OPERATING SYSTEM

What is operating system(OS)?

An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and
software resources and provides common services for computer programs.
Essentially, it acts as an intermediary between users and the computer hardware

Here are some core functions of an operating system:

1. Resource Management: The OS manages hardware resources like the CPU,
memory, disk space, and input/output devices, allocating them efficiently to
different programs.
2. Process Management: It handles the execution of multiple programs, ensuring
that processes run smoothly and can share resources without conflicts.
3. Memory Management: The OS allocates memory to programs and manages it
to avoid crashes and optimize performance.
4. File System Management: It controls how data is stored and retrieved,
managing files, folders, and permissions on disk drives.
5. User Interface: Most modern OSes provide graphical user interfaces (GUIs)
that make it easier for users to interact with the system.
6. Security and Access Control: It safeguards data and resources by controlling
access and managing user permissions.
How Operating System works?
An operating system (OS) works as an intermediary between the hardware of a
computer and the applications that run on it, enabling both hardware and software to
communicate effectively and efficiently. The OS manages system resources, provides
an interface for user interaction, and ensures that programs execute smoothly. Here’s
a step-by-step look at how an OS works:

1.Boot Process:
When a computer is turned on, it performs a boot process to load the operating
system into memory (RAM). This process is initialized by the BIOS (Basic
Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface), which
locates the OS on the disk.
2.Kernal Operation:
The kernel is the core of the OS, managing all the system’s fundamental
functions. It operates in a privileged mode called kernel mode to control resources
directly.
• The kernel handles:
• Memory Management: Allocates memory to programs and keeps track
of memory usage, optimizing it to prevent crashes and inefficiency.
• Process Management: Manages running applications (processes),
ensuring each has the necessary resources and is executed correctly.
• Device Management: Interfaces with hardware through device drivers,
enabling input/output operations with keyboards, screens, disks, etc.
• File System Management: Controls how files are stored and accessed,
managing file directories, permissions, and storage locations.
3.User Interface(UI):
The OS provides a User Interface for interaction, which can be a Command-
Line Interface (CLI) or a Graphical User Interface (GUI).

What are the types of Linux Operating System?

1.Desktop Linux Distributions:

• These are user-friendly distributions designed for personal or office use on

desktop or laptop computers.
• Examples: Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora, Debian, Zorin OS.
• Key Features: Easy-to-use interfaces, support for productivity and multimedia
applications, and graphical environments (e.g., GNOME, KDE).

2.Server Linux Distribution:

• These distros are optimized for server environments, focusing on stability,

performance, and security.
• Examples: CentOS, Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), Ubuntu Server,
Debian, SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES).
• Key Features: Long-term support, secure handling of network traffic, database
support, and compatibility with server software.
3.Security Focused Distribution:
• These distributions are tailored for security testing, ethical hacking, penetration
testing, and digital forensics.
 • Examples: Kali Linux, Parrot OS, BackBox.
• Key Features: Pre-installed security tools, support for privacy-enhancing
features, and secure network configurations.
4.Lightweight Linux Distribution:
Lightweight Linux distros are optimized for low-resource or older computers.
• Examples: Lubuntu, Puppy Linux, Tiny Core Linux, Bodhi Linux, AntiX.
• Key Features: Minimal resource requirements, lightweight desktop
environments, and small footprints.
5.Educational Distributions:
• These Linux distros are created for educational purposes, often preloaded with
software for learning and teaching.
• Examples: Edubuntu, Sugar on a Stick.
• Key Features: Pre-installed educational software, user-friendly interfaces for
young learners, and development tools.
6.Embedded Linux:
• Embedded Linux distros are optimized for specific hardware devices such as
IoT, routers, and automotive systems.
• Examples: Yocto Project, OpenWrt, Android (based on Linux).
• Key Features: Highly customizable, optimized for specific hardware, and often
real-time capabilities.
What are the flovours in Linux Operating system:
1.Debian-Based
• Description: Debian is one of the oldest and most stable Linux distributions.
Debian-based distros focus on stability, community-driven development, and
package compatibility.
• Package Manager: APT (Advanced Package Tool)
• Popular Distributions:
• Debian (the base)
• Ubuntu (popular for desktops and servers, user-friendly)
• Linux Mint (designed for ease of use, based on Ubuntu)
• Pop!_OS (developer-focused, based on Ubuntu)
• Notable Features: Large software repository, stable updates, user-friendliness,
and flexibility.
2.Red Hat-Based
• Description: Red Hat-based distributions are often used in enterprise
environments, valued for their stability, security, and long-term support. RHEL
is a commercial distribution with a focus on business use.
• Package Manager: YUM or DNF for Fedora/RHEL/CentOS
• Popular Distributions:
• Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) (commercial, enterprise-focused)
• CentOS (previously a free RHEL rebuild; now part of CentOS Stream)
• Fedora (cutting-edge, often a testing ground for RHEL features)
• Rocky Linux and AlmaLinux (community-supported alternatives to
CentOS)
• Notable Features: Enterprise-grade stability, security updates, and commercial
support (for RHEL).
3.Arch-Based
• Description: Arch Linux is known for its "rolling release" model, simplicity,
and user control. Arch-based distros offer a highly customizable and
lightweight experience, often preferred by advanced users.
• Package Manager: Pacman
• Popular Distributions:
• Arch Linux (lightweight, highly customizable, targeted at advanced
users)
• Manjaro (user-friendly, easier setup compared to Arch)
• EndeavourOS (user-friendly with a closer-to-Arch experience)
• Notable Features: Rolling release updates, minimalistic by default, and
customization freedom.
What are the Difference between Windows and Linux:
Feature Linux Windows
User Multiple DEs, highly
Consistent, GUI-focused
Interface customizable
Command
Integral, powerful Secondary, GUI-first
Line
Unix-like, single-root
File System Drive-based, NTFS/FAT32
structure
Security Generally more secure More vulnerable to malware
Performance Efficient, lightweight options Higher resource requirements
Basic Commands in Linux:
1. File and Directory Commands
• ls - List files and directories in the current directory.
• cd - Change the current directory.
• pwd - Print the current working directory.
• mkdir - Create a new directory.
• rmdir - Remove an empty directory.
• mv - Move or rename files or directories.
• rm - Remove files or directories.
• touch - Create a new, empty file or update a file’s timestamp.

2. File Viewing Commands

• cat - Concatenate and display file content.
• more - View file content one screen at a time.
• less - View file content with navigation (like more, but more powerful).
• head - Display the first few lines of a file.
• tail - Display the last few lines of a file.
• nano / vim - Text editors to edit files directly in the terminal.

3. File Permissions and Ownership

• chmod - Change file permissions.
• chown - Change file ownership.
• chgrp - Change group ownership of a file.

4. Process Management Commands

• ps - Display currently running processes.
• kill - Terminate a process by its process ID (PID).
• killall - Kill all processes with a given name.

5. System Information Commands

• uname - Show system information.
• df - Display disk space usage.
• free - Show memory usage.
• who - Show who is logged in.
• hostname - Show or set the system hostname.

6. Networking Commands
• ping - Check network connection to a host.
 • ifconfig / ip - Configure or display network interfaces.
• netstat - Show network status.
• ssh - Securely connect to a remote server.

7. Search and Filter Commands

• find - Search for files and directories.
• grep - Search text using patterns.
• locate - Quickly find the location of files.

8. Disk Management Commands

• mount - Mount a filesystem.
• umount - Unmount a filesystem.
• fdisk - Disk partitioning utility.
• lsblk - Display block devices.

9. Package Management
• apt - Advanced Package Tool (Debian-based systems like Ubuntu).
• yum / dnf - Package manager for Red Hat-based systems.
• pacman - Package manager for Arch Linux.

10 Other Useful Commands

• echo - Print text to the terminal.
• history - Show command history.
• clear - Clear the terminal screen.
• man - Show manual pages for commands.
• alias - Create shortcuts for commands.
• sudo - Execute commands with superuser privileges.