Chapter 1

Keys to the Study of Chemistry

1-1 Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 CHEMISTRY
It is the study of

1. matter
2. its properties
3. the changes that matter undergoes
4. the energy associated with these changes.

1-2
 DEFINITIONS
Matter anything that has mass and volume - the “stuff” of the
universe: books, planets, trees, professors, students

Composition the types and amounts of simpler substances that

make up a sample of matter

Properties the characteristics that give each substance a unique

identity

Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Those which the substance Those which the substance shows

shows by itself without as it interacts with, or transforms
interacting with another into, other substances such as
substance such as color, melting flammability, corrosiveness.
point, boiling point, density.

1-3
 Figure 1.1 The distinction between physical and chemical change

1-4
 Figure 1.2 The physical states of matter

1-5
 Sample Problem 1.2 Distinguishing Between Physical and Chemical
Change

PROBLEM: Decide whether each of the following processes is primarily a

physical or a chemical change, and explain briefly:
(a) Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night.
(b) A cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized.
(c) A match ignites to form ash and a mixture of gases.
(d) Perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging.
(e) A silver fork tarnishes slowly in air.

PLAN: “Does the substance change composition or just change form?”

SOLUTION:
(a) physical change (b) chemical change (c) chemical change

(d) physical change (e) chemical change

1-6
 Energy is the ability to do work

energy due to the position of the object or

Potential Energy energy from a chemical reaction

Kinetic Energy energy due to the motion of the object

Potential and kinetic energy can be interconverted.

1-7
 Energy is the ability to do work

less stable

change in potential energy

EQUALS
kinetic energy

more stable

A gravitational system. The potential energy gained when a

lifted weight is converted to kinetic energy as the weight falls.

1-8
 Energy is the ability to do work

less stable

change in potential energy

EQUALS
kinetic energy

more stable

A system of two balls attached by a spring. The

potential energy gained by a stretched spring is converted to kinetic
energy when the moving balls are released.

1-9
 Energy is the ability to do work

less stable

change in potential energy

EQUALS
kinetic energy

more stable

A system of oppositely charged particles. The potential

energy gained when the charges are separated is converted to kinetic
energy as the attraction pulls these charges together.

1-10
 Energy is the ability to do work

less stable

change in potential energy

EQUALS
kinetic energy

more stable

A system of fuel and exhaust. A fuel is higher in chemical

potential energy than the exhaust. As the fuel burns, some of its
potential energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the moving car.

1-11
 Scientific Approach: Developing a Model
Natural phenomena and measured events; universally
Observations : consistent ones can be stated as a natural law. They lead to
hypotheses about how and why something occurs.

Hypothesis: Tentative proposal that explains observations.

They are tested in controlled experiments and revised if
adjusted if necessary. experiments
do not support
it
Procedure to test hypothesis; measures one variable
Experiment:
at a time.

Set of conceptual assumptions that explains data

Model (Theory): from accumulated experiments; predicts related
phenomena. altered if
predictions do
not support it

Further Experiment: Tests predictions based on model.

1-12
 A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems

• Problem statement

Clarify the known and unknown.

• Plan Suggest steps from known to unknown.

Prepare a visual summary of steps.

• Solution

• Check

• Comment and Follow-up Problem

1-13
1-14
1-15
 Table 1.3 Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities
Quantity SI Unit
SI Equivalent
Length English Equivalent
1 kilometer (km) English to
1000 (103) m SI Equivalent
0.62 miles (mi)
1 mi = 1.61 km

1 meter (m)
100 (102) cm
1000 (103) mm 1.094 yards (yd)
39.37 inches (in)
1 yd = 0.9144 m
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 m

1 centimeter (cm)
0.01 (10-2) m
0.3937 in
1 in = 2.54 cm
(exactly!)

1-16
 Table 1.3 Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities
Quantity SI Unit
SI Equivalent
English Equivalent
Volume English to
1 cubic meter (m3) SI Equivalent
1,000,000 (106)
cubic centimeters
35.32 cubic feet (ft3)
1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3

1 cubic decimeter (dm3)

1000 cm3
0.2642 gallon (gal)
1.057 quarts (qt) 1 gal = 3.785 dm3
1 qt = 0.9464 dm3

1 cubic centimeter (cm3)

0.001 dm3
0.03381 fluid ounce 1 qt = 946.4 cm3
1 fluid ounce = 29.57 cm3

1-17
 Table 1.3 Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities
Quantity SI Unit
SI Equivalent
Mass English Equivalent
English to
1 kilogram (kg) SI Equivalent
1000 grams
2,205 pounds (lb)
1 lb = 0.4536 kg

1 gram (g)
1000 milligrams
0.03527 ounce (oz)
1 lb = 453.6 g

1 ounce = 28.35 g

1-18
 Sample Problem 1.4 Converting Units of Volume

PROBLEM: The volume of an irregularly shaped solid can be determined

from the volume of water it displaces. A graduated cylinder
contains 19.9 mL of water. When a small piece of galena, an ore
of lead, is submerged in the water, the volume increases to 24.5
mL. What is the volume of the piece of galena in cm3 and in L?

PLAN: The volume of galena is equal to the change in the water volume
before and after submerging the solid.

1-19
 Sample Problem 1.5 Converting Units of Mass

PROBLEM: International computer communications are often carried by optical

fibers in cables laid along the ocean floor. If one strand of optical
fiber weighs 1.19 x 10-3 lbs/m, what is the total mass (in kg) of a
cable made of six strands of optical fiber, each long enough to link
New York and Paris (8.84 x 103 km)?
PLAN: The sequence of steps may vary but essentially you have to find the
length of the entire cable and convert it to mass.
SOLUTION:
103 m
8.84 x 103 km x = 8.84 x 106 m
km

1.19 x 10 -3 lb
8.84 x 106 m x = 1.05 x 104 lb
m
6 fibers = 6.30 x 104 lb
1.05 x 104 lb x
cable cable
6.30 x 104 lb 1 kg 2.86 x 104 kg
x =
cable 2.205 lb cable

1-20
 The freezing and boiling points of water

1-21
 Temperature Scales and Interconversions

Kelvin (K) - The “absolute temperature scale” begins at

absolute zero and only has positive values.

Celsius (°C) - The temperature scale used for scientific work,

formally called centigrade, most commonly used scale around the
world; water freezes at 0 °C, and boils at 100 °C.

Fahrenheit (°F) - Commonly used scale in the U.S. for our

weather reports; water freezes at 32 °F and boils a t 212 °F.

T (in K) = T (in oC) + 273.15 T (in oF) = 9/5 T (in oC) + 32

T (in oC) = T (in K) - 273.15 T (in oC) = [ T (in oF) - 32 ] 5/9

1-22
 Sample Problem 1.7 Converting Units of Temperature

PROBLEM: A child has a body temperature of 38.7oC.

(a) If normal body temperature is 98.6oF, does the child have a fever?

(b) What is the child’s temperature in kelvins?

PLAN: We have to convert oC to oF to find out if the child has a fever

and we use the oC to K relationship to find the temperature in
kelvins.

SOLUTION:
9
(a) Converting from oC to oF: (38.7oC) + 32 = 101.7oF
5

(b) Converting from oC to K: 38.7oC + 273.15 = 311.8 K

1-23
 The significant figures are the digits recorded in a measurement;
their number depends upon the measuring device, the greater the
number the greater is the certainty.

1-24
 Rules for Determining Which Digits are Significant

All digits are significant except zeros that are used only to position
the decimal point.

1. Make sure that the measured quantity has a decimal point.

2. Start at the left of the number and move right until you reach the first
nonzero digit.
3. Count that digit and every digit to its right as significant.

Zeros that end a number and lie either after or before the decimal point
are significant; thus 1.030 mL has four significant figures, and 5300. L
has four significant figures also.

Numbers such as 5300 L are assumed to only have 2 significant figures.

A terminal decimal point is often used to clarify the situation, but
scientific notation is the best!

1-25
 Sample Problem 1.8 Determining the Number of Significant Figures

PROBLEM: For each of the following quantities, underline the zeros that are
significant figures (sf), and determine the number of significant
figures in each quantity. For (d) to (f), express each in
exponential notation first.

(a) 0.0030 L (b) 0.1044 g (c) 53,069 mL

(d) 0.00004715 m (e) 57,600. s (f) 0.0000007160 cm3

PLAN: Determine the number of sf by counting digits and paying attention

to the placement of zeros.
SOLUTION:
(a) 0.0030 L 2 sf (b) 0.1044 g 4 sf (c) 53.069 mL 5 sf

(d) 0.00004715 m (e) 57,600. s (f) 0.0000007160 cm3

(d) 4.715 x10-5 m 4 sf (e) 5.7600 x104 s 5 sf (f) 7.160 x10-7 cm3 4 sf

1-26
 Rules for Significant Figures in Answers

1. For addition and subtraction. The answer has the same

number of decimal places as there are in the measurement
with the fewest decimal places.

Example: adding two volumes 83.5 mL

+ 23.28 mL
106.78 mL = 106.8 mL

Example: subtracting two volumes 865.9 mL

- 2.8121 mL
863.0879 mL = 863.1 mL

1-27
 Rules for Significant Figures in Answers

2. For multiplication and division. The number with

the least certainty limits the certainty of the result.
Therefore, the answer contains the same number of
significant figures as there are in the measurement
with the fewest significant figures.

Example: multiplying numbers

9.2 cm x 6.8 cm x 0.3744 cm = 23.4225 cm3 = 23 cm3

1-28
 Rules for Rounding Off Numbers
1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number
increases by 1.
5.379 rounds to 5.38 if three significant figures are retained and
to 5.4 if two significant figures are retained.
2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number is
unchanged.
0.2413 rounds to 0.241 if three significant figures are retained and
to 0.24 if two significant figures are retained.
3. If the digit removed is 5, the preceding number increases by 1 if it is
odd and remains unchanged if it is even.
17.75 rounds to 17.8, but 17.65 rounds to 17.6
If the 5 is followed only by zeros, rule 3 is followed; if the 5 is followed
by nonzeros, rule 1 is followed:
17.6500 rounds to 17.6, but 17.6513 rounds to 17.7
4. Be sure to carry two or more additional significant figures through a
multistep calculation and round off only the final answer.

1-29
 Issues Concerning Significant Figures

Electronic Calculators

be sure to correlate with the problem

FIX function on some calculators

Choice of Measuring Device

graduated cylinder < buret ≤ pipet

Exact Numbers
60 min = 1 hr
numbers with no uncertainty
1000 mg = 1 g

1-30
 Precision and Accuracy Errors
in Scientific Measurements

Precision
Refers to reproducibility or how close the measurements are to one
another.
Accuracy
Refers to how close a measurement is to the actual value.

Systematic Error
Values that are either all higher or all lower than the actual value.

Random Error
In the absence of systematic error, it produces values that are higher and
lower than the actual value.

1-31
 Figure 1.8 Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

1-32