients of a
quadratic Polynomial
Let ax2 + ba + c be a polynomial of degree 2 and let α, β be the roots of given
polynomial.
Hence α and β satisfies the polynomial equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (4.1)

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Since the equation whose roots are α and β is given by

(x − α)(x − β) = 0

then
x2 − (α + β)x + (αβ) = 0 (4.2)
From equation (4.1) we have;

b c
x2 + x + = 0. (4.3)
a a
Comparing (4.2) and (4.3) we get following relations.

b
α+β = −
ca
αβ =
a

4.6.2 Relation between roots and the coefficients of a

quadratic Polynomial
Let P (x) = ni=0 ai xi be a polynomial of degree n and let λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn be
P
the roots of given polynomial.
Then X an−k
σk = λi1 λi2 · · · λik = (−1)k .
1≤i ≤i ≤···≤i ≤n
a n
1 2 k

In particular:
Pn −an−1
σ1 = i=1 λi =
an
P an−2
σ2 = 1≤i≤j≤n λi λj =
an
Qn a0
σn = i=1 λi = (−1)n
an

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